CASSELL’S

ENCYCLOPEDIA

OF GENERAL INFORMATION


WITH COLOURED PLATES AND MAPS
AND NUMEROUS FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS


RUNRIG— STADIUM


SPECIAL EDITION


CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED

LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK, TORONTO AND
MELBOURNE All Rights Reserred




AUTHORS OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES


BUBSU

Balamak, Oharljb Km-

MIHOTON


G. H. PERRB.

MALCOLM C. 8ALAMAN,
Author of “ The Old Engramrs
of Englaudf*


Salmon ...

Bam Feancibco

Babomnt, Johm Singer ...

Batkiuims

Scallop

SOllOLASTIClSlf

Scotland


HENRY SCHERRBN, F.Z 8.
JAMES A. MANSON.

J. BOLIVAR MANSON.

L. EDNA WALTER, B Sc.
JAMES A. MANSON.

A. H. MANN.

FINDLAY MUIRHBAD.


Boott, Si a Gkorob Gilbert ARTHUR BRYANT.


Scott, Sir Walter
SCCLPTUEB
Sea ...


... J. P. CHARLES, M.A.

C FRANK MACLEAN, Author of
••‘C '^tieury Moore, H,A:*

... Prof. G. S. BOULGER.


Shelley, Percy Bysseb .

Shipbuiluinq

Siberia

Silk

Silver

Skin, as a Race Test

Slavery

Slav LANauAoifl

Suv Race

Slebpimg Sickness

Smallpox

Snakes

Soap Bubbles

Socialism


Beal

Seasons

Secret Socibtirs ...


... HENRY SCHERRBN. F.Z.S.
... L. EDNA WALTER, B.Sc.

... CHANNING ARNOLD.


Socrates ..
Solo Whist .,
Sound


Semitic Lanodaobb ... Prof. A. H. KEANE, E.R.n S.


fiiftp^ Worship...
Biweb


Sex

Bextant

Seymour, Edward, Dure
OF S0MKR3ii,T


Sbakespeabb, William ...


T. CATO WOESPOLD, Author
oj “ TIte French Skmhenqef*

W. H. HAMER, M.A., M D.
(Cam&.)

Prof. G. S. BOULGER.

L. EDNA WALTER, B.Sc.

JAMES A. MANSON.

Prof. EDWARD DOWDEN.


SuRLiiY, Mary

aTONBOKAFT


ARTHUR BRYANT.


Southwark...

Spain

Spectrum

Spencer, The Earls of...
Spencer, Ueurebt

Spenser, Edmund

Spiders

Spinal Cord

Sponge

Spotted Fever

Spbinqs


W ^ HUTCHINGS.

J, C. ROWLETT.

JAMES A. MANSON.

A. H. MANN.

L. M. JONES, B.Sc.
CHANNING ARNOLD.

JAMES A. MANSON.

I Prof. A. H. KEANE.

( Sir PATEICK MANSON, F.R.a.
I Author of “ Tropic il Dimmf*

W. H. HAMER, M.A., M.D.
HENRY SCHERRKN, F.Z.S.

L. EDNA WALTER B.Sc.

( His Excellency SYDNEY
( OLI V 1 BR, Governor of JamaiM,

W. J. JBAFFRB80N.

JAMES A. MANSON.

L. EDNA WALTER, B Sc.
JAMBS A. MANSON,

A. HILLIARD ATTERIDGB.

L. EDNA WALTER, B.Sc.
ARTHUR BRYANT.

I). J. O’DONOGHUE.

J. P. CHARLES, M.A.

HENRY SOHEHHEN, F.Z.S.
W. H. HAMER. M.A., M.D.
HENRY SCHERRBN, F.Z.S.
JAMBS A. MANSON.

Prof. G. S. BOULGER.



LIST OF PLATES,


Eubope-Dbnsitt of Population, Map of . ,

Russia, Map of

Sails and Saiunq Ships

Scotland, Map of

Shakespeabe

Steam Communication

SlGNALLINO

Spkctbum Analysis


To fm page 8
„ „ 32

„ 136

„ „ 216

„ „ 236

„ „ 256

„ „ 354



CASSELL’S

ENCYCLOPEDIA

OF GENERAL INFORMATION.


llllJljrig XiandSf laads heid in Scotland and
Ireland on the runri^ sj&tem, according to
which the alternate ngs, or ridges, of a field
belonged to different owners. The proprietary
rights being absolute and not common, it is
obvious that this form o^ husbandry offered a
formidable obstacle to “agricultural develop-
ment. Consequently in 1696 statutory power
was given to the Judgo in ordinary, or the
iustiqes of the peace, to divide all such hold-
ings of larger area than four acres ‘' according
to their respective interests.*' The occupancy
of such lands on such terms bespeaks either an
early stage of civilisation or a poor condition
of soil, or cultivators, or both.

&Tlp66f d. silver coin of India, containing 16
annas (or pence), and varying from 2s. to Is. 3d.
in value. The closing of the Indian mints in
1893 made it a token coin of the nominal value
of Is. 4d. sterling. By an Act of 1898 the
sovereign was made legal tender and equivalent
to 16 rupees. It will be useful to state that
100,000 rupees equal a lac, and 10,000,000 a
crore. The rupee was first coined in the middle
of the 16th century.

Bupert, Prince, general, third son of
Bli^abeth, Queen of Bohemia, and of
Frederick V., Elector-Palatine of Bavaria, was
born at Prague on December 17th, 16i9. Of
his education little is known, but he visited
EnglaM in 1636, and was well received by his
uncle Charles I. After his return to the Con-
tinent he was imprisoned at Linz for three
years, and W'ent to Efigland in 1642 to com-
mand the cav^ry of Charles I. during the Civil
War. His great but somewhat ferocious valour
was conspicuous at Bdgehill land Chalgrove,
where Hampden was fatally wounded, but he
was repulsiMi at Caversham Bridge in an at-
tempt to relieve Beading (1643). On January
94th, 1644, he was created Earl of Holderness
and Duke of Cumberland and entrusted with
an independent command. He had previously
taken Bristol (July 26thi 1643), but was oom-
pletely beaten at Mayston Moor (July 2nd,
1044) by Oliver Cromwell, a disaster that in-
volved the eurrottder of Yojck, greatly to the
ohsfrin of Charles. After the defeat at Naseby
i930.<».K.S.


(June 14th, 1646)* fie provoked the King by
recommending negotiations for peace, and
when he surrendered Bristol was dismissed the



PEIKO* EtJPRRT,


(From ths paintirig by Vm Dyoh)

Eoyal service, though a reconciliation was
effected before he left for France. After seeing
warfare at Landrdcy, La Bases and elsewhere,
he took to buccaneering off the FeninSnla, in
the Mediterranean and ihe West Indies^ but,
after the Kestoration, won naval distinctiom
in the war against t^e Dnich. The last years
of his life were mainly occupied witn eoientific
researbh, and, among other things, he invented
Bupert's drops and Prince’s metal, a mixture
of copper and zinc, in which the proportion Of



Riip«rt*i Bvopv.


( 2 )


Siuilivortli.


zinc is i^reater than in braes, but he ie falsely
creditea with the indention of mezzotint #n*
graying which was due to the artist Ludi^ig
yon Siegen. He helped to establish the Hucf
son Bay Company, and was its first goyemor,
Eupert Land being named after him. He died
in JLondon on Noyember 29th, 1662, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey. As a general he
was noted for his headlong courage, his
cruelty and his addiction to plundering.

JEtnjpart’g BiropSf said to have been discovered
by Prince Eupert, are little drops of melted
glass dropped into water. The outside is there-
fore sudaenl^ cooled and forms a solid skin
round the still liquid interior. The interior as
it cools tends to contract, but cannot on account
of the forces which cause it to adhere to the
solid sHn. The whole is therefore in a state
of strain, and a slight disturbance is sufficient
to cause a complete disintegration of the whole.
Thus, if the end be broken off or a scratch
made on the drop, it falls to powder with al-
most explosive violence.

Aupiai a form of skin disease, in which blebs
appear u]^n the ekin, the contained fluid being
at first serous and later purulent. A scab ulti-
mately forms covering a subjacent ulcer; the
scab IS thick, and in rupia prominena it is
shaped like a limpet shell. Eupia ordinarily
occurs in association with the secondary lesions
of syphilis. "The rupial lesions," says Malcokn
Morris, in his manual on Diaeaaes of the Shin,
“ are hardly ever met with till from six months
to a year from the appearance of the primary
sore, and then usually only in persons who have
neglected treatment or whose health has broken
down. Eupia always leaves scars and is
generally symmetrical."

Buptnra. [Hbbkia.]

founder of the Russian kingdom, in 862
put himself at the head of the Slave in Nov-
gorod, and conouered (together with his
brothers) the whole of the district from Nov-
gorod to what is now Little Russia. On the
death of his brothers he united the country
under the name of Russia. He died in 879.

BtuAl, the popular name for members of the
genus Juncus, the type of the monocotyledon-
ous order Juncaceae, extended also to a few re-
lated or similar plants. There are about 100
species in the genus, mostly natives of temper-
ate and arctic regions, 20 being British. They
grow mostly in wet ground or in water, with
cylindric leaves and branches and green or
brown flowers in a dense cluster known as an
anthela. The flowers have six glumaceous
perianth-leaves and six stamens, and are suc-
ceeded by a three-chambored, many-seeded cap-
sule. , J. conglomerutm, J . acidm, and others
are used for chair-bottoms, baskets, hassocks,
and mats, several hundred tons being imported
annually into England, mostly from Holland.
The stellite parenchyma or so-called " pith "
in the centre of the branches and leaves of some


species used to be employed as candle-wioksy
and in still earlier tunes stone floors were
strewed with rushes in lieu of carpets.

Snsli, Benjamin, physician, was born in
Byberry, Pennsylvania, on December 24th,
1746. After graduating at Princeton Colle^,
he studied medicine at Philadelphia; under Dr.
John Redman, and then proceraed to Europe,
where, especially at Edinburgh and Paris, he
completed his education. Settling in Phila-
delphia in 1769, he was speedily appointed to
the chair of chemistry in the Medical Ck>llege
of the city and became otherwise celebrated for
his support of the Revolution. He was elected
to Congress and signed the Declaration of In-
dependence. After the outbreak of hostilities
he tended the wounded and dying on many
battlefields, but was constrained to withdraw
from further military duty in consequence of
what he deemed injury to the soldiers through
misappropriation of the hospital stores. Ac-
cordingly he resumed his practice in Phila-
delphia, to the responsibilities of which he
added the professional tasks of the chairs of
chemistry, the theory and practice of medicine,
the institutes and practice of medicine and
clinical practice, in addition to acting as
surgeon to Pennsylvania Hospital and port
physician to Philadelphia, He was one of the
founders of Dickinson College, the Philadelphia
Dispensary and the College of Physicians.
During the yellow fever visitation of 1793 he
played a heroic part, visiting from 100 to 120
patients daily. This did not secure him from
a scurrilous attack in William Cobbett’s paper,
Peter Porcupine* a Gazette, which cost the libeller
$5,000 damages, which Dr. Rush expended upon
the poor. His experiences during the epidemic
satisfied him that yellow fever was not conta-
gious, and he was the first to pronounce the
disease indigenous. He has been called the
Sydenham of the United States, and may, in
respect of his accurate observations and cor-
rect discrimination of several tropical diseases,
be regarded as the pioneer of that branch of
medical investigation to which the brilliant
researches of Sir Patrick Manson were the
fitting climax. Rush belonged to nearly every
literary, medical and benevolent society in hi«t
own and other countries, and his unwearied
labours made Philadelphia the centre of medi-
cal science in his native land. He died in
Philadelphia on April 19th, 1813.

Bushin Castle. [Castletown.]

Bnsliwortllv John, historian, the “ Dryasdust "
of Thomas Carlyle, was born about 1612 at Ack-
lington Park, in Wark worth parish, Northum-
berland, and educated at Oxford. He was
called to the bar, but being more deeply in-
terested in politics than law, early began the
practice of collecting miscellaneous information
about State affairs, especially during the
period of eleven years before ftie summoning
of the Long Parliament in November, 1640. On
April 25th of this year he was made assistant





( 3 )




clerk to the Hoiise of Commoufl, and seems to
haye keen in the habit, suh rosa, of taking notes
of the debates. When the New Model Army
was orgsnised, he became eecretary to the
general and the council of war, in which capa-
city he was present at several battles, writing,
for Sir Thomas Fairfax, an account of the
military operations for the Speaker. For a few
monto he was Oliver CromwelFs secretary in
the Scottish campaign and prepared a narra-
tive of the battle of Dunbar (1650). In 1657 he
was elected member for Berwick-on-Tweed,
and represented the borough in several Parlia-
ments. He was consulted by royalist in-
triguers before the Restoration and received
Charles II. 's thanks for delivering up certain
volumes of the records of the Privy Council
which he claimed to have preserved during the
troubles. He had, however, to appear before
the Lords in consequence of an allegation that
he had been privy to the king's death, but he
declared that all he knew was by hearsay. In
spite of the lucrative poets he held and hie op-
portunities for enriching himself, he fell into
straitened circumstances and spent the last six
years of his life in the King’s Bench Prison in
Southwark, where he died on May 12th, 1690.
Tlie eight Volumes of Historical Colledtions
which are his title to fame were published at
different dates between 1659 and 1701. He was
accused of partiality by the Cavaliers. So much
material in various quarter® is now at the
historian's disposal that Rush worth's work is
not so valuable as it once was, but it must al-
ways retain its usefulness, if only for his short-
hand notes of the proceedings in Parliament.

Snskuip John, author, artist, and social
reformer, the son of a Scottish merchant,
wag born in London on February 8th,
1819. He was educated privately and at Christ
Church, Oxford, erraduating in due course and
carrying off the Newdigate pri25e in 1839. Hie
love of art found expression in his early at-
tempts at painting and in the pamphlet written
by him in defence of J. M. W. Turner and his
method, which was afterwards expanded into
the great work. Modern Painters, the five
volumes of which, illustrated by himself, ap-
peared between 1§43 and 1860 (at first
anonymously under the designation of " A
Graduate of Oxford"). His views found
general favour, and his gorgeous style and
poetical diction gained him great applause, but
many writers severely criticised his opinions.
On April 10th, 1848, he married a beautiful
girl, Euphemia Chalmers Gray, some ten years
his junior, who, when the marriage had been
dissolved about six years later in an unde-
fended nullity suit, became the wife of J. E.
Millais the painter. In 1849 appeared his
Seven Lamps of ArcMtecture, which was fol-
lowed by the pamphlet on Pre^RapKaelitism
(1851) in Which he called attention to the noble
■^rk of Millais and Holman Hunt, The Stones
(f Vmice (1851-3), a work illustrated by some
of his own drawings. The Political . Economy


of Art (1867), Unto this Last Ethics of

the Dost and Sesame and Lilies (1865), Crown of
WUd Olive (1866), Eors Clavi^a (1871-84), ^
^'Letters to the Workmen and liabourers of
Great Britain," Munera Puliieris (1872),
Aratra Pentelici (1872), Val D*Arno (1875), and
others of equal note. Several of these were re-
prints of lectures delivered by him with
marked success at Oxford and Cambridge* ‘He
was Slade Professor of Art at his own university
(1870-7 and 1888-4).

■ and Rede Lecturer
at Cjirabridge, of
which he was made
honorary LL*D. in
1867. His autobio-
graphy, under the
name of Prasterita,
appeared from 1886
to 1889, and in 1893
his Poems were pub-
lished. He died on
January 20th, 1900,
at Brant wood, his
house on Coniston
Lake, in Lancashire
(whither he had
removed in 1871),
having lived in re-
tirement for several
JOHN BUSK tx. years before his

{Photo : Jiarmiid d: Co., Os^ord <^eatll. At one time
Street, w.) regarded as too

greatest exponent of
tbe principles of Art, Ruskin was fated to see his in-
fluence materially diminished. His want of
sympathy with the now schools led to certain
contemptuous allusions to the brilliant
"Nocturnes" of J. M. Whistler. In the re-
grettable lawsuit which followed (1878)
Whistler obtained a farthing damages and a
public subscription discharged Ruskin’e costs.
But if Time has come round to the side of
Whistler rather than of Ruskin, it is a singular
coincidence that the views on political economy
which formerly gained for Ruskin nothing but
obloquy have now won wide acceptance, and at
any rate colour and inspire all dissertations on
the dismal science.

Riissely Alexandeb, journalist, was born in
Edinburgh on December 10th, 1814. . After ^In-
tending a local school, he was apprenticed to a
printer, but, encouraged by his contributioma
to Tait's Magazine to puTsue a literary career,
became editor first of the Lerwick Advertiser
(1839) and afterwards (1842) of the Fife Herald.
His work having impressed the proprietors of
The Scotsman, he joined that newspaper as
assistant editor in 1845 and three yeajjs later
was appointed editor. Under his care the
journal speedily attained the fbremost rank
and influence, advocating '\^ig principles and
supporting liberalism in religious thought a»d
progress in social affairs. He was a model of
industry, intermitting his labours only by oc-
casional trips to the Tay, Tweed, or other



stream^ for he was an enthusiastic
angler and the writer of an authoritative
workj name!r« The Salmon (1864). Jie was
elected (1875) honorary member of the Be-
form Club in London^ “for distinguished
public services/' being the tenth recipient of
that honour since the opening of the Club in
1836. He died in Edinburgh on July ISth^
1876.

RiuuioUf Chablbs, Babok Russell of
KinXiOwxN. Lord Chief Justice of England, was
born at jTewry,

Ireland, on No-
vember 10th,

1832, and was
educated at Bel-
f a 8 1, N e w r y,

Castleknock and,
later, Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin. He
first practised, as
a solicitor, but
was afterwards
called to theEng-
lish bar. He
joined the north-
ern circuit, where
his knowledge of
common law pro-
cedure and his
searching style of
cross - examina- rubbsli. of killowsn.

tion soon brought (.P^oto: London Stereoscopic Co.)
him to the fore-
front of his profession. In 1881 he was elected
M.B. for Dundalk as a Liberal Home Ruler,
and in 1886 was returned for South Hackney,
becoming Attorney-General (with a knight-
hood) in W. E. Gladstone’s ministry of 1886
(and again in 1892). During the sittings of the
Farnell Commission (1888-9) he achieved the
forensic triumphs of his career, not only in his
dramatic cross-examination of Richard Pigott,
the forger of the alleged Parnell letters, which
created a profound sensation and broke down
the major case, but also in the speech for the
defence which occupied six days and was the
greatest effort of his life. For his services on the
Bering Sea Commission (1893) he received the
Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George. In
May of the following year he was made a Lord
of Appeal and raised to the peerage, and in
June of the same year succeeded Lord Coleridge
as Lord Chief Justice. Somewhat to the sur-
prise, but wholly to the delight of the bar —
which had ent^tained doubts whether eo
strenuous an advocate would make a good
judge--he turned out an ideal “Chief." Ho
was keenly interested in the endeavour to sup-
press the corruption and bribery that were fast
undermining commercial transactions and did
his best to promote the necessary legislation to
this end* In 1899 he acted as one of tne arbitra-
tors to determine the boundaries of British
Guiana and Venezuela. He died in London ou
August 10^, 1900.


HiUisellp Hbnby, vocalist an<f song-writer, was
born at Sheerness, Kent, England, on December
24th, 1812. He soon showed a bent for music,
and, after appearing as a tenor at the Surrey
Theatre, London (1828), went to Italy, where
he studied at Bologna and (under R^inD at
Naples. On his return to England he act<^ for
a time as chorus-master at E[is Majesty’s
Theatre. He next migrated to Canada and
from 1833 to 1844 was engaj^ in a “ one-man "
entertainment in the Domii^on and the
United States, during which he sang, with re-
markable success, his well-known songs, such as
“Cheer, boys, cheer," “There’s a good time
coming, boys," “A Life on the Ocean Wave"
“O woodman, spare that tree," “To the West,
to the West," and many others. When he re-
turned to the mother country he repeated his
concerts with marked appreciation and, along
with Dr. Charles Mackay — who had written the
words of his most admired songs — sustained
for a long time an entortainmont called “ The
Far West, or the Emigrant’s Progress from the
Old World to the New," which was said to have
had a decided effect in stimulating emigration
to Canada and the United States. Russell re-
tired about 1865, but reached a ripe age, dying
in London on Becember 8th, 1900. He was
present at the “ Henry Russell night " organ-
ised by Sir Augustus Harris at Covent Garden
Tlieatre in 1891, and, in 1895, published a.
volume of reminiscences under the title of
Cheer, hoys, zheer.

UnsselL Loud John, first Eabl Russell,
statesman, was the youngest son of the sixth
Duke of Bedford, and wCs born in Westminster
on August 18th, 1792. His schooling was inter-
fered with by his delicate constitution, but he
was educated for a time at Westminster School,
and afterwards at Edinburgh University (1809-
12). In 1813 he entered Parliament as M.P. for
Tavistock, becoming member for Huntingdon
in 1820. He was an ardent Liberal, and for
many years pressed forward various schemes
of reform, which were invariably rejected. He
published, in 1819, a Life of William, Lord
Musstll, in 1822 his tragedy of Don Carlos, and
in 1827 a translation of the fifth book of the
Odyssey. He first obtained office in 1830 as
Paymaster of the Forces. The Reform Bill of
1832 was largely the result of his persistent
advocacy, and in 1834 he was offered the leader-
ship of the Commons, but, in consequence of
the king’s personal hostility to him, the pro-
posal was abandoned. In 1835 he became M.P.
for Stroud, and in 1841 was elected to represent
the City of London. He was appointed Home
Secretary soon after his election for Stroud,
and between 1839 and 1841 was Colonial Secre-
tary. It was owing to the expression of his
opinion, in his speech on the Address in 1837,
that he could take no further part in schemes
of electoral reform, that he was nick-named
“ Finality John." He aided in the repeal of
the Corn Laws, and in 1846 attained the ofice
of Prime Minister, which he held till 1852.





BoiisilL


(^)


The principal measures passed during his pre-
mier&ip were the Ten Hours Bill, the in-
cumbered Estates Act, the BepSal of the Navi-

g ation Acts, the Act establishing the Poor
aw Board ^fterwards merged in the Local
Oovernment Board), and the Australian Colo-
nies Act, in terms of which the Colony of Vic-
toria was created and New South Wales in-
vested with representative government. Lord
John tdok a pugnacious attitude on the
(mestion of Papal aggression Q850-X), his No
Popery declarations evoking the enthusiasm
of the Protestants and the disgust of High
Churchmen and Catholics. He was Foreign
Secretary for a few weeks in 1852, and retired
in 1855 from Lord Aberdeen’s cabinet before
Boebuck’s resolution ^ impeaching the Crimean
policy came on for discussion. In 1856 he was
plenipotentiary at the Vienna Congress, and
again Colonial Secretary, a post which he soon
resigned for reasons of State. In 1861 he was
raised to the peerage, in 1862 was created E.G.,
and in 1866, after the death of Palmerston, he
was again Premier, but only for a year. His
public work was done, and he died at Pembroke


the opposition of the pe^rs to Par!iamentaa?y
Beform, his contemptuous protest, “ It is impos-
sible that the whisper of a faction should pre-
vail against the voice of a Uftion,** weakened
the hostility of the Lords. Hll scathing retort
to Sir Francis Burdett was one of the finest
ever offered in Parliament: “The honourable
member talks of the cant of patriotism; but
there is something worse than the cant of
patriotism, and that is the re-cant of patriot-
ism.” Queen Victoria having inquired, “ Is
it true. Lord John, that you hmd that a subject
is justified, in certain circumstances, in dis-
obeying his sovereign?” his reply was tactful
yet telling, “ Well, speaking to a sovereign of
the House of Hanover, I can only say that I
suppose it is.” His definition of a proverb was
perfect, “ One man’s wit and all men’s wisdom.”

Bussell, William, Loud Russbll, patriot,
sou of the first Duke of Bedford, was born on
September 29th, 1639, and was educated pri-
vately and at Cambridge University (the Col-
lege being unknown). After the Bestoration he
was elected M.P. for Tavistock, and in 1669»



TRIAL or LORD WILLIAM BUSSELL, 1688.

(4SUr the painting hy Sir George Hagter^


Lodge, Bichmond Park, on May 28th, 1878. He
was an adept phrase-maker. In his Memoirs
of the A fairs of Europe (1824) occurs the
famous poser, “When I am asked if such or
such a nation is fit to be free, I ask in return,
is anjr man fit to be a despot.^” Bef erring to


married Baohel Wriothesley (1636-1723), This
noble woman, whose beautiful character is
clearly reflected in her Letters^ was the widow
of Lord Vaughan and second daughter of
Thomas Wriothesley, fourth Earl of Southamp-
ton. Their marriage was one of unbroken mffeo-



( 6 )


tion. BuBseli had been a member of Charles
II/s Privy Council, and resign^ owing to the
recall of the Duke of York and what he con-
ceived to be the consequent probable re-
establishment of Popery. He Drought the
matter before the House of Commons, and its
action induced the king to dissolve it and to
act arbitrarily in other ways. In 1678 Bussell
had succeeded to the courtesy title of Lord
Bussell on the death of his elder brother
Francis, heir to the earldom, and the enhanced
importance of his position caused him to be
viewed with greater suspicion by the king^s
party. Under cover of the Popisn Plot agita-
tion the Opposition renewed their attacks on
the Duke of York, and Lord Bussell was
probably involved in a secondary sense. His
support of the Exclusion Bill hlled up the
measure of his iniquity; he was tried for com-
plicity in the Bye House Plot to assassinate
the king, and was beheaded in Lincoln's Inn
Fields, l4ondon, on July 21st, 1683. His
courage and intense love of liberty endeared
him to the people. After the Bevolution the
attainder against him was annulled, and in
1694 his father was created duke, the preamble
of the patent describing him as father to
Bussell, "'the ornament of his age.'^

ItMlielli William Clabk, novelist, son of
Henry Bussell, the singer, was born in New
York on February 24th, 1844, and educated at
a private ' school in Winchester and at Bou-
logne. From the age of 13 till he was 21 he
was employed in the mercantile marine, during
which he went through a variety of experiences
that bore fruit in several of his booxs. His
earliest novels, John Holdawortht Chief Mate
(1874), The Wreck of the ** Qrosvenor'* (1876),
A Sa%lor*8 Sweetheart (1877), The Frozen Pirate
(1877), An Ocean Free Lance (1878), were all
stirring stories of the sea, and had an immense
vogue. They were followed by others of higher
literary Qualities and no less interest, such as
Li 9 t» ye Landsmen/ (1897), The Bomance of a
Midshimf^cin (1898), The Skip’s Adventure
(1899), Uverdue (1903), Ahandonea (1904), Wrong
Side Out (1904), T/ie Yarn of Old Harbour
Town (1905), and many more. He has also
written several acceptable biographies of great
seamen, including Nelson, Lord Collingwood,
and Dampier.

lEussellf Sir William Howard, journalist,
was born at Lily vale, near Tallaght, Dublin
county, Ireland, on March 28th, 1820, and was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was
called to the bar in 1862, but his strong pen-
chant for journalism was more than satisfied
when he was despatclied to the Crimea as
special correspondent of The Times, He was
preisent at all the battles, and his exposure of
the mismanagement at the front had more to
do with the downfall of Lord Aberdeen's
government than Boebuck's resolution. His
Letters from the Crimea t when published in
volume form, long retained their popularity.


His next striking commission for the same
paper was in connection with the Indian
Mutiny, during which he saw the siege and
capture of Lucknow, his correspondence after-
wards reappearing in My Diary in India. In
1^0 he founded the Army and Navy Crazette,
the purport of which is evident from its title,
and of which he undertook the editorship. His
duties in this capacity were temporarily trans-
ferred to enable him to witness part of the
campaigns of the Civil War in the United
States, of which he gave an account in his
My Diary*— North ana South t 1862. He was
present at the battle of Kdniggrhtz in the
Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and at the ter-
rible conflicts at Wdrth and Sedan, and the
Capitulation of Paris in the Franco-German
War of 1870-1. He has described many events
of more pacific character, such as the marriage
and the Egyptian and Indian tours of the
Prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.). As
the ^st of a long line of brilliant war corre-
spondents he was knighted in 1896, and in 1902
became Commander of the Victorian Order.
He died in London on February 10th, 1907.

Xtusfia. Fhy^cal Aspects. The vast extent
of the Bussian Empire is a favourite theme of
the geographer. The British Empire alone, in
modern dr ancient times, has outmatched its
prodigious bulk. Stretching across the north
of Europe and Asia — from the Baltic and the
borders of Sweden, Prussia, Austria, and Bou-
mania in the west to Bering Strait and the Seas *
of Okhotsk and Japan in the east— and from the |
Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea, Asiatic Turkey-
Persia, Afghanistan, Eastern Turkestan, an#
China in the south, it has an area (8,6^,000
square miles) equal, as Nicholas 11. once
boasted, to one-sixth part of the land-surface
of the globe. Its physical characteristics are
in proportion, with two important exceptions.
In the first place, it has few mountains, and
these only on its borderlands — in the Caucasus
and in Central and Eastern Asia. In deference
to custom we treat Asiatic Bussia separately
[Siberia], but Nature makes no such distinc-
tion. The Urals, a line of low rounded ridges,
the highest summits of which are only 6,626 feet
above the level of the sea, and through which
a railway is easily carried, do not constitute a
natural frontier, and in no way interrupt the
fauna and flora of the vast plains which roll
eastwards and westwards from them. In the
second place, European Bussia hae, in propor-
tion to her bulk, a very small coast-line, and
even of this little all the northern parts are
ice-bound for the greater part of the year.
Even the northern Black Sea ports are frozen
in winter, and in the Baltic, Libau alone is
almost always open. [Petiebsburg, Bioa,
Odessa; White Sea, Baltic, Black Sea,
Caspian.] Lacking mountains and valleys,
coast-line, and a Gulf Stream, Bussia is ae-
prived of most of the climatic influences as well
as the scenic effects which the smaller countries
of Europe enjoy. Apart from the regular sea^





( 7 )


sonal changes^ tWra is a likeness of condition
in ker yarioua latitudes — from tke land of the
reindeer to that of the camel — ^which gives
some ground for the declaration that Bussia
was created for unity'/' Almost everywhere
the extremes of heat in summer and cold in
winter are experienced. The west and south
winds avail little against those of the icy north
and the arid east ; and their burden of mois-
ture is soon lost. There is but a small rainfall.
Only in the Southern Crimea and be-
neath the towering bulwark of the
Caucasus is there a southern climate
as northern readers understand the
term. The sudden break-up of the
long winter frost in a short raw un-
pleasant spring has given native poets
one of their best subjects. Hardly
less striking is the sudden lapse into
the idle indoor life of winter, with
doors and windows hermetically
sealed and the great stove ever hot;
or the sleighing, the sport, the skates,
and the ice-hilTs.

Setting apart the moss-covered
deserts or tundras of the far north,
where the few half-savage hunters
and fishermen [Samoyede^ maintain
a precarious existence, two natural
regions differentiate themselves amid
the general uniformity of the land-
scape, giving a key to racial differ-
ences and the historical developments
we have presently to trace. The
northern and slightly larger zone,
that of the forests and lakes, extends
from the 65th southwards to the 53rd
degree of latitude — say, from Arch-
angel to Kieff. Immense forests,
mainly of birch, pine, larch, and fir,
spring out of the boggy and occasion-
ally sandy and always comparatively
sterile plain. The overplus of water
gathers itself into broad marshes,
rivers, and lakes varying in size from
the eleven hundred of Archangel to
Ladoga and Onega, the largest in
Europe. Here is the only noticeable
elevation of the central plateau, the
Taldai Hills, where the Volga and
other great southern rivers rise.
fDwiNA, Westebn and Nobthebn.]
Throughout this region agriculture is
pursued among most unpromising con-
ditions, and only in the few industrial
centres, especially about Moscow and the mines
of the tlral, is there any concentration of popu-
lation or growth of prosperity. The second zone,
that of the Steppes, occupies the southern half
of the country, broadening as it sweeps east-
wards into the still drearier plains of Asia.
Through its interminable prairies the great
rivers pursue their unbrolfeen and unlovely
course, carrying the needed wood and water
cf the north in exchange for the grain of the
^uth. [Tolga, Bniefeb, Dnibstee, Don,
Hbaii.] The network of canals which joins


many of the Bussian rivers completes the Bet
of the magnificent waterways which are her
great oohipensation for her isolated position
and climatic disadvantages. .Over the upiier
part of this zone, treeless as it is, in the north
by man's extravagant folly and in the south
by nature's parsimony, there lies a rich soil, the
famous chernoztom or black mould, which
makes it pre-eminently the granary of Europe.
In the south this rich belt merges first into the


fertile steppe, a virgin prairie covering another
three or four hundred thousand square miles in
the Cossack country and along the lower course
of the great rivers, and then into the barren
sandy or saline wastes of the Uralo-Caspian
depression.

Considering its vast area, the flora of Bussia
is comparatively poor. The fauna includes the
wolf, bear, glutton, and fox, but reptiles are
rare, and the sable is nearly extinct. The
rivers are abundantly stocked with fishes and
whales, seals, and bears are common in the




^li 4 Potio wik»ters. Oreat as is tbs minsrnl wealth
it will 1)4 of taitly more im|>c|^4iice whmi ex*
BloitM with adequate labour and eapitll/ Be*
sides iron, qoal, and nanhtha^ there oocUr, in
more or less considerable quantities, gold, sit*
Ter, platinum, copper, lead, manganese, mer-
etiry, zinc, sulphur, cobalt, and salt. The
diamond# emeiratd, and topaz are found in the
Urals. Ilaough still in a backward state, agri*
culture emplop the major part of the popula*
tion. Bye, wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and
hay are y^j generally cultivated. Grapes,
tea, cotton, tobacco, 'rice, hemp, and flax are
also raised in considerable quantities. In cer*
tain districts cattle and fine breeds of horses
are diligently reared. The staple manufactures
are the various textiles, metal wares, soap, to*
baooo, liquors; beet*sugars, candles, paper,
glass, pottery and porcelain, jewellery, arms
and leather. The famous fairs are the most
conspicuous of the distributing centres, but the
canals, rivers, Trans-Siberian, Transcaspian,
and the great trunk railways in Europe nave
practically rendered obsolete the former system
of carriage by caravan. It was by this means
that the tea, the finest the world produces, was
brought from China to the West.

Mutory. The making of the Eussian State
began, no doubt, in the belligerent impulses
which brought Scandinavian freebooters down



•‘seafarers*’). It proceeded afterwards from
the natural exigencies of the situation. A
glance at the ethnographical map of Russia in
the 9th century shows that of the three main
racial groups [Slav Race, Finno-Tatab,
Tubki], the barbarians of Turanian stock occu-

S ied by far the greater part of the country.

.cross the whole north were the Finnish tribes ;
in the east, the centre, and nearly the whole
of the south Finns and Turks mixed; and
south-east of the Volga and the Urals more
Turks, especially Baslucirs and Khazars. The
last-named, the most powerful and most civilised
of these peoples, then masters of the Steppes,
though troublesome themselves, proved to be
the best rampart against the mountaineers and
Greeks of the south, and at a later time against
the Tatars (the correct form of the more fami-
liar Tartar which, though erroneous, is prob-
ably too well established ever to be dislodged),
Mongols, Kirghiz, and Kalmuks of the east.
On the other Itand, the Slavs spread down the
west-centre from Novgorod to Kieff and the
mouth of the Dni^er, and westwards thence
into Roland and Fomerania, having Lithua-
nians as neighbours on the middle Baltic coast.
These peaceful Slavs of the north-west already
had some cities, notably Novgorod, Kieff, and
Pskof, the first-named even then an important
commercial centre, but were otherwise living
In a simple agrarian communism. Either as
mere robbers or invaders, or, if we follow the
bldest Russ tradition, by invitation to protect
the native Slavs from the outef barbarian and
to settle their internal differences (very much


as Hengist and Horsa came to Britain), there
came to Novgorod in 862 Rurik and several
other Varangian adventurers, into whose com*
missions he soon entered. The monarchy Rurik
founded had at first a minimum of organisa-
tion and authority, but Oleg, the guardian of
his son, was strong enou^ k> capture Kieff, to
reduce all the Slav tribes to the mouth of the
Dnieper, and even successfully to assault By-
zantium itself. The Greeks had their revenge
for this indignity. Olga, the militant widow
of Igor and the first o? many striking female
figures in Russian history, went to Constanti-
nople in 955, and was there baptised as a
Christian. Two generations later Vladimir,
after deliberately examining Islamism, Ju-
daism, and the Latin and Greek forms of
Christianity, chose to adopt the last. Thus,
without difficulty or disturbance, Byzantinism,
with everything that it implied—alphabet,
ideas of civil government, all the main features
of Greek civilisation — ^was accepted by the
Eastern, as Romanism had already been ac-
cepted by the Western, Slavs, a division which
was to be the cause of endless strife in suc-
ceeding centuries. By his marriage with the
sister of the Byzantine emperor, Vladimir
sealed this destiny, at the same time
making himself a more powerful and more im-
posing figure. His son laroslav, “The Wise,’*
achieved various peaceful works, of which the
first Russian code of law was the most im-
portant.

The Scandinavian adventurers, having accom-
plished their pioneering work, having founded
a military state upon the important commercial
line from the Baltic to the Black Sea and the
Bosphorus, were quickly lost in the all-absorb-
ing Slavic environment. A period of active
colonisation was now opening, and the danger
was that unity would go with the simple mili-
tary rule they had established. Under the
system of multiple-heritage there grew up
during the two centuries after the aeath of
Yaroslav (1054) over sixty great and little
principalities or appanages, which had in that
time nearly three hund^ sovereigns. In this
period the old primary liberties and privileges
were generally maintained, the principalities
being really free republics, the princes soldiers
of fortune, easily attracted and easily removed,
interfering but little with the power in local
affairs of the mir (village community) and
vetcM (council). Slavery existed, however, and
the class of boyarf (nobles of the highest order)
was becoming an important social unit witn
which both prince and people must reckon.
For^ a time the elder princes, the grand-'hniazes
of the line of Vladimir and Yaroslav, kept their
moral superiority, in consequence of their
special ecclesiastical sanctions, their foreign
relationships, and the elose connection between
their grana capital, Kieff, and Byzantium, some
of whose fading glory fehe temporarily caught ;
but this supremacy aid not last. Colonisation
proceeded steadily on the north nfid east. On
this hardier soil, with more mixed racial



PHYSICAL MAP OF RUSSIA.







elements— kalf*SlaT^ kalf^FkniBlL— tke princes
kad a freer scope, Fends ntultiplied, and ike
next generations saw muck moodsked, ike
princes figkting for tkeir own kands kere muck
as Ike feudal oarotfs in tke West. Oraduallr
tke elder-brotkerly authority was thrown oft
III the middle of the 12tk century a prince of
Suzdal took the title of Orand-Entaz, and then
proceeded to attack and pillage Eieff, which
forthwith lost its old supremacy. In 1224, four
years after tke foundation of iJizhni (or Lower)
Novgorod, there came upon tke scene a new
force which was to turn with violent hand tke
whole destiny of the country.

There were really three contemporary in-
vasions* not one only ; but two of these we can
barely mention. On the north-west the Teu-
tonic Knights and the Sword-bearers, two
orders of northern crusaders, in subjecting the
heathen tribes of Prussia and Lithuania and
the Finns of Livonia and Bethonia to German
rule, reducing them at once to Christianity and
servitude, impinged seriously upon Polotsk,
Novgorod, and Pskof. At a later date a
Lithuanian chief, Guedimin (1315-40), was able
to stop the Teuton incursions and, by repeated
conquests among the chaotic Bussian principal-
ities, to lay the foundation of that Lithuanian
principality which, afterwards becoming unified
with the independently-founded Polish state,
ultimately extended from the Baltic to the
Black Sea, covering all White and Little Bus-
sia and effectively cutting off the Slavs of the
forest region from civilised Europe.

But the Mongol-Tatar invasion is the car-
dinal fact of Bussian history. This was the
northern edge of that vast crescent-shaped wave
of Ottoman frenzy which had swept victoriously
round the eastern and southern Mediterranean,
and which — while the West Christian barons
were plundering the Eastern Einpire instead of
carrying out the obligations or their Fourth
Crusadei — was preparing a still fuller revenge
for the past aggressions of Boman and Byzan-
tine Emperors. Zinghis Khan, already con-

?iieror of Northern China, Afghanistan, part of
ndia, and Persia, sent an expedition to reduce
the tribes around the Caspian. The Tatar
forces were attacked (1224) by the combined
Bussian princes, but after a temporary check
were completely victorious. During a thirteen
years' respite the Bussian princes learned
nothing. Then the Tatars reappeared in
enormous nuttibers, swept away the Finnish
Bulgars of the Volga, overran Byazan, Moscow,
and Vladimir, burning and massacring every-
where. Kiefl was destroyed; Galicia and Vol-
hynia were devastated; Silesia was overrun,
and for the moment even Borne and Germany
were threatened. The invaders pressed far
into the north. Novgorod alone, then at the
height of its prosperity, was spared, but had
to pay tribute, fAMbcximisB Nbvskoi.] Ihe
Khans of the Great Btorde, from their new city
of Sarai, forced all the southern and eastern
princes to offer homage in person and then to
pay poll-tax to duly^3ommissioned agents, the


prince being held directly responsible. Every
insubordination was terribly punished. The
notable tMngi however^ is that tlm subject
races were left their social structm^, especially
their religion, which thus becaihe identified
with all patriotic hopes and efforts. The next
century is full of squalid eridenoe of the utter
demoralisation of the Bussian prinoes. Moscow,
hitherto a meie village, innocent of the old
Slavic liberties, customs, and traditions, now
began to rise into importance, mainly by pro-
viding the ablest, most subservient, and most
unscrupulous agents to the Mongol Khans. By
this connection and by intermarriage the Mus-
covite nobility became partly Tatarised, and
the Oriental element already introduced
through Byzantium was revived and intensi-
fied. The use of the knout and the (or
whip of twisted hide) began at this time. Tne
former was only abolished under Nicholas
(1846), while the latter survived until more
recent years. By securing the removal to
Moscow of the religious authority and by
getting himself appointed general collector of
tribute, Ivan 1. (died 1340) managed greatly to
strengthen and extend the new state. It was
not till after another century, during which
there was an outburst against the Mongols
under Dimitri Donskbi and another bloody
vengeance, that the long tyranny may be con-
sidered to have come to an end. In 1478 — the
interval being filled by constant struggles for
the princely succession — Ivan III., the Great,
forcibly annexed not only Viatka, Tver, and
other principalities, but also Novgorod, which
never recovered its unique position as a trade
centre. Ivan endeavoured to check disintegrat-
ing tendencies by ending the system of divided
sovereignties and by increasing the power of
the Grand-Kniaz as against the petty princes
and boyars. B[e also defeated the Lithuanians,
and, finally turning against the now divided
khans, routed them and so threw off the crush-
ing yoke of 240 years. The Mongols were ofteni
troublesome afterwards, but they never again
threatened the integrity of the empire. The
extent of the influence of their cruel domina-
tion upon the heretofore mild and generous
spirit of the pastoral Slavs is a difficult and
delicate question ; but its main direction cannot
be doubted, and its depth is testified still, after
the lapse of more than four centuries, by Gpo
survival of their double legacy, a united
Bussia under an absolute despotism.

We are now to see the rapid growth of the
sovereign power and the proportions of the
state. The fall of the Eastern Einpire oppor-
tunely suggested a new set of pretensions to
the ambitious Muscovites, pretensionB which
fell in admirably with the idea of a monarchy
supreme in €hurch and State. Ivan HI. had
married the nieoe of the last Greek Emperor,
and had assumed the imperial Urms, the
double eagle. The title of Tsar (C»sar) was
fully adopted by Ivan IV., the Terrible. Tlio
extraordinary career of this ruler— recalling now
Nero, now Louis KI., and again the English


< 10 .)


Mmay TUI . — hm olroadj been brieij smiimar-
is^. Bifi tmspeaiable cmeitiest Ml toeiaiictiry
and snperfitition, make his ttama a,
but it is .to be said for him that under his
rule the power of the boyars was still further
eurtailed; the civil code was revised and an
ecclesiastical code laid down ; the bounds of the
empire were extended by conquest especially on
the east and south, the Mussulman kingdoms
of Kazan and Astrakhan and the native tribes
of the Tolga and Bon being conquered; the
colonisation of Siberia began under the Cossack
Yermak ; English and other foreign traders were
welcomed gnd the arts encouraged in a small
way. Ere any further considerable national
development could occur, it was neoeesary to
win a place upon the Baltic and the Black Sea,
and so to open communications with the west
and south. But these ways were blocked, the
one by Sweden and Poland and the other by
tM Turks and the Free Cossacks of the south.
Nothing could eeem more improbable than any
achievement in these directions during the
veritable " period of troubles,'' as the Bussian
historians call it, which makes up the greater
nart of the 17th century. The episode of the
false Demetrius reminds us of the attempt of
Perkin Warbeck on the English crown just a
century earlier. The fraud assumed large pro-
portions, however, by reason of the deeper
Ignorance of the Russian people, the more com-
|3ete isolation of their communities, and, still
more perimps, the aelhsh designs of .native and
foreign princes, and the anxiety, especially at
the Polish Court, to bring Russia into the
Latin communion. Boris (Todunof, regent for
Theodor and himself Tsar after the murder of
the true Dimitri, is mainly noteworthy as the
practical founder of serfdom by his temporary
measure, afterwards to become permanent, at-
taching the too-nomadic peasant to the soil.
The Polish invasion was temporarily successful,
and for a time the county was Overrun by
Poles, Swedes, Cossacks, Tatars, and other
marauders. The rally under the first Romanoff
Tsar, Michael, elected and supported by a
national council (Sohor) in 1613, shows now
persistent was the Russian national feeling and
the hold of the Orthodox faith. For a time the
influence of the nobles revived, and there was a
growth of Western influences. Under Alexis,
tne precursor of Peter, further progress was
made, although the condition of the peasants
was so desperate that they were driven into re-
peated revolts. In this reign the Dnieper Cos-
sacks transferred their allegiance from'Poland
to Russia, securing by compact, however, their
autonomy, and the innovations of the
patriarch Eicon, which were regarded as
arbitrary, caused the great religious disrup-
tion to which the ^ief Dissenting ee<As
(raski^niks) trace their origin.

Peter the Great opened the third, which may
be called t^he European, period of Russian
history. With all his faults and savagery, he
was probably the man for the hour, and made
his country a European state. He gave her a




standing army, a navy on the Baltic, the
emb^o of a modem administration, a . diplo-
matic servtoe, and a financial organisation. He
made canals, encouxiifed industry, literature,
and art. The heart of Bninia might remain at
Moscow, but henceforth it was to have also a
head that looked out westwards from the Neva.
On the other hand, Peter increased taxation;
his cruelty was Oriental, and serfdom under
him became more ana more extensive. The
Court annals of the next century present an
extraordinary succession of foreign aaventuxers,
female rulers, palace plots, exiles, vulgar orgies,
crimes of violence, and all manner of baseness.
[Menschikopf.] Anna (1730-40) gave the un-
happy country up to her German favoprites, , A
second attempt (counting the charter between
the tSobor and Michael Romanoff as the first)
to obtain a constitution failed at her accession.
Under Elizabeth the southern part of Finland
was obtained from Sweden by treaty; and in
the Seven Years' War Russia came into conti^
with Prussia under Frederick the Great. iK
internal politics this reign is noted for the
growing oppressiveness of serfdom. In the
milder reign of Peter III. German Influences re-
vived ; this, his confiscation of Church property,
and his severe military discipline, to his
downfall. Catherine II. conquered and an-
nexed the whole Crimea and the seaboard be-
tween the Bug and Dniester, Russian fleets
now appearing for the first time in the
Mediterranean. In the three partitions
Poland [Poland, Suwaeopp, KosciuszkoL in
1772, 1793, 1795, Russia obtained two-thirds of
that country, together with the province of
Courland, so that the whole Baltic provinces
[CoUBLAND, PeTKBSBUBG, LiVONIA, EsTHONIA]
were now Russian. The pretender Pugachev
raised a fierce agrarian insurrection (1773), but
the victories of Michelson broke his forces, and
with his capture the revolt ended. Catherine,
although reactionary at the end of her reign,
carried on many of Peter’® reforms, and
thoroughly established Russia as a European
power. To her, however, the Ukraine owes its
serfdom, as also very heavy burdens in taxation
and in the increase of the arbitrary power of
the serf-holders. Paul was eccentric to the
point of insanity. He established a severe
press censorship, reorganised the secret police,
settled the succession on the sovereign’s eldest
son, was now a pro- and then an an^i-Bona-
partist, and was assassinated in 1801. Alex-
ander I. renewed the friendship with Great
Britain, joined the third coalition against
Napoleon, and — the tempting prospect of a
Franco-Russian partition of Europe opened out
at Tilsit having faded away — was again com-
pelled to withstand the conqueror of Austria
and Prussia. [Napoleon.] Two years after the
occupation of Moscow the Russians stood with
the Allies in Paris. The jealousy of the ADies
prevented Alexander from taking the whole of
Poland. Meanwhile Georgia and nearly the
whole of the Circassian provinces had been in-
corporated, Finland with the greater part of



( 11 )




Bothnia had been ceded by Sweden in ISOft,
and Bessarabia taken from Turkey in 1812.
The vaidoua reactionary measures of Alexander's
later years provoked much discontent, which at
his death culminated in a third futile effort to
obtain a constitution. [Dicbhbbists.] Nicholas
made no pretence of satisfying the demands of
reform; but in the roU of liberator of the
faithful in the south he joined the Allies in
securing G^k independence, and by further
aggression in Turkey got more territory on the
east coast of the BlacJc Sea and the left bank
of the Danube and became protector of Mol-
davia and Wallachia. A protectorate was im-
posed upon Khiva, and the Kirghiz kissed the
rod. In Siberia the far eastern seaboard was
now reached. In the next reign Turkestan was
conquered ; Khiva, Khokan, and Samarkand were
annexed ; and Bokhara became a vassal state.

Thus we see completed the Slavic revenge
for the Mongol invasion. The full ethnological
>g|ignificance of these long centuries of coloni-
*iation and absorption affords materials for an
interesting study in the expanse and consolida-
tion of empire, and the separate articles on
the Slav Race, Finnish Race, Mongols,
Tatas, Cossacks, Poland (Ethnology), Cauca-
sians, etc., should be consulted. The Great
Russians have become the backbone of the
nation, constituting nearly half of the total
population of the empire and occupying all
the central part of Buropean Russia from the
White Sea to a line roughly drawn from Smo-
lensk to the point where the Don most nearly
approaches the Volga. Little and White Rus-
sians [Ukbaine] to the number of 15 millions
share the west-centre with Lithuanians on the
Baltic shore to the north and Poles on their
west. On the south-east are the Turko-Tatar
races — Kalmuks, Bashkirs, and Kirghiz. In
Lapland, Finland, and the North Ural region
are the Finnish races. Scattered about are
colonies of Jews, Germans, Swedes, and
Southern Slavs.

The futile insurrection of the Poles in 1830-1
led to the revocation of all their liberties.
Nicholas now aided Turkey against the Khedive
and Austria against the Magyars, this last
action depriving him of the sympathy of Wes-
tern Europe. The campaign against Turkey,
which enoed in the Criipean War, brought
Russia great loss and bitter disappointment.
Nicholas died before it ended. It seemed at
first that by timely measures of reform Alex-
ander IT., a well-meaning but weak ruler,
would restore the shaken confidence of his
people. The emancipation of 23 millions of
serfs in 1861 is the great measure of the reign
and indeed of the century. The land of nearly
half the peasantry (the other half, the already

free ” Crown peasants, were ^ differently
treated) was handed over to the village com-
munities (mir), subject to a payment for 49
years of redemption dues of 6 per cent, on the
amount of the purchase money. The mil-
lions of domestic serfs simply got their liberty.
Unfortunately, Alexander, wanting to satisfy


everybody and feaiful of the work into wMeli
neofleaity hid dfivtn him, entrusted the soheme
to alien and unfriendly hands. ^.'^Alexander HI,
abolished the old poll-tax in I8|d, and in some
places reduced the redemption dues; but the
burden of taxes and dues is still excessive, and
the condition of the peasantry is generally so
wretched that they fall an easy prey to the
famines and epidemics of cholera and other
diseases which nave devastated the country in
recent years. Alexander HI. died in 1894, and
was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II;, who, in
1899, startled the world with his famous Peace
Conference at The Hague. It was, however, an
ominous comment upon a proposal that looked
so well on paper that the same year saw the
Russification of Finland.

The second Polish insurrection (1863) was
mainlv responsible for the backward turn of
the TWr-Liberator’s policy. For a time the
crusade against the Turks (1876-8) [Tubket,
Balkan Peninsula, Skobelbee] drew at-
tention away from domestic affairs ; but
the victorious issue brought Russia nothing
more than Bessarabia, a part of Armenia,
and a fuller conviction of the corruption
and incompetence of her administration.
From this time dates the active revolu-
tionary movement misnamed Nihilism. In
its first period, under the inspiration of
Herzen, Bakunin in his rational period, and
Tchernishevskij it took the form of a secret
propaganda with the object of securing free-
dom of speech and press, public justice, per-
sonal security, the aWitiou of administrative
exile, and the calling of a national assembly.
In 1878 the propagandists were driven into a
terrorist policy, which culminated in the assas-
sination of Alexander II. in 1881. The ven-
geance of the Government was swift and ter-
rible. Thousands of persons were, arrested and
imprisoned or exiled without trial. The
struggle continued for some time, and then the
revolutionary parties subsided again into a
policy of propaganda and preparation. Some
of their leaders, notably Sergius Stepniak,
Felix Volkhovsky, and Prince Peter Krapotkiu,
having escaped from prison or exile, endea*
voured by a foreign propaganda to sap the
external sources of the autocracy; and quite
a literature is now devoted to the shocking
condition of Russian prisons, the brutal treat-
ment of the prisoners, the corruption Of the
administration, the persecutions of Jews aud
Stundists, the horrors of Siberian exile, and
the absence of all public and private liberty.

In 1904 the long-expected collision between
Russia and Japan in the Far East took place,
and ^ar was declared. Japan gainedl a decided
advantage in the initial stages, and quickly
asserted her supremacy at sea. In the laud
campaign which followed the Russians wero
forced to evacuate Korea and Southern Maa-J
churia, and were driven back to Mukden,
fering severe defeats, while Port Arthur wa^>
besieged and isolated. The internal condlti^
of Russia showed great signs of unrest, an


( n )


tht stAte of tli6 country and the 0OTepment
was critical in 1004. Fort Arthur, after i pro-
longed reeiituaoe, capitulated, and a crushing
blow was administered by the destruction of
the Baltic Fleet (1005), which had been des-
patched to tutn the tide of the war. In the
saiue year, at the invitation of Fresident
Boosevelt, plenipotentiaries were appointed to
discuss terms of peace, and met in August,
when, after considerable negotiations, a peace-
able arranfement was reached and the war
ended. TOC internal condition of Russia re-
mained in as unsatisfactory a state as before,
temoered now with Jew-baiting and now with
oonnicts between the military and the people.
Ihe wanton massacre of the strikers who had
marched to the Winter Falaoe on January 22nd,
1005, peacefully to present a memorial of their
grievances to the Tsar, profoundly affected the
opinion of foreign countries. Reprisals fol-
lewed, and amo^st the victims of the assassin
was the Grand Buke Sergius (February 17th).
Repression having failed, conciliation was tried,
ana on 10th, 1906, the Tsar opened the
Buma, or Parliament, in the Taurida Palace,
St. Petersburg. Those who suspected the good
faith of the Government in sanctioning this
measure of liberalism were justified, for in a
few months the great Council was arbitrarily
disbanded. The second Duma was treated with
equal perfidy, being compulsorily dissolved on
June 16th, 1007.

Oovernment and Institutions. The Russian
Government is a pure autocracy (sometimes
miscalled paternal) with a hereditary succes-
sion, the emperor being also supreme head
of the Orthodox Russian Church. Imperial
administration is conducted by several
boards, of which the most prominent
are the Senate (founded by Peter I. in
1711), which is entrusted with the pro-
mulgation of legislative enactments ana is
the high court of justice for the Empire ; the
Holy Synod (established by Peter I. in 1721),
consisting of the metropolitans Of St. Peters-
burg, Moscow and Eieff, and chawd with the
control of religious affairs; the Committee of
Ministers (reorganised in 1905) ; and the Coun-
cil of Miumters, composed of all the ministers
and the geUeral directors of the most important
administrations. There are ministers of foreign
affairs, war, uavy, the interior, public instruc-
tion, finance, justice, agriculture and lands,
ways and communications, commerce and in-
dustry, and othert-^11, however, liable to-be
shut down at armbinent's notice. "Laws" in .
Russia simply mean decrees of the emperor.
Judicial proc^ure is in a Yery backward state,
and the criminal system is full of anomalies
and inhumanities. The bureaucracy is elabor-
ately divided into 40 ranks The nobles

hate never as a class had the power which
feudalism gave their fellows in the West, and
Russia has perhaps lost as much as she has
felned hy having no political aristocracy.
Military service was maoe ohligatory in 1874.
The army numbers, on a peace looting, more


than 1,000,000, but it is calculated that over 4|
millioui of men could be called to arms. The
clergy are black (regular) or white (secular),
the parish popes bmng of the latter class.
There are, besides the Orthodox Churrii
fGBJBXK CHtrncp] mai^ religious sects. The
Finnish, German, and Swedish Protestants, the
Polish and Lithuanian Romanists, the few
Uniates of White Russia, and the Tatar. Bash-
kir, and Kirghiz Mohammedans, enjoy full
liberty of worship, but not of prea^ing or
proselyrism. Education is far in arrear, being
harassed by constant arbitrary interference in
the supposed interests of the state. There are
universities iu Moscow, St. Petersburg, Eieff,
Kharkoff, Borpat, Warsaw, Kazan, Odessa, and
Tomsk, and Finland has a university at Hel-
singfors. There are middle and higher schools
in most of the large towns, and in certain
cities there are numerous learned and scientific
societies. In local self-government curious
democratic features are presented. The Em-
pire is divided into governments (or provinces),
and these again into districts. Some of the
governments combine to form general govern-
ments, each under a governor-general. Each
province has a council of control. But, in so
far as the lands of the peasantry and local
administration are concerned, the parish gov-
ernment is vested in the people through can-
tonal assemblies and communal assemblies (or
mir). The affairs of districts are administered
by assemblies called zemstvos, and towns and
cities have their own municipal councils.

Literature and the Arts. Apart from the
hUini, or poetical folk-tales of legendary and
historic heroes, the early proverbs and love
songs, and a single surviving poem of the
12th century narrating the expedition of
Ivor against the Polovtsi, there is little of
popular interest in Russian literature till the
time of the national revival under Peter I.
Then Lomonosof (1711-65), poet, grammarian,
and scientist, though a narrow chauvinist and
coarse like most of his contemporaries, gave a
ndw impulse to native thought. For a time,
however, nothing better than Court poetry
resulted. Through the solemn bombast of
Derzhavin (1743-1816) and the German romanti-
cism of Zhukovsky (1783-1862), we come to the
period of Pushkin and Gogol. In Pushkin the
many-sided poetic spirit of the Slav finds free
and vigorous utterance. Lermontoff (1814-41)
breathed in, during his repeated exiles to the
Caucasus, a vaster iuspiration, and came more
nearly to the height of Byron's achievement.
Gogol, turning his back upon romanticism,
brought to bear, in The Bevisor and Dead Souls,
the scourge of his wit and a scathing satire
upon the hollow society about him. Karamsin
(1765-1826) is remembered not only as the great
modern historian of Russia, but as a literary
forerunner of the Slavophil or Pauslavi^
school, of which Aksakoff and Katkoff were the
moving spirits. Solovief (1829-70) and Kosto-
marov are the next great historians. Rriloff's
fables are widely known. Bielinsky (1801-48)






(IS)


Mmik


proclaimed a return to reaUsm; and Bostoieff*
sky (1822-81), with tragic intensity, and Tour-
genieff (1818-83), with more classic art and a
soberer philosophy, have worked in the same
spirit in fiction as Nekrasof in poetry and
Yerestchagin, Hay, and Bepin in painting, pro-
ducing many sombre and harrowing pictures
as well as some bright ones ol the lire of their
countrymen. Count Leo Tolstoi has pushed
even farther the analysis of the human soul,
measuring its every weakness by the inexorable
standard of an ascetic Christianity. Goncharov
pointed out to the Bussians in his Oblomov one



of their chief weaknesses. Shevchenko (1814-
61), the greatest poet of Little Bussia, sufiered
bitterly at the hands of those in authority, as
most of the intellectual leaders we have named
have done. Schedrin's social satires and the
grim realism of the unhappy Garshin must be
mentioned, while among otner novelists Koro-
lenko, Potapenko, and Maxim Gorki are now
well represented in English. Bussian music
is extremely characteristic and cannot be mis-
taken for other than itself. If some of the
effects of its masters* orchestration are bizarre,
it may yet be questioned whether the frantic
revelry of a peasants* holiday, the mad tumult
of a nation in arms, the wailing agony of pain
and sorrow have been more adequately inter-
preted by the musical genius of other countries.


Bubinstein and Tchaikovsky represent the
highest point to which Bussian t6chnigu$
composition have attained . In science Mende-
lieff the chemist, Kovalevsky and Metchnik<^
the comparative embryologists,* Chebychef the
mathematician, Krapotkin the geographer and
mathematician, have international reputations,
and Paul Yinogradoff has done the work of an
expert in clearing up the early histcry of land-
tenures, especially in England. Budaiaa research
is thorough and far-reaching.

Population, Having regard to the history
of the Empire — its unsornpulous annexations of
territory in Europe and the inevitable expanse
in Asia — ^its population has grown enormously.
In 1722 it numbered 14,000,000, iu 1812 it was
41,000,000, in 1897 it had reached 129,209,297,
and in 1904 it was estimated at 143,000,000.
In 1897 Bussia in Europe with an area of
1,996,743 square miles had a populetion of
107,446,199; Bussia in Asia with an area of
6,220,400 square miles had a population of
19,140,326; Finland had an aree of 125,764
square miles and a population Of 2,592,864.
If to these we add 817.468 equare miles occu-
pied by inland waters (Caspian aitd Azov Seas,
etc.), and 29,908 persons distributed in Bok-
hara and elsewhere and in the nhvy, we shall
obtain grand totals of 8,660,895 square mile0
and 129,209,297 population.

Itust. Most metals, if exposed to the air, be^
come covered with a superficial coating, con-
sisting of the oxide of the metal. This oxide
is commonly known as rust, but is used more
frequently in regard to Ifiie rust of iron than
that of other mcftals. Iron rust was distin-
guished in classical times and employed
medicinally. Until the overthrow of the
phlogiston theory [Phlooistok] the chemical
nature of rusts was unknown, and they were
regarded as the element, the metal being con-
sidered a compound of the rust and phlogiston.
Although most metals rust if exposed to the
atmosphere, it is noticeable and interesting that
none do so in perfectly dry air or oxygen, the
presence of a small quantity of aqueous vapour
being essential. A variety of methods has been
introduced for the purpose of preventing rust,
such as galvanizing, ;)apannlng, coating with
oil-paint, and other vehicles, and the prepara-
tion associated with the name of Profe^pcr F.
S. Barff. It is of the greatest importahoe to
arrest the development of rust in metal struc-
tures. This precaution will explain why, for
example, painters are constantly engaged on the
external framework of the Forth Bridge. By a
process of analogy the term rust has been ap-
plied to the fungous growths which tend to
affect some plants, just as an oxide forms on
metal exposed to air and moisture. Black
and red rust, fungi with dark or red spores,
attack the leaves and stems of wheat and other
cereals and grasses. One of the most formid-
able forms iu which plant-rust shows itself is
the blight which sometimes iufests the potato,
rotting not only the leaves and items, but





( U ) ^ BntliMfgliii.


»lso the tubers. And calenlAted, if uncbecked,
to destroy yatt crops and create famine.

AlUltellilkp a. town of Bulgaria, on the right
bank of the Danube, opposite Giurgevo, in
Bonmania, 139 miles of Varna. It is the
seat of a Bulgarian and an Armenian bishop,
and the many mosques, though sparsely at-
tended, are a picturesque feature. The prin-
cipal buildings include the municipal omces,
arsenal, and custom-house. The industries com-
prise brewing, tanning, dyeing, in addition
to manufactures of tobacco, soap, aerated
waters, and pottery, and there are, besides,
sawmills and brick and tile works. The town is
as old as the Eomans, who made it one of
their fortresees on the Danube. After its
sack by the Barbarian hordes who overthrew
the Empire, it languished for many centuries
and in modem times suffered severely during
the battles of the Eussians and Turks. Pop.
(1900), 32,660.

Itntli, Book op, the eighth book of the Old
Testament, following Judges and preceding I.
Samuel. In the Hebrew Bible it is one of the
five Megilloth, or rolls read in the Synagogue
on five particular days in the Jewish ecclesiasti-
cal year, Euth being read at the Feast of
Weeks. The majority of commentators are
agreed that it was written at a much later
period than that with which it deals, that it is
almost certainly post-exilic, and that it possibly
dates from the 6th century b.c. It has been
said that its objects are twofold, namely, to
introduce the family from which David was
descended, and to illustrate the marriage laws
of the Israelites, with special reference to the
question of mixed marriages, held in later times
to be unlawful. The authorship is unknown,
and it may be conjectured whether the book
does not owe the high place assigned to it both
in Hebrew and Christian estimation to the
charm of the sweet and simple idyll which it
describes with such artless beauty and pathos.

the collective name of the so-called
Little Eussians, a main branch of the Eussian
Slavs, who form the bulk of the population
in Ukraine (South-West Eussia), Galicia, and
the Carpathians, numbering altogether about
20,000,000. The Euthenians are quite distinct
in physique, mental qualities, and speech
from the Great Eussians, or Eussians proper,
and are rwarded as a much purer division of
the Slav family. They are taller, with more
slender figures and more regular features, and
more animated, hut also hSm resolute expres-
sion, and more poetic temperament. In recent
years the Enssian Government has made
strenuous, but hitherto unsuccessful, efforts to
efface all the differences between the two
groups, especially by forcibly substituting the
Great Eussian for the Little Eussian dialect in
the educational establishments of Ukraine.
Austria contains over 3,000,000 Euthenians,
Hungary nearly 400,000, and there is what is


known as a Euthenian group in the Austrian
Eeiclisrath.

Hntlieiuiuii (symbol, Btr; atomic weight,
103*6), a rare metallic element which occurs to
a small extent associated with platinum and its
allied metals. It is a steel-grey, brittle metal,
specific gravity 11*3, which is very infusible
and is insolnble in acids. In its chemical
characters it closely resembles the other metals
of its class, e.g., osmium, platinum. Osann
gave this name in 1828 to one of three con-
jecturally new metals from the Urals. In 1845
Claus proved the existence of one of Osann’s
new metals and retained his name because there
was actually a new metal in the substance
which Osann had designated ruthenium oxide,
although it was principally copiposed of other
substances, such as silica, zircouia, etc.

Hutherfbrd, Samukl, divine, was born in
Nisbet, now part of Crailing, ]|^xburghshire,
Scotland, about 1600, and educated at Edin-
burgh University. In 1627 he was appointed
minister of Auwoth, in Kirkcudbright, where he
laboured with great zeal and piety. His preach-
ing was impressive, and he became deeply be-
loved, but his views were not considered sound,
and the bishops, in 1636, ordered him to con-
fine himself to Aberdeen, during the king's
pleasure. He was restored to his people in
1638 amid their rejoicings, but soon afterwards
accepted a professorship of divinity in St.
Mary’s College, St. Andrews (of which he be-
came Principal in 1647 or 1648). In 1644 he was
appointed one of the commissioners of the
Church of Scotland to the Westminster Assem-
bly, and remained in London till near the close
of 1647. In 1644 he published his Lex Eex, an
able protest against the theory of the divine
right of kings, and also his Due Right of
Presbyteries, a learned work which John
Milton and others attacked. After the
Eestoration his Lex Rex was publicly
burnt at the crosses of Edinburg and
St. Andrews, and he was deprived of office
and ordered to answer the charge of high
treason, but died, in March, 1661, before his
trial. His last words were, "Glory, glory
dwelleth in Emmanuel’s land.” The many"
letters which he had written having been col-
lected, they were published in 1664, and on
them his reputation now mainly rests. The
chief subject discussed in them is the union of
Christ and His people, as illustrated by court-
ship and marriage, and the language is occa-
sionally coarse if not indelicate.

Sathargleil, locally pronouncea “Euglen,”
a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 3 miles S.E.
of Glasgow, of which it is virtually a suburb,
the Clyde being crossed by a bridge between
the two towns. It is a place of considerable
antiquity and was formerly of greater impor-
tance than Glasgow, and indeed comprised
much of the present area of the latter city
'Within its limits.; David 1. created it a royal



Biitliiii.


(15)


IkUtilt..


burgh ill 1126. In the old church (replaced in
1794 by the existing structure) Sir J<mn Hen-
teith is alleged to haTe undertaken (1291) to
betray Sir william Wallace to the mglish.
Ibe castle was repeatedly besieged in the
reign of Robert Bruce, was burned by , the
Regent Murray after the battle of Langside
(1568) and completely obliterated two centuries
later. The Covenanters, before the battles of
Brtimclog and Bothwell Bridge (1679), here pub-
lished a “ Declaration and Testimony of their
true principles. The town hall is the chief
Wilding, and beside the parish church stands
the ancient belfry, a ^uare tower with a spire
relieved by dormers, llie manufactures include
chemicals, paper, pottery, in addition to mills,
dye-works, factories, tube-works, and ship-
building, while collieries are situated in the
vicinity, and many of the inhabitants are em-
ployed in Glasgow. Pop. (1901), 18,280.

Slltllilly a town of Denbighshire, Wales, on
the Clwyd, 7 miles E.S.E. of Denbigh. It is
beautifully situated on lofty ground, sur-
rounded by still l%her points, commanding
fine views of the Vale of Clwyd. Tradition
dates the town to the time of Arthur, who is
asserted to have beheaded a rival prince on a
stone still preserved in the market-place.
More authentically, it is as old as the reign
of Edward I., who bestowed the castle on the
first Lord Grey de Ruthin. Owen Glendower
failed to take it in 1400, though he slew great
numbers of people in the attempt. After hold-
ing out for two months in 1646, it was sur-
rendered to the Roundheads, who almost com-
pletely dismantled it, only a few ivy-clad frag-
ments remaining. The old Gothic church of
St. Peter (restored in 1886), with a good modern
tower, or^inally belonged to the religious
society of Bonhommes, but in 1310 it was made
collegiate by John de Grey. The cloisters that
once led from the church to the canons* resi-
dences have been converted into a house for
the warden of Christ's Hospital, a charity
founded in 1690 by Gabriel Goodman (1529-
1601), Dean of Westminster, a native of the
town. He also founded (1696) the Free Grammar
School. His nephew, Godfrey Goodman (1583-
1656), a native, became Bishop of Gloucester in
1625. Other buildings comprise the town hall,
market hall,, and county hall. The manufac-
tures include chemicals and aerated waters,
but its importance commercially depends upon
^riculture. Its charter was derived from
Henry VH. Pop. (1901), 2,641.

Raid of. In 1682 James VI. of
Scotland, then 16 years old, was completely
under the influence of his favourites, the Duke
of Lennox and the Earl of Arran, much to the
vexation of the Kirk and the Lords of the
Congregation. Accordingly, William Ruthven,
the flrst Earl of Gowrie, Lord Lindsay of the
Byres, the Earl of Mar, and the Master of
Glamis devised a daring plan to kidn^ the
king. They invited him to Ruthven Castle,
2j miles north-west of Perth, on August 22nd,


ostensibly for a hunting-party. The unaus^-
pecting monarch at once went to the castle,
only to discover himself praiitiefHy a prisoner.
'^Better bairnS greet than beailed men,^* was
the expostulation of the Master of Glamis to
the v^eeping lad. It was nine months before
the king recovered his liberty. By simulating
contentment with his semi-oaptivity he lull^
the vigilance of his keepers and escaped from
Falkland Palace to St. Andrews. This auda-
cious plot came to be kuowu as the Raid of
Ruthven (pronounced jRivven). Though the
schemers were apparently pardoned, they were
branded as traitors, and Gowrie, becoming im-
plicated in an attempt to seize Stirling Castle,
was executed in 1684. Sixteen years later his
son was concerned in the affair of the Gowrie
Conspiracy, where^on James's detestation of
the very name of Ruthven grew so acute that
Parliament ordered the name to be extin-
guished, and the castle was thenceforward
called Huntingtower. It consists of two mas-
sive square towers, which were built at dif-
ferent times and, though now united by a lower
block of building, were originally fully nine
feet apart from each other. The space between
the towers from battlement to battlement, at
a height of sixty feet from the ground, is called
the ‘^Maiden's Leap," because the first Earl
of Gowrie's daughter, whose mother nearly sur-
prised her with ner lover, cleared the chasm at
a bound, eloping on the following morning.

RnthwelL a village of Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
9 miles E.S.E. of Dumfries, and about 1 mile
from the northern shore of the Solway Firth.
It is famous for its Cross, a sandstone Runic
monument, 17| feet high, from 8§ to 2J feet
broad, from f to If foot thick, and 3 feet across
the arms, which were restored in 1823 by the
Rev. Dr. Henry Duncan (1774-1846), who was
the first to establish savings banks in Scotland
(1810). On the front and back faces of the
cross are sculptured representations of the
Crucifixion, Annunciation, Christ healing the
blind, etc., while the sides are adorned with
carvings of vines and grotesque animals* the
margins containing Runic verses from Caed-
mon”s poem, The Dream of the Holy Rood. The
cross IS believed to have been set up in 680,
and was cast down and broken into several
pieces ih 1642. The fragments were collected
with pious care, in 1802, by Dr. Duncan, #ho
re-erected the monument in the manse garden.
For greater safety, and especially to minimise
the effects of weather, it was placed in a new
wing of the parish church in 1887.

Siitil6f a orystalUne form of titanium dioxide
(TiOj), a substance remarkable for being tri-
morphous, i.c., crystallising in three distinct
forms — namely, rutile, anatase, and brookite.
Of these forms rutile is the .commonest, and
exists as brown lustrous crystals (often black
by reflected and deep red by transmitted light)
of the Quadratic system possessing a specific
gravity of 4*2. They are occasionally cut fcr
Jewels. It frequently occurs in igneous rocks^



(M)






< 4 #.* ^anite, and also in hard Hmastones. The
yarie% known as sagonite, oonsiiting of noodle^
like orystals often penetratiim trani^rettt
quarts* is a^leo popularly styled "Tenns' hair
stone and •‘ Love's arrows/’

Xiitbllinlllrti or BurtAKi^ the smallest
oouttty in England* hounded on the N.W. and
W. by Leicestershire, on the S. and E* by
Northamptonshire, and on the N.E* by lin-
oolnshire. It covers an area of 152 square
miles* and, measures 17 miles from nortn to
south, and id miles from east to west. The
chief streams are the Welland* with its


the mansion of Burl^, close by* Sanies 1. paid
a State visit to the Duke of Buckingham* amt
Charles 1. was entertained. There is a well*
known public school mt Uppingham. The Duke
of Butland derives ma title from the county,
Pop. (1901), 19,708.

ABtlif or GndmbX* a meadow on the west shore
of the Lake of tJri* the southern arm of the
Lake of Lucerne* in the canton of Uri* Swit-
zerland* 7 miles N.W. of Altdorf. It is said
traditionally to have been the spot where
the patriots* Werner Stauilacher* Arnold of
Melchthal* and Walter Ftirst* along with thirty



BCWENZOai, OR Tas MaUKTAlK|. OF TH8 MOOS, CSMTRAL AFRICA.

{Fr(m th$ shetcK by Lieut, StairSf LUE.)


aifluents the Chater and Gwash^ and the Eye.
The soil is extremely fertile, yielding rich
crops of barley, wheat, oats* beans and peas,
turnips, mangolds, and clover. Many oxen
and sheep are raised and dairy»f arming
flourishes. Limestone is quarried in different
localities for use in lime-burning and as a
building stone. Malting and boo^makiag are
also carried on, but agriculture is the leading
industry. The Boman way of Ermine Street*
the great North road* ran through the county*
and Casterton was military station. After-
wards occupied by the Middle Angles* the dis-
trict in fhe 9th century formed part of the
Saxon kingdom of Mercia. Hcnrj tn. made it
a shire. Uakham is the county town and at


followers* met on November 7th, 1307* and
arranged the plan of campaign which even-
tuated in freedom from the Austrian yoke and
the independence of their country. Ine place,
with a timber-built guard-house in the old
Swiss style, belongs to the Confederation, and
a block of grani^, ten feet high, commemo-
rates the author and composer of the Song of
Biitli.

Jtuwansilrii or EtrnsOBO, a mountain range
of eastern Equatorial Africa, situated between
the Stator and N., and intersected by 800
E. The heights of its loftiest penks are
variously estimated at from 16*000 to 20*000
feet* and it presents the largest snoMOlds itt'



(17 )


BTtmidML




the continent. On the west its face is abrupt
and precipitous; on the east it falls away less
steeply to tJganda ; to the north it slopes down
to the western wall of Albert Nyanza, while
to the south it reaches Lake Albert Edward.
Bananas and grasses grow up to 6,000 feet ; the
limit of settlements occurs at 6,700 feet; de-
ciduous trees, bamboos, and heaths are found
up to 8,600 feet, and the snow-line is jplaced at
13,000 feet. Although first seen by Gessi and
Mason from Albert Txyanza, it was Sir Henry
Morton Stanley who (1888-9) announced the
character and extent of the range. Sir Fre-
derick Lugard crossed the northern and
eastern slopes in 1891, and Sir Harry H. John-
ston (1900) and others have ascended to the
snow and glaciers. It was, however, reserved
for the Dune of the Abruzzi to climb through
the snow to the double peaks- This he success-
fully accomplished in 1906, when he named the
peaKS Mar^erita and Alexandra, after the
Queens of Italy and the United Kingdom.

Rtiy^daely Jacob van, landscape-painter, of
whose life little is known, was born at Haar-
lem, in Holland, about 1630. He studied medi-



UkHDSOArX WITH VfAtKRFAtU
{By Buyddadf in the NcUional QoXUry, Lon -on.)


cine, but turned to art, and was a pupil of
Nicholas Berdbiem at Amsterdam. He, in turn,
was probably the master of Hobbema. His
pictures are mostly landscapes, and he excelled
in paintiug wooded scenes and waterfalls, the


drawing and composition were
194— K.B.


lainters.

[^mlrable.


and the force of his handling is quite mudetn.
He sometimes painted sea-scenes, and his work
in this claas is worthy of his reputation. He
is well represented in the Ndtiqpal Gallery, in
London. He died at Haarlem m 1689.

Bnyte]^ Michael Adbian be, admiral, was
born at Flushing. Holland, on March 24th,
1607, and entered the navy at an early age*
His gallantry and skill gained him a speedy
promotion, and he did not fail to take advan-
tage of his opportunities of distinguishing him-
self against tna British on the sea. He com-
manded with Van Tromp the fleet which, in
February, 1653, fought the great engagement
with Admiral Blake at the mouth of the
English Channel. He was afterwards em-
ployed in the Mediterranean, capturing
Turkish ships and putting down the A^erine
corsairs. In 1666 he repulsed Prince Eupert
and Monk, but was himself beaten a little later
by them. In the following year he sailed up
the Thaiues to Sheerness, where he destroy^
some men-of-war, and in 1672 took part in
the drawn battle against the united nects of
Great Britain and France in Southwold or
Sole Bay. In a battle with the French off
Messina he was wounded, and died at the port
of Syracuse of the effects on April 29th, 1670.
His body was buried with great pomp in the
New Church, Amsterdam.

Byan, Loch, an arm of the sea in the north-
west of Wigtownshire, Scotland. It runs iU-
land from the mouth of the Firth of Clyde, in
a direction almost due south, for a distance of
8^ miles. At the entrance it has a width of
If mile, but some two miles from the head is
nearly 3 miles wide. Save at the mouth the
shores are low, flat, and sandy. It affords
excellent anchorage and could accommodate m
fleet. White fish, and sometimoB herrings, are
caught, and the oyster-fishery, once prontabli#
but neglected, might well be restorea. At the
head of the loch is the town of Stranraer, frofttt
Which there is the short sea-passage mail ssr*
vice to Larne, in Ireland. The loch is
Rerigonius Sinus of Ptolemy, and figtdr^i*^
the beautiful old Scots ballad of “Fair Aim
of^Lochroyan.'^'

Byamn, a government of Enssiai bounded.od
the N. by Vladimir, on the E. and S. by TamBoff,
and on the W. by Tula and Mosooty. It
pies an area of 16,260 square miles, ^e
cipal river^ the Oka, au affluent of the Volga,
roughly divides it into two portions, the nor-
thern mainly marshy, the southern fertile. The
chief crops are wneat, rye, oats, potatoes,
tobacco, hops, vegetables and fruit, and live-
stock is raised on a very large scale, horses
being reared in great numbers. Be««keepiug
also flourishes in certain districts 4 hisnu-
factures include cottofl, flour* leather, boots*
matches, machinery, soap and chemicals, and
coal is mined to some extent. Pop* (estittiated),
1,830,000.





( 18 )


ca^tal of the preceding province,
EnaBia. oii the Tnibej, a tributary of the Oka,
110 milee S.K. of Momw. It is the seat of an
archbishop, and has some interesting ohdrches.
Other buildings include the museum, library,
and several charitable institutions. The chief
manufactures are machinery and candles, but
in conseouence of its situation on a navigable
river and the trunk line between Moscow and
South-Eastern Bussia, it is an important centre
for through-traffic. Old Byazan, 30 miles to
the south-east, the capital in the Middle Ages,
was i^eatsdly plundered by the Tatars, who
practically achieved its ruin in 1568. Pop. (esti-
mated), 48,000.

Xtybintk, a town and river-port of .the

f overnment of Yaroslavl, Bussia, on the Volga,
5 miles N.W. of Yaroslavl. It is the tran-
shipping point of cargoes from the Lower
Volga for St. Petersburg, and of cargoes from
the capital and Lake Ladoga for towns on the
Lower Volga, and it is therefore one of tho
most important trading centres in North-
Central Bussia. It has numerous breweries and
flour-mills, but the inhabitants mainly depend
upon the traffic of the port. Its normal popu-
lation of 26,000 is quadrupled during summer,
when navigation is at its height, by the
influx of labourers from various parts of the
empire.

Sydalp a village of Westmoreland, England,
mile N.W. of Ambleside, It is intimately
associated with the Lake school of poets,
William Wordsworth making his home at
Bydal Mount for thirty-six years, and dying
there in 1860, In the modern church of St.
Mary, in the Gothic style, is a memorial



dow to Dr. Arnold, of Bugby (who owned the
estate of Pox How, where ne spent his holi-
dayB)> and his wife and Matthew Arnold, tho
poet and critic, their eldest son. At Nab Scar
lived Hartley Coleridge, eldest son of the poet-
philosopher. A burn that wimples through a


By«. '

beautiful little glen near Bydal Hall forms tho
fine double cascade of Bydal Falls. Bydal
Water, one of the smallest but the prettiest of
the English lakes, is situated immediately to
the south-east of Grasmere. It is not quite one
mile long, and its shores are about two miles
in circumference. At its western extremity it
receives the Bothay from Grasmere and dis-
charges it again af the other end to Join in
time with the Brathay, the united stream fall-
ing into Windermere. In the laughs of the
pines which clothe an islet in the middle of the
lake is a heronry, and on thei north side of the
lake is Glen Bothay, near one end of which
stood tho Wishing Gate rendered famous by
Wordsworth. The original gate has disappeared,
but its modern representative has long been
scored, or disfigured, with the names and
initials of tourists.

Byde. a town on the north-eastern shore of the
Isle of Wight, England, 7 miles N.E. of New-
port. Being built on high ground, the streets
rising in terraces from the sea, it presents a
very elegant appearance and is a fashionable
watering-place and the headquarters of several
yachting clubs. Alongside of the long promen-
ade pier has been constructed a railway pier,
by means of which passengers step directly
from the trains to the steamers, which ply
constantly to Portsmouth, Southsea, Gosport,
and elsewhere. The church of All Saints is a
fine example, in Early English, of Sir G. Gilbert
Scott^a workmanship. Other building include
the town hall and market house in the Classic
style, with a square clock tower with open
turret, surrounded by Corinthian pillars and
surmounted with a cupola; Victoria Booms;
the Boyal Victoria Yacht Club-house ; the Tern*
perance Hall ; the Oddfellows* Hall* and numer-
ous convalescent homes and charitable institu-
tions. The town is almost wholly modem and
residential, and' is the usual point of contact
with the mainland. Pop. (1901), 11,042,

ytyer^u town and Cinque Port, Sussex, England^
on the Bother, 10 miles N.E. of Hastings. It is
a delightfully quaint and old-fashioned plaoe,
one of the most picturesque of ancient English
tovms. It is built over a small hill, crowned
with the parish church of St. Mary. Many of
the streets are paved with cobbles, and several
are still lined with houses of unique charm.
Mermaid Street particularly is rich in its out-
of-the-world variety of architecture, the Eye
Golf Club having acquired the famous Mermaid
Inn to secure it from decay. The wealth of
subjects has made the town a great favourite
with artists. A light railway connects it
with the harbour at the mouth of the Bother
and also communicates with the golf links, one
of the best courses in the south of England.
The industries comprise ship-building, chemical
works and brewing, and the mackerel and
herring fisheries are of considerable importance.
As the port for the valley of the Bother, Bye
does a large trade in grain, hops, coal» wool*



timber and oak-bark, and, by means of the
Hoyal Military Canal, has access to Romney
Marshes, St. Mary's, a handsome old church,
contains some fine Korman and Early ISnfflish
work. The clock is traditionally said to have
been rescued from a vessel of the Spanish
Armada, wrecked on the coast (now, owing* to
the retreat of the sea, some two miles distant).
Above the dial is a shield supported by two
gilt cherubs, or quarter boys," which strike



BYB GHUBOH.

(Photo: Cheater Vaughan.)


the quarters, and the huge massive pendulum
swings majestically in the tower, reminding the
onlooker of one of Edgar Allan Poe’s moet
thrilling tales. The Guildhall contains interest-
ing ol(f charters and other documents, somo
splendid specimens of maces, and the iron
gibbet in which the bodies of malefactors were
exposed on the adjoining marsh lands. The
Ypres Tower, occupying a commanding site
on the south front of the hill overlooking the
river, dates from the reign of Stephen, and is
still in good preservation. The North or Land
Gate, a substantial structure, in excellent con-
dition, marks the former limits of the town, be-
yond which New Rye has spread to elevated
ground on the northern side of the railway.
The partially-ruinous, half-sunk Castle of Cam-
ber, built by Henry VIII., stands between
Rye and Winchelsea. Pop. (1901), 3,900.

Rye (Semle cereah), a cereal grass, probably
native to South-Eastern Europe, the flour of
which forms the black bread which is the
staple food of most of Northern Europe. It
stands cold better than any other grain, thrives
in poor soils, and may be grown continuously
in the same ground for long periods. Though
less nourishing than wheat, it com^ next to
it in that respect. It enters largely into kvass,
the Buseian national drink, into gin in Hol-
land, and into whisky in the United States and
Canada. It is still cultivated to a small extent
in certain parts of the United Kingdom, but
mainly as green fodder, and its grain is also
imported for malting. In structure it nearly


approaches wheat, but difiere in having two
flowers and a stalked rudiment of a third in
each of its spikelets. It is peculiarly liable to
the attacks of the fungus ergot, which is known
in pharmacy as Secale cormtutrii or "horned
rye.

Ryo-Orajis {Zelium perenne and its variety,
L, itaiicum), one of the most valuable fodder-
grasses cultivated in Great Britain, either in
permanent pasture or as a rotation crop. Four
crops may oe obtained in the year, the first
being ready to cut in April, and in sewage-
farming the weights of hay which it yields
are very great. Its inflorescence consists of a
flat compound spike, the spikelets, which over-
lap, being placed edgeways along the radiis.
Each spikelet contains three or more flowers.

Rye House Plot^ The, was formed In 1683,
and had for its object the assassination of
Charles II. and James, Duke of York, on their
return from Newmarket races. Its object
was defeated, but its instigator, Colonel
Walcot, was executed, as were William, Lord
Russell and Algernon Sidney, who were accused
of being implicated in the movement of which
it was part. Lord Essex escaped the block by
suicide. The plot was named from the mansion
near Broxbourne, in Hertfordshire, where the
conspirators are alleged to have met.

Ryswick, Peace op, concluded in 1697 at the
town of Ryswick, two miles south-east of The
Hague, Holland, ended the war between Louis
XI V. and Great Britain, Holland, Spain, and
Germany. Louis acknowledged William III. as
King 01 Great Britain and Ireland, restored
what he had taken from Germany, with the
exception of Alsace and Strasburg, and gave up
to Spain his conquests in Catalonia and the
Netherlands.


S

S| the 19th letter in the English alphabet, and
the last but one iu the Phoenician, from wMch
it passed to the Greek. It has a sharp hissing
(siqilant) sound, which is sometimes represented
by or c, and a soft sound also, represented, by
z.. As the teeth and tongue are both empl^ed
in its production, it is massed sometimes as a
dental, sometimes as a lingual, and is Also
called a semi-vowel. In German it is genjeTally
soft at tJie beginning of a word, and hard at
the middle or end, the English use being, for
the most part, the reverse of this. Many Latin
words with initial s in passing into French
acquire the prefix e, as apatium, esjpace; and
the a is often dropped entirely, as xn atcOum,
Hat. Attic Greek preferred t to «, as., for in-
stance, thalatta for thalasaa^ etc., and in many
cases the iWing tk is substituted for a. Some
South Sea islanders are unable to pronounce «.

Sanlei or Feakkische Saale, a liter ot
Bavaria, Germany, rising in the Bohe Blidni



( 20 )


Sabtetli.


floiring in a tortuous course towards the south-
west t and falling into the Main at Oenmnden,
in liower Franconia^ Its total length is 70
miles.

or SXOHSISOHB SaAtiB, a river of
Germany, rising in the Fichtelgebirge, in
Bavaria. It pursues a winding, mainly
northerly course through Thuringia, Prussian
Saxony* and Anhalt, joining the Elbe a few
miles above Magdeburg. It nas a total length
of 230 mil^i^, is navigable to Halle, and canal-
ised to Kalimburg.

a town of Saxe-Meiningen, Germany,
on the l^t bank of the Saale, 23 miles S. of
Weimar. It is a brisk old towh, having grown
up under the protection of the Sorbenburg, a
castle built by Charlemagne to defend his ter-
ritories from the Slavs. The stronghold Was
destroyed in 1290, but its ruins are still im-
pressive. When the Duchy of Saxe-Saalfeld
was founded in 1680 by the youngest son of the
Duke of Gotha, Saalield became the capital,
but when the dukes obtained the succession to
the Duchy of Coburg (1735), they transferred
their residence to the town of Coburg. The
principal buildings are the old palace, the
13th-century church of St. John, and the town-
house. , The industries include iron-founding,
browing, and the making of machinery and
colours. Pop. (1900), 11,680.

Saarbriioken, or Sankt Johann-Saar-
nuOcKEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the
left bank of the Saar, about 40 miles E. by N.
of Metz. It communicates by bridge with
Sankt Johann on the right bank; of the river,
the two towns forming one community. The
principal buildings are the castle, the mining
academy, and the town hall, which is adorned
with fine frescoes by Anton von Werner.
There is a remarkable statue of Prince Bis-
marck. The manufactures include textiles,
machinery, chemicals, tobacco, leather, hard-
ware, ana tapestries, but the great industry is
ooah the dual-town standing in the heart of
a rich coal-field which gives employment to
many thousand miners. In the Franco-German
War the French seized Saarbriicken on August
2nd, 1870, but the German victory at Spicheren,
3 miles to the south, four days later, effected
its relief. Pop. (1900), 44,499, of which Saar-
brficken claimed 23,242.

SaJUrnmiilld, a town of Lorraine, Germany,
on the left bank of the Saar, at its confluence
with, the Blies, 10 miles S- by E. of Saarbriicken,
The manufactures inolude silk, velvet, pottery,
and snuff-boxes (mostly made of papier-m4ch4),
the last being a speciality of the district. Pop.
(1900), 14,680. ^

SMXllmis, a town of Rhenish Prussia. Ger-
many, on the left bank of the Saar, 31 miles 6.
by E, of Treves. The fortifications, planned by
Yaubau, the great military engineer, were com-
pleted in 168i. The mantilaotures include pot-
bety, glass, and leather, and there are coal


mines in the vicinity. Marshal Key was bem
a* Saarlouis in 1769. Pop. (1900), 7,864.

SabadeU, a town of the province of Cata-
lonia, Spain, 12 miles K.W. of Barcelona, The
princip^ buildings are the town hall, hospitals,
and schools. The manufactures include tex-
tiles, alcohol, paper, and flour, in addition to
iron-founding and saw mills. Pop. (estimated),
23,300.

8abadilla Seeds are the winged seeds of
Aeagrcaa o^cinaliSt the only species of a Mexi-
can genus of Colchicacese. It is a bulbous
plant, with long narrow leaves, an ebracteate
raceme of flowers, and a fruit of three many-
seeded follicles. The seeds were formerly used
to destroy vermin, but are now only used as a
source of the poisonous alkaloia veratria.
It IS principally obtained from
Venezuela, most of the shipments going to
Hamburg. There is one preparation of this
drug in the British Pharmacopoeia, an oint-
ment, which is sometimes employed to relieve
pain in rheumatism and neuralgia, but great
caution should be observed in its use.

8abliatai Zevi, or Schabtai Cewi, the false
Messiah, a Turkish Jew, said to be of Spanish
extraction, was born at Smyrna, Asia Minor, in
1625 or 1626. In youth he acquired a know-
ledge of theology and of Arabic, which enabled
him to pass for a learned and devout man.
He had such powers of persuasion that few
could resist him, and when, after an adven-
turous career in Syria, Italy, Greece, and else-
where, he joined with an accomplice to personate
the Messiah, great numbers fully believed in
him. His confederate, named Nathan, acted
as a kind of precursor, and the Jews readily
fell into the trap, multitudes renouncing their
goods and following him, frantic with joy at
the coming of the Messiah, as they deemed
him. Finally, however, Sabbatai was brought
before Mahomet IV„ Sultan of Turkey, who
forced him by various expedients to confess
his imposture, and he became a Mussulman to
save his life. Even yet he was not without a
considerable following, and the Grand Vizier,
to make the assurance of his conversion doubly
sure, sent him to solitary confinement at Dul-
cigno, in Albania, where he died in 1676. His
dupes, however, held together for some time,
being especially numerous in Adrianople and
Salonica.

8abbat]| (from a Hebrew word signifying** rest
from labour ”) denotes the seventh day which,
in the Mosaic Law, was set apart in commemo-
ration of the finishing of the work of Creation.
It was marked by* a totaLoessation from labour,
and had analogies with the seventh month and
the seventh (Sabbatical) year. Nehemiah did
much to revive its observance, and Rabbinical
tradition increased its obligations to an op-
pressive degree, the Samaritans being more
particular than the J^wg in respecliug its
minutisB. It was only gradually that Kris-
tians began to transfer some of the sabbatipal



'SiAwiUk


( 21 )


'ttttlxilMNii


obli^tions to their Sunday, and it was left for
fche rnritans to declare the Mosaic Law applic-
able to Christians in a still more strict sense
than to the J ews. A stringent Act of Charles II.
forbids Sunday trading and labour, works of
charity and mercy being excepted. This sta-
tute, being still unrepealed, is occasionally
enforced against small ^opkeepers, but it can-
not be said that public opinion has sustained
such proceedings, which have always seemed
to suggest a straining at the gnat while the
camel waa comfortably swallowed. The Sab-
batarians of the present day would forbid
almost all recreation and amusement upon Sun-
day; but many Christian Churches and an
increasing number of people in the United
Kingdom, while considering that cessation
from all but necessary toil is, if not of Divine
ordination, yet very desirable, would encourage
recreation and amusement. Yet it must not
be supposed that the effort to render Sunday
more human — the Sabbath being made for man,
not man for the Sabbath — ^has met with much
support from the churches. Alarmed at the
progress which had already been witnessed in
the direction of toleration, and probably also
remarking a decline in the habit of “ church-
oing,” a joint appeal was issued at New Year,
907, signed by the Archbishop of Canterbury,
the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westmin-
ster, and the Nonconformist President of the
National Council of the Evangelical Free
Churches, the purport of which was to dis-
courage Sunday relaxation and to return, ex
hypotheai, to the observance of a more strin-
gent curriculum.

Sabeans, a religious sect of Mesopotamia
about the Lower Euphrates and in the neigh-
bouring Persian valley of the Karun river.
They are so named by the Arabs from one of
their prophets, but call themselves Mendayaha
— i.c.. Disciples of John the Baptist, in allu-
sion to their practice of baptism or ablution.
Their religion is a mixture of Jewish, Moslem,
Christian, and even pagan rites, embodied in
the Sidra, a sacred book supposed to be handed
down through Seth and Enoch from Adam. It
is written in the Chaldean language, a Semitic
dialect related to Syriac, with a peculiar char-
acter of Phoenician origin, but with a complete
vowel system attached to the consonants, as
in Ethiopic. Formerly very numerous, especi-
ally in the Basra district, they were reduced to
a few thousands in Mes^otamia and some
scattered communities in Persia. T^eir head-
quarters are situated at Suk-esh-Shiok, in the
territory of the Montefik Arabs, 224 miles
south-west of Baghdad.

SaboUiftllisxaf a form of heresy in the early
Christian Church, held by the followers of
Sabelliua, who attempted a philosophical defini-
tion of the Trinity, and looked on the Son and
Holy Ghost, not m distinct persons but as
manifestationa of the Godhead. The heresy as
such disappeared in the 6th century, but Sabel-
lian tiewB in flubstance are held by many


people at the present 4ay» doctrine^ beihg
closely akin to Unitarianism. Babellius is now
little more than the shadow of a name, but m
cqujectured to have been ahlEgyptiaii (from
Libya) resident for a period in Rome, in the
3rd century, whence he v^as banished by
Callixtus, taking refuge in Cyrenaioa (probably
the modern Barca) in North Africa.

Sabinef Sm Edwabo, general and physicist^
was born in Dublin on October 14th, 1788, and
educated at Great Marlow and the Royal Mili-
tary Academy, Woolwich. Ho entered the Royal
Artillery in 1803, and for several years served
at Gibraltar and various home stations. The
only fighting in which he took part was the
siege of Fort Erie, Ontario, in 1814. The long
peace following the downfall of Napoleon was
favourable to the pursuit of the scientific
studies in which he gained his reputation.
Elected F.R.S. in 1818, he sailed in that year
with Sir John Ross's expedition in search of
the North-West Passage, in the capacity of
astronomer, repeating the voyage in 1819 in
the Hecla, under Sir Edward Parry. He next
carried out, in various parts of tne globe, a
series of experiments to determine the varia-
tion in different latitudes in the length of the
pendulum vibrating seconds in order to ascer-
tain the true figure of the earth. His account
of the pendulum experiments appeared in 1825
and was crowned by the Lalanae gold medal
of the Institut in 1826. Along with Sir John
Herschel and the French Commission he was
engaged in determining the exact difference
of longitude between the observatories of Paris
and Greenwich. By the use of rocket signals
this was found to be 9 minutes 21*6 seconds.
The present difference, ascertained by electrical
sign^, is 9' 21". In later years he conducted
experiments to determine the relative lengths of
the seconds pendulum in Paris, Loudon, Green-
wich and Altona, and determined also the abso-
lute length at Greenwich. He next turned his
attention to the magnetic survey of the British
Isles, and was instrumental in prevailing upon
Government to establish magnetic observa-
tories at various stations in berth hemispheres.
These began Work in 1840, and Sabine superin-
tended them during many years, In 1839 he
became general secretary to the British Associa-
tion, a post he held for twenty years, exciting
in 1852, when he was President. In the interval
he was being gradually promoted in the A|*my,
from which he retired in 1877 with the rank of
eneral. In 1855 Oxford made him D.C.L., and
ambridge LL.D. From 1861 to 1871 he was
President of the I^al Society, and in 1869 w’as
created K.C.B. He died, full of years and
honours, at Richmond, Surrey, on June 20th,
1883. His wife, Elizabeth Juliana Leaves (1897-
1879% was an accomplished woman, and trans-
lated Humboldt's Cosmos and The Aspects of
Nature. 2 i,nd Admiral von WrangeTs Narrative
of an Expedition to the Folar Sea,

Sabinegf an noient Italian people of the
Central Apennines, belonged to th®



mm.


( 22 )


Saoelifuio Jl.eid.


Buropean race, and extended from Umbria to
liucania and Apulia. The Sabinea^ in A more
particular eeiuie, were those in the norths
separated by the Tiber from Etruria, and from
Borne by the Anio. They were a pastoral race,
and, afto being subdued by Borne in 290 b.c„
received the Boman francnise. At an earlier
period the Bomans supplied themselves with
wives by abducting the Sabine women, who, aE
unconscious of their doom, were interested epec-
tators of l^e sports and pastimes which tney
had been lihvited to witness, when they were
suddenly seized by the soldiery and carried off.
This famous incident in Boman history was
known as the Bape of the Sabines. 'Hie
Sabines had a curious custom of protecting
themselves against over-population by declaring
a Sacred Spring (ver sacrum), i.e., forcing au
those bom in a certain year to emigrate and
found new colonies.

Sable (Mustela zihellina\ a fur-bearing animal
of the family Mustelid®, or Weasel group,
widely distriouted throughout the forest re-
gions of Siberia. It is threatened with extinc-
tion in Bussia-in-Europe, although in certain
districts in the Middle Ages it was so plentiful
that the skin was used as a medium of exchange
instead of money. The sable is about two feet
long, more stoutly built and with a more bushy
tail than the Pine Marten, of which it is prob-
ably a variety. The fur is lustrous brown, with
a yellowish patch on the throat. It is of great
commercial value, a skin of the first quality
being worth more than J620, The skins have
always been highly appreciated for the pur-
poses of dress. Marco Polo found sable es-
teemed as the '‘queen of furs*' among the
Tatars, and the tent of the Grand Khan was



SABLE.


lined with them for warmth. A statute of
Queen Mary forbade the wearing of sable by
anyone below the rank of an earl, while gowns
iurred with sable were so valuable as to be
expressly mentioned as legacies. Topsell (1668)
asserted that a garment of such skins was much
dearer than cloth of gold. The North American
Sable (ilf, amcricana) appears to be hardly


distinguishable. More than 100,000 skins have
been imported into Great Britain by the Hud-
son Bay Company in a single year. It is, how-
ever, growing scarcer, though its capture was
once the staple occupation of the American
trapper. According to £)r. Elliott Coues, the
trap was a small enclosure of stakes or brush,
in which the bait was placed upon a trigger,
which, when disturbed, released a log of w<^||^
the animal being compelled to ^approach flS I
bait only in the desired direction. The log fell
upon the animal and crushed it without doing
much if any damage to the skin, a point <3
great consequence commercially. A line of
traps, several to the mile, was often dreesed
for many miles, the bait being any kind M
fiesh or a bird’s head. The greatest nuisan^
the trapper encountered was the persistent and
apparently deliberately malicious destruction
of the traps by the wolverene (glutton) or
pekan (Pennant’s marten). Dr. Coues had
accounts from Hudson Bay trappers of a sable-
road fifty miles long and containing 150 traps,
every one of which was destroyed throughout
the whole line twice, once by a wolf and once
by a wolverene. ^

Sables d’Olonne, Les, a seaport of the
department of La Vendee, France, on the Bay ‘
of Biscay, 38 miles N.W. of La Rochelle. The
fisheries, especially of sardines and oysters, are
the leading industry, and the magnificent
sandy beach attracts crowds of visitors in
summer. The port was founded 'by Basque
sailors, and was the first place in Poi^h
attacked by the Normans in 817. Buringg|l|||^
wars of the Huguenot period it was frequfl^i^
captured by both parties, and in 1696 sustained
a bombardment by the combined fleets of Eng-
land and Holland. It has produced a race of
hardy sailors. Pop. (1901), 12,000.

Sabot, a shoe carved out of a single piece of
wood, and much employed by the country ^
people in France, Germany, and Belgium,
many parts of these countries being noted for
their manufacture. Another form of sabot
consists of a wooden iron-bound sole, with sides
of strong leather. This “ clog ” is in general
use in the Lancashire manufacturing towns,
where it was introduced from abroad. The
name is also employed metaphorically in some
trades.

Saoebario Acid possesses the composition
CftHjpOg, being isomeric with three other
allied acids — namely, mucic, iso- and
manno-saccharic acids. It is obtained by
the oxidation of suj?ar, usually by means
of nitric acid. It forms a gummy, amor-
phous, soluble mass with a sour tasted
which blackens and decomposes if heated. As
ordinarEy prepared, it acts on polarised light,
being laevo-rotatory, though dextro- and in-
active compounds "can also be prepared. It
forms well-defined crystalline salts, those of the
alkalies being soluble in water.


ll<M><>h»riin»twf.


( 23 )


SMlW.


ttoeeliariiiistier and Saocliwometer, in-

atnunents used for determining tKe amount of
sugar present in any solution euch as beer,
wort, ©to. They may be of two forms. One
m^UTOS the density of the solution, and to
this kind the second name is usually applied ;
while the other measures the rotatory effect

P laced by the sugar upon polarised light.
9 is often known as a polariscope or polari-
er, and is described under that title. The
simplest form of saccharometer consists of a
hydrometer with a graduated stem projecting
above the liquid. The mark which stands at
the level of the liquid is read off, and the
corresponding amount of sugar present is found
by referring to the table devised for the appara-
This can only be used when no other sub*
stances affecting the density are present.

Saocharui. A number of derivatives obtained
from suga^ and other carbohydrates are known
as saccharins, but the substance most commonly
known under this name is an exceedingly sweet
compound belonging to the aromatic series.
This saccharin consists chemically of the imide
of sulpho-benzoic acid, and has the composition

re^eseuted by the formula NH. It

forms needle-like crystals, slightly soluble in
, cold water, more easily in hot. It has about
'200 times the sweetening power of cane-sugar,
and is more or less useful medicinally instead
of sugar in the case of patients suffering from
diabetes.

||[y||[iiClieirar6ll| Henby, Anglican clergyman,
JHB^rn in Marlborough, Wiltshire, England,
about 1674, and was educated at Magdalen
^ College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow
in 1701. He held the living of Cannock, in
Staffordshire, and, in 1705, became chaplain of
St. Saviour’s, Southwark. He graduated D.D.
in 1708. Before this he had grown notorious
for his violent Tory and High Church views,
enunciated both in the pulpit and through the
press. One of his sermons (1702) elicited, by
way of reply, Daniel Defoe’s Shortest Way with
Dissenters, On August 16th, 1709, he preached
the Assize Sermon at Derby on the “communi-
cation of sin,” and on November 6th he
preached before the Lord Mayor, at St. Paul’s,
on " the perils of false brethren in Church and
State.” ^oth sermons were regarded as a con-
# tumaciouk indictment of the Eevolution Settle-
ment and, as such, were brought under the
notice of the House of Commons (December
13th, 1709), which unwisely ordered Sa^everell
to be impeached. He was a vain, foolish man,
and indifferent scholar, who should have been
treated with contempt. The Tories made great
capital out of the impeachment, and the parson
became the idol of the hour. He was tried in
Westminster Hall* and (March 20th, 1710)
found guilty, and suspenaed from preaching
for three years, the two offending sermons to
be burned by the common hangman. This was
popularly regarded its a virtual triumph for him.


Sachevereli was presented, in the same year* id
the living of Selattyn, in Shn^hire, and aftar
his punishment had expired Queen Anne pre-
sented him to St. Andrew's, Klborn. He aied
in the Grove, Highgate> on June 6th, 1724.

Sachs, Hans, the best of the German meister-
singers, was born at Nuremberg, of humble



STATUE OV HANS SACHS, HUBBMBEEO.


family, on November 6th, 1494. He became a
shoem^er, and remained one all his life. From
one Nunnebeck, a weaver, he learned the art
of rhyming, and joined the guild of singers in
his native town. Sometimes he traveled a
little, but it was in 1511 that he made a really
extended tour to the principal towns of Ger-
many. In 1619 he married, and, when hnsf wife
died in 1560, he married a second time. He
died in Nuremberg on January 19th, 1676, He
was a staunch follower of Luther, and ardently
desired the Beformation, for which he wrote
numerous songs and hymns of great popularity.
His writings are amazingly voluminous, there
being over 6,200 poems by him, including over
200 tragedies, known to scholars. Only a por-
tion of this vast material has been printed,
Goethe did much to revive interest in the man
and his works. The poetry of Sachs and th«
other artisan-poets is more remarkable for
vigour than for beauty. The house which h©
occupied in Nuremberg still exists, though re-
paired so often that probably not much of th©
original dwelling remaixis.



( 24 )




SmIc (from viTio meoX a namo formerly applied
to dry wiaea, especially those from and

tli« Canariee, and atill later to all strong
white wines. We read of “sherry-sack*' and
^^canary-sack." These wines were generally
sweetened and fiavoured to taste> and sometimes
warmed;

Sachbtttr ^ mnsical instrument of the trumpet
family, probably a predecessor of the trom-
bone. There were three kinds — tenor, bass,
and doubk-bass. It was known, in all likeli-
hood, to the Bomans, a specimen having been
found at Herculaneum and presented to Queen
Victoria. The word translated “saokbut” in
the Bibk, however, indicates a totally different
type of instrument, a stringed instrument of
the harp or possibly guitar type. It was
known as the sabeca, which was allied to the
Greek sambuca, triangular in shape, with four
strings, which Was doubtless a species of lyre.

SacdETTillBi Oharles, 6th Barl of Dorset
and Eabl of Middlesex, poet and courtier, was
born on January 24th, 1638, and was educated
privately, In 1660 he was elected member for
East GrittStead, but preferred a life of pleasure
to the grind of politics. Of prepossessing ap-
pearance and manners, he entered with zest
upon the dissolute career of a man about town,
et he was capable of better things. In 1665
e volunteered for the fleet against the Dutch
and took part in the great naval battle of the
3rd ^f June. It was whilst engaged in this ex-
ploit that he wrote the gay-spirited song that
still keeps his name green — “ To all you
ladies now at land." Afterwards he relapsed to
wilder ways, taking Nell Gwynne under his
roiection before she passed to the keeping of
is Majesty Charles H. Weary of his follies
he turned to the honourable course of befriend-
ing men of letters, amongst them John Dryden,
Samuel Butler, and William Wycherley. He
was frequently consulted, too, as an arbiter of
taste not only in literature, but in art. In
1675 he was created Earl of Middlesex. Dur-
ing the reign of James II. he retired from
Court, sympathising with the Seven Bishops
and acquiescing in the invitation to William
of Orange. Thbugh ho bore no part in public
affairs under William, he received the Garter
in 1691 and was thrice one of the regents dur-
ing the king's absence on the Continent. He
died at Bath on January 29th; 1706. Horace
Walpole described him as the finest gentleman
of (iarles’s voluptuous Court.

Saolndlle, George, 1st Viscount Sackville,
soldier and statesman, third son of the 1st
Duke of Dorset, was born on January 26th,
1716, and educated at Westminster School and
Trinity College, Dublin, whilst his father was
Viceroy of Ireland. He entered the army in
1737, and fought bravely at Dettingen (1743)
and Ebntenoy (1745V and in 1758 Was made
lieutenant-general. During the few following
years active service in the army was not re-
quired, and Sackville became Secretary


of War from 1751 to 1756, and sat in the Hense
of Commons for the borough of Portarlington,
retaining his seat for Dover, to which he had
been elected in 1741, at Westminster as well.
In 1758 he was engaged in the childish descent
on the coast of Brittany. The 3rd Duke of
Marlborough having died in the same year at
Miineter, Sackville succeeded him as comman-
der-in-ohief of the British forces^ Unfort^-*
ately he soon got on bad terms with Ij#d
Granby, his second in command, and with
Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who ap-
parently held supreme command. This un-
happy spirit led to some misunderstanding at
the battle of Minden (August 1st, 1759), the
British cavalry, acting under Sackville's
orders, being deprived of their share in the
triumph of the day. Eecriminations ensued
and on September 10th he was dismissed the
service. His demand for trial by court-martial
was at last complied with (March 25th, 1760),
and he was found guilty of disobeying Prince
Ferdinand. Ho was adjudged unfit to serve
the king in any milita^ capacity whatever,
and George II., in confirming the sentence,
directed it to be given out in public orders in
Great Britain ancf throughout the world where-
ever British troops happened to be employed,
and also himself struck Sackville 's name off the
Privy Council. In 1761 he was returned for
Dover, East Grinstead and Hythe, and chose
to represent the last-named. A feeling mean-
while was growing that he had been treated
with exceptional harshness, a sentiment shared
by the new King, George III. He was restored
to the Privy Council (1763) and in 1770 ob-
tained statutory power to assume the name ef
Germain in terms of the will of Lady Betty
Germain. He now took an active part in
politics in support of Lord North, who (1775)
made him Secretary for the Colonies. On
February 11th, 1782, ho was created Viscount
Sackville, and died at his place, Stoneland
Lodge, Sussex, on August 26th, 1785. He was
credit^ with the authorship of the LetitrB of
JuniuSt but this view has never gained general
acceptance.

Saokirillei Thomas, 1st Earl op Dorset and
Lord Buckhurst, poet and statesman, was burn
about 1536 at Buckhurst, Sussex, England, and
educated at Sullington Grammar School, Hart
Hall (Hertford College), Oxford, and St. John's
College, Cambridge. He was called to the
bar, but devoted his early manhood to litera-
ture. In 1559 was published the first volume
and in 1563 the secozid of A Myrrovre for
Magistrates i a poem in seven-line stanzas, by
Bichard Baldwin and George Ferrers, to whicn
Sackville contributed the noble “Induction,"
or preface, besides drawing up the plan of the
work. He also furnished the last two of the
five acts composing The Tragedy of Gorhoduc

n , interesting as the first English tragedy
ank verse. Politics attracted him ulti-
mately more powerfully than letters, and he
sat in the House of Commons in 1558 as


Saomaeiit.


( 26 )


UmcmA dr


taember for Westmoreland. Next year he repre-
sented Eaat Grinstead, and in 1563 Aylesbury.
Elisabeth 'vras hk second cousin and showed
much likin|^ for him. He was created Iiord
Buckhurst in 1667, occasionally participated in
the negotiations for the Queen's marriage, and
frequently presided at State trials. It was hk
unhappy lot (December, 168^ to acquaint
Queen Mary at Fothoringhay Castle with her
sentence of death. In 1589 he was made
Knight of tho Garter, and in 1598 succeeded
Kord Burghley in the office of Lord Treasurer.
James I. continued the royal regard for him,
and in 1004 he was created Earl of Dorset. He
died suddenly at Whitehall on April 19th,
1^8. Among the honourable poets he filled
was that of Chancellor of Oxford University,
to which he was elected on December 17th,
1591. His rival was Eobert Devereux, Earl of
Essex, but Elizabeth cast all her influence on
Sackville's side. In 1566 the Queen had
granted him the reversion of the manor of Knole
at Sevenoaks, Kent, and in 1603 he came into
full and eole possession of the property.


Sacramentf a name originally signifying
either the Roman military oath or the money
deposited, before the hearing of the case, by
parties to a lawsuit and forfeited to so-called
sacred purposes by the unsuccessful litigant.
It is used in the Vulgate as equivalent to the
Greek mysterion, hence its adoption as the
name of a symbolical religious ceremony. The
Church defines a sacrament as an “outward
visible sign of an inward spiritual grace” im-
parted. The Greek and Roman Churches have
sev^u sacraments — Baptism, Confirmation, the
Eucharist, Penance, Orders, Marriage, and
Extreme Unction. Of these the English
Church holds only the first and third to be
sacraments in the full sense.


SaoTftilLOntariaxi, U word repeatedly found in
ecclesiastical literature and having two well-
defined meanings. In the first place, it may
signify a person entertaining advanced views
of the efficacy of the sacraments and particu-
larly that of the Lord’s Supper. In this sense
the term is almost confined to Anglican writ-
ings, chiefly of a polemical or at least contro-
versial character. It may, in the second place,
bo employed more broadly to denote those
early Prototants who differed from Martin
Luther in consequence of hk dogmatic
ances on the subject of the Real
great Reformer did not, indeed, hold
Roman Catholic doctrine of Transubst^tia-
tion, but taught that the body and bl^ of
Jesus are present, in a manner that could not
be explained, in the unchanged bread and wine.
Prom thk doctrine, known as Consubstantia-
tion, Ulxic Zwingli, the Swiss Ref or^r,
emphatically dissented, contending tbat
the Communion is purely a eommemorative
rite, the bread and wine “merely symbols.
John Calvin held that though
and blood of Christ were not physically


present, yet in the Act Of partaking of
the cup and eating the bread the receiver k
brought by faith into intikifee union with the
Saviour tlirough the influence of the Holy
Spirit. Many of the Beformers, such as Martin
Bucer, Wollgang Capito, and Andrea® Carl-
stadt, unable to see eye to eye with Luther,
presented to the Diet of Augsburg (1630) a
Confession representing their qelief, and of
them more especially the epithet “sacramen^
tarian” is used.

SaoramoiitOi the largest river of California,
United States. It rises near the Oregon
border, its chief head water, Pitt River, being
an effluent from Goose Lake. It flows west-
wards through the Sierra Nevada, and bends
southwards below the town of Shasta, ulti-
mately falling into Siueun Bay, after a course
of 500 miles. It is navigable by small
steamers to Red Bluff, a distance of nearly 300
miles, but larger vessels cannot ascend beyond
the town of Sacramento.

SaoramoiitOf the capital of California, United
States, on the left bank of the Sacramento, 90
miles N.E. of San Francisco. The ^atreets,
which are broad, with trees on each side, are
arranged on a rectangular plan, and there arc
many hafldsome private dwellings with large
gardens. It has a mild, healthy climate* with
a mean yearly temperature of 60®F. The prin-
cipal buildings are the State Capitol, a magni-
ficent structure standing in a perk of 50 acres,
the city hall, Roman Catholic Cathedral,
Masonic Temple, the Crocker Art Gallery,
Christian Brothers’ College, and St. Joseph’s
Academy. ITio works of the Southern Paciflo
Railway aro situated here, and the industries
include* slaughtering and meat-packing, ore-
smelting, brewing, distilling, flour-milling,
lumbering, saddlery, and the making of furni-
ture and Duilder’s sashes and doors. The town
was settled in 1839, but it was not till the
great rush following the discovery of gold in
1848 that it made headway. Pop. (1900),
29,292.

Sacred Heart of Jeans, The Feast of, a
festival of the Roman Catholic Church. In the
convent of the Visitation at Paray-le-^&fenml,
a town in the department of Saone-ct-Loire,
France, a nun named Marguerite Mari*
Alacaque (1647-90) was honoured with frequent
ecstatic visions of the Saviour— in one of which
Ho had taken out her heart, placed it in His
own flaming one, and then returned it to her—
and pilgrimages gradually grew customary and
confraternities of the, Sacred Heart were
established. The festival received f^tma)
sanction in 1766 from Pope Clement XIII.,
but was at first limited to Franco. In 1866
the universal church was permitted to partici-
pate, and eight years later the foundress-nun
beatified. Ihe magnificent dburch which
crowns the heights of Montmartre, in Park, is
the grandest edifice yet dedicated to the Sacro
Coeur. It was opened in 1891, hating takpu


iditeeii years to build, and cost jei,000«0CX)
sterling. ■■



OBOBGB or TBS 8A0BXD HEART, VONTHARTRK
{Plioto : L. L,, Palis.)


Saorifioet the act of making an offering, or the
thing offered, to a deity. Sacrifice of some
kind finds a place in nearly all religions. E. B.
Tylor supplies us with a clue to the origin
of the rite. “As prayer is a request made to a
dei^ as if he were* a man, eo sacrifice is a gift
made to a deity as if he were a man“
{Primitive C%Uurt ii. 876). What is generally
called the “sacramental meal” theory of the
origin of sacrifice does not appear to rest on
solid ground, though in many oases the rite
whioh began as a simple offering from a mortal
to a deity developed into a sacramental meal,
of which both mortal and deity partook. At
first he who provided the offering was his own
priest. Latjpr there was developed a priestly
caste standing between their f^lqws and the
deity, apd to them the duty of offering
.sacrifice %as confined. Sacrifices were of two
kinds— bloody, when the victim was killed, and
unbloody, when the offering oonsasted of fruit,
flowers, cakes, wines, etc. ^Idr suggests that
sacrifice has passed through three stages:— <1)
It is offered as a simple gift ; (2) it is offered as


an act of homage or propitiation ; (3) something
valuable to, or greatly prized by, the sacrifioer
is offered. As food was the most valuable
thing known to primitive man, and ae the
gods of his making were like unto himselfi his

f ifts to them probably took the form of food,
n course of time, when the gods were con-
ceived as without bodily wants, sacrifices were
offered by fire, and the deities were supposed
to be pleased with, and placated^ by, the smell
of the burning flesh. Of Noah's burnt-offer-
ing we read that the “Lord smelled a sweet
savour," and the statement may be paralleled
in the classic poets {cf. Iliad i. 317; Ovid,
MetamorphoatB xii. 154). It seems prol^ble
that at this stage the sacramental meal mme
in, for in the Jewish Scriptures we find minute
details as to the parts to be eaten by the
priests (who represented the people). The last
stage found its highest expression in human
sacrifice, in which the victim was sometimes
^If-dedicatcd, as when Marcus Curtius leaped
into the gulf, and so gave to the g^s “the
most precious treasure of Borne.’ ’ Many in-
stances of, and references to, human sacrifice
occur in the Jewish Scriptures; in one place
at least with the direct idea of atonement —
“Shall I give my first-born for my transgres-
sion, the fruit of my body for the sin of my
soul?” (Micah, vi. 7).

Sacrum, the

bone formed by the
union of the five
sacral vertebrso at
the base of the
vertebral column,
or backbone, and
articulating on
each side with the
two hi p-b ones
forming the pos-
terior part of the
pelvis.

Sacy, Antoine
Isaac, BARON Syl-
VBSTRB DB, Orientalist, was born at Paris in 1768,
and was induced by a learned Benedictine, named
Berthmau, to study the Eastern tongues. His
proficiency was such that in 1785 he was made
^ociate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and,
in 1793, published his Mimoiru sur les anti»
quitU de la Perse. Two years later he was
appointed to the chair of Arabic founded by
the Convention. In 1806 he became Professor
of Persian at the College of France, and in
1808 entered the Chamber as representative of
the Seine. In 1810 his Grammaire Arahe ap-
peared, and in 1814 — in which year also he was
promoted Baron — his ChrestomaihAe Ardbe was
published. He was made Bector of the Uni-
versity of Paris in 1815, in 1823 Principal of
the College of France, and next year
Principal of the Oriental School. He was
created a peer by Louis Philippe (1832) and
keeper of the royal collection of Oriental
manuBoripts. St died in Paris in 1^38. He




SadduoMs.


(27)




waa the father of modern Oriental studies, and
amonff others of his 'works were numerous
translations from the Arabic and the Expoai
dt la rUigion des Druses (1838).

Saddncees. a sect existing among the Jews in
the time of Christ, The name has been vari-
ously derived from a word signifying the
righteous"; or from one Zadok, head of the
Sanhedrin in the 3rd century b.c. ; or from
one Zadok the priest, who crowned Solomon,
and whose descendants and adherents may
have enjoyed espBcial privileges and adopted
special tenets. Ihe third suggested derivation
is regarded as the most likely, and the first
is now generally given up. From the New
Testament we learn that they disputed the
Pharisaic traditions, did not l^lieve in a re-
surrection, and in some degree, as to which
there is much dispute, did not believe in angels
or spirits. Though they were the priestly
aristocracy, while the Pharisees were drawn
mostly from the common people, the opposition
between the two was rooted not so much in
class prejudices and hostility as in tempera-
ment and character. Tlie Pharisees were
deeply religious according to their lights,
while the Sadducees were indifferentists in re-
ligious affairs, believed in man’s free will, were
intensely interested in the State as a State,
and lived in a present of comfort and
splendour, without much care for the morrow
and none at all for a future in which they had
no faith. Though it was not till near the
close of His career that Jesus came into con-
flict with them, they sided against Him with-
out demur, and probably formed the majority
of the Sanhedrin that tried and condemned
Him. With the destruction of Jerusalem they
disappeared from history. Josephus, the only
non-Scriptural authority on them, was a
Pharisee.

Sadi, or Saadi, Sheikh Muslih Uddin, poet,
was bom at Shiraz, in Persia, about 1184. He
was a student at Baghdad, and was initiated
into theological learning by a zealot of note,
named Sophi abd al Kadir Ghilani, with whom
he went to Mecca. This was the first of a
aeries of fifteen pilgrimages to the holy place
undertaken by Sadi, who several times aided
the war against the infidels, and extended his
wanderings into Asia Minor and India. He
was taken prisoner by the Turks on one ex-
pedition, and was condemned to work as a
slave at the fortifications of Tripoli. A rich
merchant of Aleppo ransomed him, and gave
him his daughter in marriage. Sadi spent the
remainder of his life in a hermitage, which he
had built near Shiraz, where he died in 1293,
^t the patriarohal age of 108 years. His tomb
was visite^^ as a holy place for generations. His
poems are very beautiful, and have been often
translated. Most remarkable of his works is
the Oulistan (or ‘‘Bose Garden”), a collection
of tales in prose interlarded with poems, dis-
tinguished by elegance, simplicity and wit.


8adol0tci> Jacopo, Cardinal, was bom at
Modena, Italy, in 1477, e^pcatid at Ferrara,
and began to write l^atin i^try at a youthful
age. He became famous for his proficiency in
verse, and was accounted one of the best Latin
poets of his day. Leo X. made him one of his
secretaries, afterwards giving him the see of
Carpentras. Sadoleto was also- a philoeoi^ical
student and very learned. Paul HI. created
him a cardinal (153^, and gave him some im-
portant missions. He was entrusted in 1538
with the task of endeavouring to win John
Calvin and his followers back to the fold after
their banishment from Geneva, and he corre-
sponded with Galvin on the subject. He died
at Borne in 1547,

Safe, a fire-proof room or box used for the safe
keeping of valuables. It may be either fixed
or portable, the name being more generally
applied to the latter, and having a wide range
of application from the household meat-sare
to the highly-elaborated bank-safe, which is
constructed of the strongest and least perish-
able materials, and eo contrived as to preserve
its contents safe from fire, craft, or violence.
Burglar-proof safes are marvels of strength
and ingenuity, as are also the various com-
bination and time locks which make it almost
impossible to obtain entrance without the
proper key and a knowledge of its manipula-
tion. In London, New York and other great
commercial centres fire-proOf buildings are
erected where safes may be deposited for
greater security than can usually be obtained
in most houses. In some of these institutions
the number eo kept amounts to many
thousands. None can be opened unless the
renter and custodian are present together.

Safed, or Safat, a town of Palestine, 7 miles
N.W. of Capernaum, on the Lake of Tiberias.
It is the meet elevated place in Galilee, lying
at a height of 2,750 feet above the sea. By
the Jews the town is regarded as holy, because,
according to their tradition, the Messiah will
come from it. The Castle, built by the Cru-
saders, which Saladin hud great difficulty in
reducing, was demolished in 1220 by the Sultan
of Damascus. It was restored by the Templars
but is now ruinous. Safed has suffered teradbly
from earthquakes, in that of January Ist, 1837,
more than half of the population perisihing
(6,000 out of 9,000). The Jewish colony,
settled here in the 16th century, was soon fol-
lowed by the foundation of a learned rabbinical
school, which supported many synagogues and
a printing office. Weaving and dyeing are
carried on. Pop. (estimated), 25,000, of whom
about one-half are Jews.

Saftty-ljanip. It was discovered by Sir
Humphry Davy, in 1816, that fiame will not
in ordinary circumstances pass through fine-
meshed wire gauze, the contact with the xmUf.
cooling down the particles of gas to <^uch aH
extent that they are incapable of inflaming the
gas on the other side of the partition. It Is



( 28 )




«8Betitial tbat a safety-lamp to be used in
mines liable to contain nredamp oar-

bnretted bydfogen) should be incapable of
igniting an explosiire •atmosphei’e, and Ibis end
was attained by Davy by enclosinj^ the flame
of the lamp in a chimney made of and closed
at the top with wire gapze. The oil-holder
of such a lamp is made of brass, and care is
taken so to secure the gause to the body that
no opening larger than the meshes exists.
When such a lamp is taken into an inflam-
mable atthosphere, the gas is ignited inside the
lamp, which may thus be filled with flame, but
an explosion is avoided. The presence of
burning gas in the lamp thus serves to warn
miners that the atmosphere has become danger-
ous. Dr. W. B. Clanny, a physician of Sun-
derland, in 1812, and George Stephenson, the
illnstrious engineer, working independently of
each other, and of Davy, also invented safety-
lamps. The actual priority would seem to be-
long to Clahny, although nis lamp was wholly
different from the others and did not oome
into general use. Davy's invention found most
favour. In recent years many attempts have
been made to make electric safety-lamps, as
then it is easy so to arrange matters that there
is no chance ef igniting explosive gas, and at
the same time tne light is much increased.
Secondary or primary batteries have been used,
but the weight and cost of the arrangement are
greater than that of tho Davy lamp, and,
possibly from these causes, their use has up to
the present time been limited.

Safbty-Valwe, an appliance used to indicate
and relieve excessive pressure in steam-boilers
or other vessels containing fluids under pres-
sure. It usually consists of a conical plug fit-
ting into an aperture or seat, and held in place
by a lever and weight. As soon as the pres-
sure exceeds a limit which is determined by
the area of the valve, the length of the lever,
and the mass of the weight, the plug is lifted,
producing an escape of the steam or fluid, and
reducing the pressure. In some cases a spring
is used instead of a weight, and in others a
weight is placed directly upon the plug without
the intervention of a lever.

SftfflL % port of Morocco, Africa, on the Atlantic
coast, fOO miles N.W. of the city of Morocco
and 300 miles S.W, of Fez. Its importance as
a trading centre has been affected by the rise
of Mogaaor, but still much wool and grain are
exported from it. The want of a good harbour,
however, jeopardises its prosperity. Pop. (esti-
mated), 15,000.

SaAownrf the flower-heads of Carthamvs
timtorius, the "koosumbha" of India and
“Hoangt^i'’ of China, also sometimes
designated “bastard saffron.” Its native
country is unknown, but it was formerly
largely cultivated in Bengal, China, Egypt,
and Southern Europe. It has an erect whitish
stem over two feet -high, spinous leaves, no
pappus, and orange corollas. It yields two




colouring matters, yellow and red, and is used
fon dyeing silk varions shades of red, and as
an adulterant of saffron. “Pink saucers ” are
coloured with safflower, and with steatite it
constitutes rouge. Its seeds yield koosum oil,
which is used in India in caking and for
burning, and in Europe for soapmaking. The
flower-heads are imported in small flat circular
cakes into the countries employing them as
a dyestuff ; but in consequence qf the increased
use of aniline dyes, the once considerable ex-
port from India has dwindled to insignificant
proportions.

Safflkosi; the dried orange-coloured stigmas of
Crocus sativus, a species unknown in a wild
state, but cultivated in the neighbourhood of
Saffron Walden, Essex, till 1768, in Cambridge-
shire to a slight extent till the present day,
and also in Spain and in the French depart-
ment of Loiret. Not yielding a permanent
dye, it is now little used as a dye, but is em-
ployed as a colouring agent in pharmacy and
to some extent in confectionery. The Cornish
Saffron cake is famous. One grain contains
the stigmas of nine flowers — i.e., 4,320 go to
the ounce. It has a bitter taste and an
aromatic odour, and in large quantities is nar-
cotic. It yields three-fourths of its weight of
an orange-red extract, still extensively used on
the Continent and in India. The beet quality
comes from Valencia, that from Alicante and
Barcelona being loaded with heavy mineral
matter. When formerly it was in higher re-
pute for wholesomeness, it took the place in
stewing pears now occupied by cochineal. {See
Shakespeare’s Winter* s Tale» act iv. scene 1.)
The so-called autumn crocus or meadow saffian
is a colchicum and has nothing to do with
this plant or substance. The name “saffron "
is of Arabic origin. So small a portion of the
plant being available, temptations to adulter-
ate it have been irresistible, safflower being the
favourite substitute.

Saffron Walden (*‘ Saffron Woods” ), a town
of Essex, England, 14 miles S.E. of Cambridge.
The church of St. Mary the Virgin, mostly
dating from the reign of Henry VE., is a re-
markably fine example of Late Perpendicsttlar.
In the south chancel aisle is the marble tomb
of Henry VII.'s Lord Chancellor, Thomas,
Lord Audley, who built the ohancel and part*
of the nave. The town is well supplied with
educational establishments, amongst them
being the Grammar School (founded 1428, re-
modelled 1879), the British and Foreign S^OOl
Society’s training-college for mistresses, the
Friends’ School for boys and girls (the oldest
foundation school of the Quakers), and the
Charity School (founded 1717). Other build-
ings include the town hall, in Early English ;
the Corn Exchange, in Italian; the Museum
on Castle Hill; the Literary Institution; the
Hospital, and several charities. The indus-
tries comprise iron-founding, brewing, flour-
milling, malting, and*sawing. The.Horticultural





( 29 )




Society (founded 1819) is the oldest in England,
and the Essex Agricultural Society (estaWiahed
1830) was one of the earliest of such organisa-
tions. Of the Castle, erected in the time of
Stephen, all that remains is the revived keep,
now only 25 feet high. On the Common is the
curious feature called The Maze, which Dr.
Stukeley, the antiquary, held to be a military
manoBUvring-ground of the British period. It
consists of several concentric circles, with four
outworks, all cut in the chalk, and encloses an
area measuring 138 feet from north to south,
and 100 feet from east to west. It has been
re-cut at different times, by the Corporation in
1629, by public subscription in 1887, and on
other occasions at the cost of private persons.
At the opposite side of the town is the rem-
nant of an ancient encampment, now known as
Battle Ditches, in the form of a parallelogram,
enclosing some 30 acres of land. At various
dates a considerable number of skeletons have
been exhumed here, on some of which were
found fragments of Saxon ornaments. The
Benedictine Priory, founded in 1146, was
raised to* the rank of Abbey in 1191. Not far
from the site of the Abbey, Audley End, 1|
mile to the south-west of the town, the seat of
Lord Braybrooke, is a handsome mansion,
dating from the earlv part of the 17tH century,
when it was built for Thomas Howard, first
Earl of Suffolk. Pop. (1901), 5,896.

Sagan, a town of Prussian Silesia, Germany,
on the right bank of the Bober, a tributary of
the Oder, 60 miles S.E. of Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, and 105 miles S.E. of Berlin. Formed in
1397 out of the Duchv of Glogau, the subordi-
nate principality of Sagan has repeatedly
changed masters, its most distinguished owner
being Wallenstein, who possessed it from 1627
till his death in 1634. The chief buildings are
the ducal palace and the hospital, founded by
the Duchess Dorothea, In addition to iron-
founding and brewing, there are manufactures
of cotlon and woollen goods, pottery, glass, and
papeif. Pop. (1900), 15,000.

8agar| or Sattgor, a district of the Jabalpur
division in the extreme north-west of the Cen-
tral Provinces, India, occupying an area of
4,005 square miles. The surface is mostly hilly,
interspersed with cultivated plains of red allu-
vium and black soil. The streams, generally
small, flow towards the Ganges valley. Wheat,
rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds are the
chief crops, the first-named the staple. Pop.
(pOl), 470,666. Saoab, the chief town, is
situated beside a fine lake of the same name,
along the shores of which are bathing ghats and
Hindu temples. It carries on a trade in ualt.
Pop. (estimated), 45,000,

BagabStm PBAXisnBS Mateo, statesman, was
born at Torrecilla, in the province of Logrofio,
Spain, on July 2lst, 1827. He entered the Con-
stituent Assembly or Cortes at Madrid iil 1854.
His strenuous opposition to Queen Isabella
obliged him to leave Spain twice, but on her


flight he became a minister. He was leader
of the Liberal party, and formed a Government
in November, 1885. Besigi^ in I6^, he be^
came Premier again in 1§92, 1897-9, and 1902.
It was his misfortune to be in power at the
time of his country’s conflict with the United
States, for, reaping an ill crop where he had
not sowed, he had to undergo the obloquy and
disgrace implied by defeat and the loss of Cuba,
Porto Eico, and the Philippines. He did not
long survive the conclusion of the disastrous
peace, dying in 1903.

Sage {Salvia offwinalU)^ a familiar pot-herb
belonging to a genus of Labiatse which in-
cludes many species with showy flowers well
known in gardens. The woolly leaves have an
aromatic bitter taste, and are used, among
other culinary purposes, in the preparation of
force-meat or ” stuffing” for pork or geese, and
to flavour or "qualify” soups as a preventive
of flatulence. The leaves, infused as tea, make,
along with vinegar, or alum and hon^, an
excellent gargle for relaxed throat. Oil of
sage has also been employed in liniments for
rheumatism, though not so generally esteemed
as a remedy as it once was.

SaghAlien, or Sakhalin, a long, narrow Island
off the east coast of Siberia, between 48® and
60® 30' N. and 141® 50' and 144® E. It is about
670 miles long from north to south, the breadth
varying from 17 to 90 miles. Its area is esti-
mated at 29,336 square miles. It is separated
from the mainland by the Gulf of Tartary, and
from the island of Yezo, in Japan, by the Strait
of La P4rouse ; on the north and east is the Sea
of Okhotsk. Mountain ranges of 5,000 feet,
clad with forests, run from north to south. The
climate is very severe, cold mists occurring fre-
quently even in summer. Fur-bearing animals
are plentiful, but the climatic conditions are ad-
verse to the culture of the soil. Bussia obtained
Saghalien from Japan, in exchange for the
northern Kurile Islands, in 1876, and estab-
lished a settlement of convicts, who are en-
gaged in working the coal-mines. By the
treaty of peace, signed at Portsmouth, New
Haven, on September 5tb, 1905, however,
Russia ceded the southern half of the islapd to
Japan. Pop. (estimated), 32,000, of whom^lhlly
two- thirds are convicts.

SftginaWf capital of Saginaw county, Michigan,
United States, on the Saginaw, at the head of
navigation, 96 miles N.W* of Detroit. Among
the principal buildings are St. Andrew’s Aca-
demy, the Germania Institute, and Hoyt
Library. Th6 manufactures include machinery,
flour, bricks, and plate-glass, besides hreweries
and iron-foundries. It lias also large railway
works, and drives a flourishing traffic m lumber,
coal, and salt. Pop. (1900), 42,345.

Sagitta. [Ch.»tognatha.]

SagOf the granulated staroh obtaiued ftoin the
pith of various species of palm, chiefly in the
East Indian Arcnipelago, and shipped . from
Singapore. M&lroxflm jKumpMi and



( do ) 8aJiaj?s.


Sfltfniitiiii*


M. Imve, the chief sago^yielding species^ are
especially cultiirated in the islands of C#^am
and Borneo (including the state of Sarawak).
Inferior kinds are derived from the Gomuti



BAOO : PALM, FLOWER, AND RIPS FRUIT.


Palm (Arenga saccharifero), the Kittool Palm
(Caryota urene), the Cabbage Palm {Oorypha
umhraculifera), 0. Gebanga, and other species.
They grow in low marshy situations, becoming
mature in about fifteen years, when they are
felled and split, and the abundant starch is
washed out of the central spongy tissue and
passed through sieves. Were the fruit allowed
to form and ripen, all this tissue would be
absorbed, the stem becoming hollow and the
tree dying directly after fruiting. Sago is im-
ported in three finenesses — common brown or
large sago, pearl sago, and sago flour, in small
boxes or bags of J to 2 cwts. each. Apart from
its use as an article of diet, sago is largely
employed in the making of starch and by
manufacturers of cocoa as a stiffening blend.
The average yield of a tree is estimated at
about 700 lbs.

Sagimtiuili an ancient city of Spain, in
Hispania Tairraconensis, near the mouth of the
Pallantias, where now stands the town of Mur-
viedro. It was a busy mart in classical times,
but owes its fame to the persistency and cour-
age shown by the inhabitants when besieged
by the Carthaginians under Hannibal in 219
B.c. After a siege of nearly a year, when fur-
ther resistance nad become useless, the men
marched forth for a final sally, whilst the
women threw themselves with their children
on a pyre composed of all their worldly goods.
This event was the immediate cause oi the
Second Punic War.

Suliavaf the great North African desert, lying
between the Barbary States (Morocco, Algeria^
Tuni% Tripoli) in the N., the Atlantic coast in
the W., and the Nile Valley in the B. Its


limits are approximately 16° and 33° N., and
17° W. and 33° E., and its area is estimated
at 2,500,000 sonare miles. The north-eastern
portion, the Libyan Desert, slopes northward^i
towards the Mediterranean. It was formerly
supposed that the Sahara was the bed of an
ancient sea, that it lay below the sea-level, a n| k,
that it was composed entirely of tracts of sanof^
the position of which was constantly changing.
Becent explorations, however, have shown that
the surface is extremely varied slud iu most
parts more or less elevated, rising at one spot
to a height of at least 8,000 feet. On the north
it is enclosed by a semi-circular range of
parallel sand-dunes, extending from Pezzan to
the vicinity of Cape Blanco. The central re-
gion, south of Algeria, consists of a tableland
of 4,000 feet, called Ahaggar, with mountains
of 6,600 feet, on which the snow lies for three
months in the year. Still more lofty are the
eastern ranges, the altitude of Mount Tusidde, ^
in the Tibboo region, being 8,000 feet above the
sea. The mountains in the west do not exceed
2,000 feet in height. Along the valleys whid^l.
abound in the mountainous regions lie the beds
of ancient rivers, frona which water may be
obtained at no great distance from the surface.
They thus afford pasturage for cattle, sheep,
and camels, and are nearly always inhabited.
The parts of the Sahara called “hammada”
have a level surface covered with masses of
granite and other rocks without vegetation
of any kind; elsewhere there are wide salt
marshes from which the water has evaporated,
and large tracts are composed entirely of sand
or of small round stones. The oases often ex-
tend in a continuous line right across the
desert, as, for example, that from Morocco to
Cairo through Tafilet, Tuat, and Ghadame9|«
There is a similar line from Mourzouk, ill
Fezzan, to Lake Tchad and several others
which furnish a means of communication be'
tween the Soudanese states and the shores of
the Mediterranean. The caravan-trade^ |l

on along these routea consists chiefly 3

exchange of ivory, gold-dust, ostrich-feltlhers, *
gums, spices, and salt, for manufacture^
articles, jewellery, etc. Several schemes have
been put forward by the French for construct-
ing a railway from the Mediterranean to -the
fertile regions of the interior. Their purpose
is probably political as well as commercial, for
they aim "at gaining possession of the vast ^
region between Algeria and Tunis and their
colonies on the Senegal and the Niger. The
agreement between Great Britain and France,
drawn up in 1890, leaves France at liberty to
take possession of these lauds so far as Great
Britain is concerned. Various proposals have
been mooted from time to time for tne reclama-
tion of the vast desert, such as Captain Bou-
daire^s plan (1874) to create an inland sea by
admitting the water of the Gulf of Gabes into
the salt lakes (shotis) in the extreme south of
Tunis; Donald Mackenzie*© project (1877) of
flooding the western area; and the French sys-
tem of boring artesian wells at different spots.



SAlmaiipiir.


C8i)




It IS doubtful whether the first project would
have the effect of modifying the climate over a
considerable region. The second scarcely got
beyond the academic stage, since there is no
reasou to suppose that the interior is more
than a very shallow depression, and is often
hmy. But the third plan has yielded en-


innoouous to man), and a varied of fishes,
rivers are the pindan. West
Kali Nadi, Solani, and tributaries of the boun-
dary rivers. Owing to the Oai|ies and East
Jumna canals cultivation has reaped a high
degree of excellence. The chief crops comprise
wheat, barley, pulse, sugar-cane, oil-seeds, all
usually reaped in





VIEW IN THE SAHARA.


(From a photograph taken hy Dr, Roklfs's Expeditton.)


courting results. After rising much above
100® F. in the day time, the thermometer often
falls to freezing-point, or lower, during the
night. In most parts of the Sahara rain falls
only at intervals of two, three, four, or even
five years. Outside the oases the vegetation
consists chiefly of coarse grasses, tamarisks,
attp thor^ trees or shrubs, such as the prickly
acacia. The antelope, giraffe, and jackals are
,^n)ong the commonest quadrupeds. The salt
'•^d dates obtained in the Sahara form impor-
t$iht articles of food. The inhabitants are Ber-
tberS:^l|||Mnely, Moors towards the coast and
'oua|^B (Tuaregs) farther inland, Tibboos,
|nii||||irac© of Berbers and Negroes, in the
region south of Tripoli, and pure Negroes,
Arabs, and Jews east of the Touaricks. The
trade is mainly in the hands of the Touaricks.
The number of the inhabitants has been vaguely
estimated at from 1,600,000 to 2,600,000.

Bahamapiir, a district in the Meerut Divi-
sion of the North-western Provinces, India,
bounded on the N. by the Siwalik Hills, on the
E. by the Ganges, on the S. by the District of
Muzaffarnagar, and on the W. by the Jumna.
It occupies an area of 2,240 square miles. It
forms the most northerly portion of the Doab,
the great alluvial upland tract between the
Ganges and Jumna. The southern face of the
rugged Siwaliks is scored by magnificent
ravines, and at the base of the hills is a forest
belt, the haunt of the tiger. Other wild ani-
mals are the leopard, lynx, hyaena, wolf, ele-
phant, several kinds of antelope and deer, the
Siwalik python (which is a monster in size.


March, rice and vege-
tables gathered in
October. Cotton and
indigo are grown, but
cereals aro the prin-
cipal products. The
minerals are insignifi-
cant, even building-
stone having to be im-
ported as a rule. The
manufactures include
coarse cloth, jewellery,
and sweetmeats, be-
sides wood - carving,
leather - working, and
the machinery, tools,
and instruments turned
'out at the Kurki work-
shops. Pop. (1901),
1,046,412.

Saharanpuif^ a

city and the administra-
tive headquarters of the preceding District, situated
in 29° 68' N., 77° 35' E. It lies in a low and
damp country, and was formerly very un-
healthy, but the malarious lake in the neigh-
bourhood has been drained. The Mohamme-
dans, who form the majority of the population,
possess a very handsome mot^ue of compara-
tively recent construction. The Government
botanic gardens (1817) cover about 60 acres.
The city is a station of the Great Trigonometri-
cal Survey. Pop. (1901), 63,860.

Sahib, (an Arabic word, originally meaning
“companion”), a title of respect used by the
natives throughout India and Persia in ad-
dressing Europeans or speaking of them.
Commonly, it is the equivalent S> “Master”
(Mr.) and “Sir.” It is generally affixed, too,
to the status or office, such as “Lord Sahib,”
“Colonel Sahib.” Occasionally it is employed
among Hindus and Mohammedans as a
title, as in the familiar instance of Tippoo
Sahib. In addressing ladies the wora is
naturally modified. Sahiba is the female form
and means “ lady,'' but colloquially the hybrid
term “ Mem Sahib,*' mem being ma'am, is
more frequently used in the Bengal Presidency
when addressing a married lady, and corres-
ponds to “Mistress” or “Madam.” In Bom-
bay ^this is replaced by the form Madam

Saiga {Saiga tartarica)^ an antelope from the
Steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
It IS about the size of a fallow deer, tawny
yellow in summer, and light grey in winter.
The nose is very large, convex, and inflated, so




(83)


M. AUtaiig.


■•iffou.


tke animals liave to walk backwards as
tliej graze. The horns occur only in the vnale^
ana ere under twelTe inches long and annu*
lated. Though the
saiga runs fast, it
is soon exhausted.

ttaigoUf a city
of Indo-Ohina, the
capital of French
Cochin China, situ-
ated on the Saigon
river (one of the
branches of the
Mekhong d^lta) in
10® 47' N., 106® 46'

F. Since 1861 a
handsome town of
European aspect
has sprung up, with a cathedral, a palace for the
governor, an arsenal, docks, etc. The trade is
ihiainly carried on by the Chinese, who mostly
reside in the market town of Cholon, the
largest commercial centre in Cochin China.
Sai^n does a considerable . trade in rice and
ric^flour, which are exported to many Asiatic
and European ports, as well as in cinnamon
and other spices. It also possesses copper-
foundries, potteries and marqueterie works.
Po^., Saigon (1901), 47,677 ; Cholon (estimated).

Sail (derived from the Latin sagnhm, “ a cloak **),
a device used on boasrd a boat or ship for
catching the wind and so propelling the vessel.
It generally consists of several breadths of
canvas, served with a doable seam at the
comers, and edged by cords called bolt-ropes.
Sails used on square-rigged vessels and dxed
on yards are called square-sails; those fixed
on a gaff, boom, or stay, are called fore-and-
aft sails. The top of a square sail is the
head, the bottom the foot, the weather- or
windward-side is called the luff, the other side
the after-ieeoh. The two lower corners are
called clues, the weather clue being the tack.
The sails take their prefix from the masts, and
consist of courses, topsails, and top-gallant-
sails. Other varieties are lug-sails, which are
extended on a yard hauled nearly to the top
of a mast, spritsails, the outer upper corner of
which is extended by a sprit or boom going
from the bottom of the mast, and lateen sails,
which are puch used in the East and have a
long yard or boom affixed to a short mast.
Many ether ecdla arei also in use, and on some
yachts silk is eie|>loyed m a material. Sails
are also used on irindmills to catch the wind.

Sfdnfoin, or Saintfoin, i.a., “wholesome
lianwt, not saint, ‘‘holy'*] (Onobrychis

saiiva), is a handsotoe leguminous plant, with,
pinnate leaves, dense pyramidal racemee of
pink papilionaceous flowenii marked wdth lines
of a deeper shade, and wrinkled one-seeded
pods. It is doubtfully natite on the chalk
downs of 8ottth?east England, and, though in-
ai£tenoii8 to Gehtral Europe, is often an escape


from cultivation. It is much grown as foddet
for milch-cows and for sheep during winter.

Saint* a word much employed, especially in the
Christian religion, to denote a holy man e^
being, or sometimes thing. In its strictest
sense in theology it is applied to angels,
apostles, and holy men and women, and gener-
ally only to such as have been canonised by
due authority. Thus most of the Saxon saints
were without canonisation. It istalso used to
denote the pure and upright, and has been
arrogated by certain sects as a name to dis-
tinguish them. It is also used to denote the
blessed dead, and all members living and dead
of the Christian Church. Thus, the Church of
England speaks of the communion of saints,”
and prays, “Make us to be numbered with Thy
saints.” The Mohammedans have great rever-
ence for their saifits.

St. Abb’s Keadf a promontory on the coast
of Berwickshire, Scotland, 4 miles N.W. of
Eyemouth. The cliff, 310 feet high, carries a
lighthouse, the Tight of which is visible for 21
miles. On the eastern side of -the cape are the
ruins of the kirk founded in the 7tli century
by St. Ebba, from whom the promontory was
named.

St. Albans* a city of Hertfordshire, England,
on Wat ling Street and the river Ver, 21 miles
N.N.W. of London. It is situated on the slope
of a hill near the site of the Homan station,
Yerulamium, which was originally a British
town. A Benedictine monastery was founded
here by Offa, King of Marcia, in 793 to com-
memorate St. Alban, a Boman soldier -Who
suffered for his faith some 500 years earlier,
and became the proto-martyr of Britain. The
abbey-church was rebuilt in the latter part of
the 11th century, and preserves its Norman
character in spite of various new features iif
each of the Gothic styles. It is exceptionally
long, the distance from east to west being 648
feet. Since 1871 the church has been ^csiored
by the pious munificence of the firsi Lord»
Grimthorpe, and is now one of the most superb
buildings of the kind ih England, being made>
in 1877, the cathedral of a new diocesf| The
shrine of the saint, reduced to fragmenll InJiho
16th century, nas been reconstructed by Sir
Gilbert Scott, and there is a fine monument of
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. Other well- -
known cnurches in the city are St. Peter’s,
which contains some Early English work and
a Perpendicular window; St. Stephen’s, be-
lieved to have been founded in the 10th cen-
tury, and ;^sse86ing a braes eagle lectern
which once belonged to Holyroed Abbey and
was probably stolen during the Earl of Hert-
ford’s expedition of 1544; and St. Miohaers,
occupji^ the site of a heathen tempi© within
the limim of the ancient Yerulamium, noted
£or its monument of the illustrious Sir Erauqis
Bacon, representing the jgmi philosopher
seated in a high-badsed chair within a roim^*
headed niche. The grammar schobl, fqundeCin



SAXO A.




N. E.— 41




8t. Jioywiilii,


( 83 )


St. Jindiwwi.


1553, id now located in the abbey gatehouse.
The public buildings include the Corn Ex-
change, the Clock House containing the curfew
bell, the Court House in the Italian style, the
Town Hall, the Public Library, the Sisters'
Hospital) for Infectious Diseases, and several
other charitable institutions. The industries
include silk-weaving, straw-plaiting and trim-
ming (the making of straw hats being a staple
manufacture), brewing, malting, boot-making,
brush-making, and printing. On May 23ra,
1466, the first battle of the Wars of the Roses
was fought at Key Field, south-east of the
city, when Henry vT. was taken prisoner; and
the second battle was fought on Bernard’s


S.E. of Dundee. It is built ofi a sandstone
plateau, 60 feet above sea levew and the main
streets run east and west. With a north-
easterly exposure, its climate is trying, but
very bracing. The pioturesqueness and variety
of its several venerable ruins, its apparent iso-
lation, its fine stretch of sands, and its three
magnificent golf courses, have combined, along
with the exceptional educational advantages it
enjoys, to render it a favourite residential
city. The legend attributing the founding of
it to St. Regulus or Rule is too involved to
bear serious examination. He had been di-
rected in a vision to remove the relics of St.
Andrew from Patras, in Achaia, Greece, where



Heath, north of the city, on February 14tb,
1461, when Margaret compelled the Earl of
Warwick to retreat with considerable loss.
Cardinal Wolsey became 38th abbot in 1621,
and retained the oflice till his downfall. Pop.
(1901), 16,019.

St. Aloysius (Luiai Gonzaga, Marquis of
Castiglione, 1568-91) renounced his marquisate
and became a Jesuit in 1685. He devoted
himself to the care of those sick of the plague
in Rome, and died of the disease. He was
canonised in 1726.

St. jL&dvsw and other saints and patron
saints. [See various names.]

St« Andrews, a city and seaport of Fifeshire.
Scotland, situated at the western extremity of
St. Andrews Bay, on the North Sea, 11 miles

196— N.E. .


they had lain since the martyrdom of the
apostle about 70. The saint complied, and hp
ship being wrecked off the Fifeshire coast, l^e
landed in 347, and dedieated the place to 3t.
Andrew. Whatever be the truth of the tradi*^
tion, which is of ancient origin, the ecclesias*)
tical history of the city can be traced back to
the 6th century, when a monastery (Kilrimont)
was founded here by St. Kenneth. In the early
part of the 10th century it was already the
seat of the Scottish primate. The cathedral,
the plan of which has been cut out in the turf,
was one of the most imposing structures in
Scotland. It was founded in 1169, but not
completed till 1318, when its consectation was
witnessed by Robert Bruce. It .was despoiled
by fanatics in 1569, and when the central tqwer
collapsed, fiity years later, no tteps were taken
to rebuild it, its scanty remains fitandipg ganiit





(34)


St. Asapli.


St* ▲iidrtW.


and weirdy bare to the bitter iior*-<eaBt bl^At.
Imniediately adjoining it is the relic of the
interesting jEtomanesque church of St. Beg^lus,
believed by some antiquaries to be of Cuidee
origin, from the square tower of which, 108
feet in height, a grand panoramic view of the
citT and neighbourhood may be had. On a
bold promontory, lashed by the waves, is all


Bell; the Town Church (Holy Trinity) coil
taining an elaborate monument to Archbiahoj
Sharpe and the scene of the ministry o
A. K. H. B., the Town Hall, the Gibson Memo
rial Hospital (1884), the University Library
the New Medical Buildings, and the Club
house of the Royal and Ancient Club, foundei
in 1754. Among the monuments are the obe
lisk to the Martyrs, nea
the Witch Hill, and th
handsome fountain ii
memory of Whyte-Mel
ville, the novelist. Th
only industry of import
ance is the deep - se
fishery. Pop. (1901]
7,619.

St.-Ariia.iidj As

MA.ND Jacques Lbeo^
DE, Marshal of France
was born in Paris, oi
August 20th, 1801, an<
first entered the army ii
1810. But after a sbor
period he went upon th
stage and remained ai
actor for ten years, re
entering the army in 1833
He aided in the suppres
sion of the La Vend4
insurrection, and spen
many years in Algeria
gaining a name for bravery, callousness, and no
too great regard for scruple. The time for such j
man was ripe, Louis Napoleon’s designs on th(
government of France being now matured. H<
was promoted general and recalled to Paris
An expedition against the Kabylea was hur
riedly decided on, and St.-Arnaud’s succesi
was deliberately exaggerated in the press ai
part of the Bonapartist game. The genera
was rewarded with the portfolio of war (Octo
her, 1861) and accordingly he carried om
thoroughly the cou'p d'itat (December, 1861)
A year later he was made marshal and, on th<
outbreak of the Crimean war, entrusted wit!
the French command. Soon after the battle oi
the Alma, in which ho took part, his healtl
suddenly broke down, and he died on board th<
Utrihollcii on his way to France, on Septembc]
29th, 1854.

St. Asapli, a cathedral city of Wales, on th*
borders of Flintshire and Denbighshire, 5 milej
N. of Denbigh. It is situated on an eminenc<
in the Vale of Clwyd, near the junction of thal
river with the Elwy. St. Asaph was a disoiph
of St. Kentigern, or Mungo (d. 603), who h
said to have been the actual founder of tlw
see, during the period of his exile from Glas^
gow, whence he had been expelled by the Piet-
ish king. The cathedral, which is the smallest
in Great Britain, is mainly Decorated, with a
central tower of 93 feet. Among the holders oi
the see were Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. 1164);
Isaac Barrow (d. 1680), and Thomas Tannei
(d. 1736). Near the city is the holy well oi


. v.rB" „•


MADB4S COLLEGE, ST. ANDREWS.


that is left of the castle, built as an episcopal
residence by Bishop Roger, about the begin-
ning of the 13th century. It was so often cap-
tured by the English that it was destroyed in
1337 to save it from falling again into their
hands. But it was rebuilt, and became for a
period a royal residence. From its windows
Cardinal David Beaton beheld George Wishart
burning at the stake (March, 1646), and was
hipiself slain within its walls in less than two
months in lovenge. The castle gradually fell
into disrepair in the 17th century, and gradu-
ally became a mass of ruins (now well tended),
of which the bottle dungeon is the most in-
teresting, Other remains in the city are the
beautiful fragment of the Blackfriars monas-
tery (founded in 1274) and the Priory (founded
early in the 12th century), on the partial res-
toration of which the third Marquis of Bute
flpent a large sum of money. The University,
the oldest in Scotland, was founded in 1411,
and consisted finally of St. Mary’s College
(1411), St. Salvator’s College (1466), and St.
Leonard’s (1612). As remodmled St. Mary’s was
devoted to theology (1579), and in 1747 St. Sal-
vator’s and St. Leonard’s were combined, the
United Colleges occupying th© premises of St.
Salvator’s, and those of St. Leonard’s at last
forming a high school for girls— St. Andrews
having played the pioneer HSh in the higher
education of women. In 1897 the University
College of Dundee was affiliated to that of St,
Andrews. Other prominent buildings are Madras
i College, Opened in 1833, founded by Dr. Andrew


[Photo: Pictorial Agency,



( 36)


8t. August^#.


Flyaon Pair. Felicia Dorothea Hemana (d.
1835), the ooetess, resided at Bronwylfa, and
a memorial of her was erected in the south
aisle of the cathedral. Pop. (1901), 1,788.

St« AngiUitilief capital of St. John’s county,
Florida, United States, on Matanzas Sound,
3 miles from the Atlantic and 36 miles S.E. of
Jacksonyllle. The city is the oldest in the
tlnion', having been settled by the Spaniards
in 1565, and a house built by the Huguenots in
the preceding year is still extant. Among the
principal builaings are the Boman Catholic
Cathe^al, St. Joseph’s Academy, and the In-
stitute of Natural Science, while the city gate
and Fort Marion (Fort of San Marco) are relics
of former days. The city is one of the most
fashionable winter resorts in the country, the
temperature for that season being 65° F. Owing
to prevalence of the orange, citron, date,
palmetto, and other sub-tropical trees and
plants, the city wears an attractive appearance,
which is enhanced by the quaint narrow streets
and overhanging balconies. Pop. (1900), 4,272.

St. AtUlteUi a town of Cornwall, England,
not far from St. Austell Bay, an arm of the
English Channel, 14 miles N.E. of Truro. It is
the capital of the china-clay district. Since
the chemical qualities of the clay and stone
were not discovered till 1763, the town is com-
paratively modern. The chief
buildings are Holy Trinity
Church, constructed of Pentewan
stone in the Early Decorated
and Perpendicular styles, the
town hall and market-house, built
of granite, and the Assembly
Booms. The industries are con-
cerned with the numerous tin
and copper mines and china-clay
works in the locality. Hundreds
of thousands of tons of the clay
are exported every year to the
Potteries — where Josiah Wedg-
wood was the first to utilise it in
the manufacture of the famous
ware bearing his name — ^and the
cotton - factories of Lancashire,
where it was employed for load-
ing the fabric with size, a species
of adulteration that imperilled
the English markets in several
foreign countries. At the ex-
tremities of the northern and
north-western boundaries of the
parish are two large barrows —
called ** Cock’s Barrow ” and
“ Hen’s Barrow ” — about one
mile apart from each other. The
latter, 1,034 feet above the sea, is also known
as the Archbeacon of Cornwall, and from its
summit, on a clear day, the prospect embraces
the whole of the county. Pop. (1901), 3,340.

8t. Beep, a town on the coast of Cumberland,
England, 4 miles S. of Whitehaven. The


8t. Bemeard.


Guldee nunnery, founded by St* Bega in the
7th century, having been d#etrcyea by the
Danes, a Benedictine priory: was established
here in the time of Henty 1. The St. Bees
Theological College, founded by Bishop Daw
in 1816 for the benefit of divinity students who
were too poor to study at Oxford or Cambridge,
was clos^ iu 1097. The grammar school was
founded in 1583. The town has some r^ute as
a summer holiday resort. St. Bees Head, a
bold promontory, 2i miles to the north-west, is
nearly 300 feet high, and carries a lighthouse
the light of which is visible for 25 miles. Pop.
(1901), 1,236.

St. Barnard, two Alpine passes on the
confines of Switzerland and Italy. The Great
St. Bernard (8,110 feet), now crossed ^ a road,
is in the Pennine Alps, east of Mont Blanc, be-
tween Piedmont and the Swiss canton of
Valais. Near its summit is the fampius
hospice, a substantial stone building, estab-
lished by Bernard de Menthon ^(962) for | tihe
use of pilgrims to Borne. It is ip the charge
of a few Augustinian monks, who, assisted by
attendants, rescue travellers with the aid of
dogs. Napoleon crossed the Alps by this pass
in May, 1800. The Little St. Bernard (7^180
feet above the level of the sea) is situated in
the Graian Alps, south of Mont Blanc, between
Piedmont and Savoy.


St. Bernard, a breed of large dogs delving
their name from the Augustinian hoepice in
the Great St. Bernard Pass, where they were
employed as guides by the monks in their
journeys to the foot of the pass on each side
to assist travellers on their way. Every
animal carried around its neck a little barrel



THK GRKAT 8T. BERNARD HOsBlOt.



( 86 )




of braady to revivo tb© lost wayfarer. Some
of tbe sagacioas creatures^ jUb© “ Barry
“Barry 11.,“ acquired worldwide fame for tbe
nuiuber of lives they bad beeu the means of
aavingf. Uhe breed is said to bare sprung from
a maslif and a Danish bull*bitch, though the
date is Uncertain. This breed, however, was
kept pure at the hospice for a long period;
now they seem to be dying out. It was
stated in March^ 1894, that there were only
five at the hospice in the early part of that


St. Cliftiiioiid.


from the Welsh bishop St. Briocue, who con*
ducted missionary labours her© iu the 6th
century. It coutains many picturesque, old*
fashioned houses. Among the chief buildings
are the 13th-century cathedral, the church of
Notre Dame d'Espdrance, th© hospital (once
a Capuchin monastery), the lyced (formerly a
monastery of the Cordeliers), the palais de
justice, the Museum of Archaeology and
Natural History, th© episc^opal palace, and th©
town-house. A statue of Duguesclin adorns the



MfiShim; BCOIT AND KOSriN’s SaiOOTH 8T. BEBNAIID CHAMPION “THE VINtNO,**


{From, the original pointing by Lilian Cheviot.)


yeai*, but they have been reinforced, if not re-
placed, by Newfoundland stock. About 1860
St. Bernards Were introduced into England,
and soon h^ciame very txipular, although speci-
ninue had been introauoed long before that
date, some of Sir fldwin Lana^r*s earliest
paintings having been studied from life in
1817 and 1820. The general coloration is
orange, red, or fawn, with a go^ d©al of white.
There are two varieties, one with a rough, the
other with a smooth coat.

Bt. BrienOf a town of the department of Cdtes-
du-Nord, Brittany, France; 36 mile© W. by S.
of St, Male. It is situated two miloa from the
liUgliBh Channel, where its port io Ldgu4, on
the left bank of the Qouet. It was named


boulevards which replaced the ramparts. The
inhabitants are largely employed in the
nurseries and quarries of blue granite, and
also in the fisheries. Dairy produce is des-
patched iu considerable quantities to England
and fifih and game to Paris. Pop. (1901),
22,198.

St. Chamondy a town of the department of
Loire, France, on the Gier, a tributary of the
Bhfine, 7 miles N.B. of St. Jfetienne. * It was
f ound^ in the 7th century by . St. Euuemond
or Chamoud, Archbishop of Lyons. The manu-
factures; comprise silks, ribbons, and laces, be-
sides iron-founding and dyeing, while the coal
mines in the vicinity are an important industry.
Pop. (1901), 16,469.



n* OhiRigtopiMQr.


( 3T )


m MmSm*


8t* or St. Kitts* sa island of

tlio* Leseor Antiiles* forming* mill the islands
of Neiris and Anguilla, one of the hve
presidencies into which the of the Lee*

ward Islands of the British West Indies is
diyided, It has an area of 65 square miles.
When discovered by Columbus, in 1493, it was
densely inhabited by Caribs. About 1623 it
was simultaneously occupied by French and
English settlers, betw^n whom there was fre*
quent friction until in 1713 it was ceded to
Great Britain. From north to south it is tra-
versed by a mountain range, of which the
highest point is Mount Misery (4,100 feet),
^e climate is dry and healthy and the rich
soil is well adapted for sugar plantations, which
furnish the staple industry. The capital is
Basseterre (9,962). Pop. (1901), 29,782.

8t» Olondf a. town of the department of
Seine-et-Oise, France, 4 miles W, of Paris.
Ihe chiteau built by the Duke of Orleans,
brother of Louis XI V., afterwards became a
royal palace, and was occupied by Napoleon.
It was destroyed during the second siege of
Paris (1870). The park still retains much of
its beauty and grandeur and is one of the
favourite sylvan retreats near the capital.
Within its bounds is held a great fair every
September which lasts for three weeks, and
the famous Sevres porcelain manufactory is
situated in its precincts. CLodoald or Cloud
was the grandson of Clovis and adopted the
monastic life. Peter the Great was received
at the chateau, which became the. favourite
resideno© of N^tpoleon. The capitulation of
Paris Was signed here in 1815, and hence in
lB30t emanat^ the orders which brought about
the fall of the Bourbons. Pop. of commune
(1901), 7,200.

8t. Bnvids, a ci^ of Pembrokeshire, Wales,
14 miles W.N.W. of Haverfordwest. It is situ-
ated on the Alan, in a barren, rocky plain,
about IJ mile north of the shore of St. Bride’s
Bay. Its existence is due to St. David, who,
in the 6th centurv, transferred hither the
archiepisoopal see of Caerleon. The cathedral,
a cruciform Transitional structure, was begun
in 1176. The most noteworthy features are the
richlyK>mamented nave, which has a fretted
timber roof, the beautiful 14th-century stone
rood-screen, the carved choir stalls, the tomb
of Edmund* Earl of Eichmond, father of
Henry VII., and the shrine of St. David. The
ruins of St. Mary’s College (1377) are pictur-
esque, and Bishop Gower’s palace (1342) is a
remarkably fine example of mediaeval domestic
architecture. Some fragments of ancient wall
on the coast are said to mark the site of
the Eoman station of Menapia— the Welsh
Menyw or Mynyw, — represented by the modern
Menavia, a name still applied to the see. Pop.
(1901), 1,'?10.

St. HaTids Sea4f most weste%

point ef Wales, a bold precipice, 3 miles N.W.
of St. Davids, Pembrokeshire. On the sum-


mit is 'A mass .of "lobka^ .of' fantastic

shape. A brouhlech is remarkable in that the
table stone is Supported by a single upright
stone. At the southern base of the Head Bes
the famous Logan Stope, a huge block, which
was once eo delicately poised that it would
answer to the slightest pressure. The equili-
brium being destroyed on a certain day in the
17th century, the stone was dislodged and
never afterwards replaced. In the clefts of
the precipitous cliffs a crystal is found called
^‘St. Davids Diamond,” somewhat resemblinff
an amethyst, but, owing to its extreme har^
ness, susceptible of a greater degree of polish
than most of the Briti^ gsms.

St. a town of the department of

Seine, France, on the right bank of the Seine,

5 miles N. of Paris. The abbey, built by
Dagobert in the 7th century on the site of
an old chapel which marked the resting-place
of St. Denis, became the place of burial for
the French sovereigns. At the Bevolution
(1793) the church was sacked, thS tombs were
violated and many objects of unique interest
were stolen or lost. Louis XVIIl. recovered
as many of them as he could and replaced
them, ^e existing structure, begun by the
Abb4 Suffer, was restored by Viollet-le-Duc in
1848 ana the following years, and is now one
of the grandest examples of the Gothic style
in the country. The manufactures are varied,
including machinorv, boats, chemicals, beer,
leather, flour, candles, and railway carriages.
On November 10th, 1567, a bloody battle was
fought in the vicinity between the Huguenots
an(f Eoman Catholics, llie latter were vic-
torious, but lost their leader, the Constable
Anne dc Montmorency. Pop. (1901), 60,808.

St. a town of the department of Vosges,
France, on the right bank of the Meurthe, 45
miles S.E. of Nanev. It commands a magni-
ficent view of the Vosges mountains and is a
convenient centre for excursions. It grew
around the monastery founded in the 6th
century by St*. Deodatus (whence its name] of
Nevere, which became a chapter of canons four
hundred years later. Among its provosts or
deans were Giovanni de’ It&dici (afterwards
Pope Leo X.) and several princes of Lorr^ne.
Not till the establishment of a town council in
1628 were its excessive privileges reduced, and
it was abolished during the Eevolution. When
Alsace was annexed by Germany in 1871, many
manufacturers transferred their factories and
works to St. DM, to the increase of its pros-
perity. It has Weaving factories,^ bleachfields,
hosiery mills, engineering shops, tile works and
breweries. The principal buildings include the
cathedral with a Romanesque nave and Gothic
choir, the Eomanesque church of Notre Dame,
the town hall, library, and natural history
museum. Pop. (1901), 21,480.

St. BisiaT, a town of the departm©nt of Haute-
Marne, France, 36 miles S.E. of Ch^ons^eur-
, Marne. It hae a public library anfl mueeum




C88)


snd foundrieft of iion, steel, copper and bronze,
besides boatbuilding and engineering Itorks.
Pop, <1901), 14,601.

Chablbs Augitstin be, critic,
was l^rn at Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, on
Becember 23rd, 1804. On his mother's side he
was of English descent, and this accounts for
his early attraction to English literature. At
the age of 14 he was sent first to the College
OharleiUagiie, and then to the College Bourbon,
at Paris, to finish his education, and, after
studying medicine, followed the profession of
a doctor for a time; but a love for literature
and some chance contributions of his to the
papers induced him to abandon medicine. He
joined the romantic movement after reading
Victor Hugo’s poems, which impressed him
greatly. in 1828 appeared his first work.
Tableau Historigue et Critique de la Poieie
Prangaise et du TMdtre Fran^ais au XVI*
SUde, originally contributed to the Liberal
Globe, a work which he somewhat enlarged in
later years. He published a volume of poems.
Vie, PoUiee et Pennies^ in 1829, over the pseu-
donym of “Joseph Delorme," but the second
collection of poems, Lee Consolaiiom (1830),
showed higher qualities. About this time he
began to write for the leading periodicals, and
started his admirable Portraits LitUraires,
which were followed several years later by his
still more remarkable Causeries du Lundi,
which came out every Monday in Le Constitu-
tionnel newspaper, and jproved him one of the
finest of critics. To full knowledge of his sub-
jects were added an inimitable style and ex-
quisite critical discernment. In 1840 he
obtained from M. Cousin the post of keeper of
the Mazarin Library, and in 1844 he entered
the Academy, in succession to Gasimir Dela-
vigne, being received next year by Victor
Hugo. He supported the Government after
the coup d'itat of 1851 and received the ap-
pointment of professor of Latin poetry at the
College de France, but the students resenting
his conversion to monarchism refused to hear
him and he wa^ obliged to accept a similar
position at the ficole Normals. Napoleon III.
made him a senator in 1865. He died in Paris
on October 13th, 1869. His works are not nu-
merous in one sense, though they fill many
volumes. The Causeries occupy about twenty
of them and other works of his deserving of
mention are the Histoire de Port Poyal (1840-62),
Portraits de Femmes (1844), and Portraits Con*
temporains (1846). His Poisies Completes ap-
peared in 1840. He wrote numberless prefaces
and introductory essays.

Ste.-Claira Ba'rille, Henei
chemist, was born at St. Thomas, an island of
the Antilles, West Indies, of French parents,
on March 11th, 1818, and was educated in
Paris. From an early period he devoted him-
self to patient chemical research, and, after
taking his degrees of doctor of medicine and
of science, became professor of chemistry at


iStiaimo.


Besan^ in 1845. He was appointed examiner
at the Boole Normale of t^aris in 1851, and in
1853 published a new system of mineral analy-
sis. He succeeded Dumas at the Sorbonne in
1859, was elected member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1861, and died at Boulogne-surr
Seine on July 1st, 1881. He was especially
notable in mineral chemistry. He discovered
the properties of composite nitric acid, and
simplified the extraction of alupiinium. He
obtained the Legion of Honour in 1855.

8t. Slmo’s Firo, the name given by sailors
to a faint flame or glow sometimes seen at the
tips of masts and spars in thundery weather.
It is due to the dissipation of atmospheric elec-
tricity in the form of a brush discharge. The
origin of the name is a puzzle. Some writers
sought its solution in Greek mythology. Cas-
tor and Pollux were the patrons of navigation.
Once the ship Argo encountered a violent tem-
pest, during which the two divinities were
seen with flames of fire playing around their
heads, whereupon the sea fell and the storm
was quelled. It has therefore been suggested
that Elmo was a corruption of Helena — fair
Helen of Troy — the sister of Castor and Pollux.
Greek and other sailors looked upon the phe-
nomenon as of happy omen. Others derive the
name from Elmo, an Italianised form of St.
Erasmus, a Syrian martyr-bishop of the Srd
century.

SaintaSf a town of the department of Charente-
Inferieure, France, on the left bank of the
Charente, 40 miles S.E. of La Rochelle. Its
Roman remains are of great interest, the
amphitheatre especially being only inferior in
area to the Colosseum. The site of the well-

reserved triumphal arch of Germanicus has

een altered, but the monument was rebuilt
stone by stone. The principal buildings in-
clude the cathedral of St. Peter, with a tower
236 feet high ; the church of Eutropius, founded
in the 6th century and rebuilt in the 11th,
with an extremely large, well-lighted crypt;
Notre Dame, an exceptionally fine edifice of
the 11th and 12th centuries, which has been
secularised ; the antiquarian museum, un-
usually rich in examples ; the palais de iustke ;
the Renaissance town-house and the library.
The industries include iron- and copper-found-
ing, coopering, skin-dressing and the making
of agricultural implements. Saintes (Latin
Mediolanum) took its name from the Gallic
tribe of Santones, whose chief town it was.
Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century
by Eutropius, its first bishop. Richard Cceur
de Lion fortified himself here against his
father, Henry II., who captured the town after
a severe siege. Bernard Palissy carried on
the craft of potter in Saintes for many years.
Pop. (1901), 18,218.

8t. l£ti6ll]l0f capital of the department of
Loire, France, on the Furens, an affluent of the
Loire, 33 miles S.W. of Lyons. The manufac-
ture of ribbons (mostly hand-made) and other



( 89 )


■t. 3frv*«»0||d.

L -

8§l[ articles giT6ft empk>ymefit to about 80^000
workers. More tkan 20«000 kazida are engaged
in tko manufacture of steel and iron juates,
kreanns (especially at the national gun>fac-
tory), cutlery, and other metal wares. The
number of persons at work on the neighbour-
ing coal-beds is estimated at 17,000, Other
manufactures embrace hardware, locks, files,
nails, bolts, anvils, vices, pottery, hemp cables
and lime. Among the public buildings are the
town hall. Palais des Arts, School of Mines. It
is of interest to note that the first railways
constructed in France were those from St
Etienne to Andrezieu (1828) and to Lyons
(1831). Pop. (1901), 139,350.

St. ]ilirremond» Chables Marguetel be
St. Denis, Seigneur db, soldier, poet and
essayist, was born at Saint Denis-le-Gast, in
the department of Manche, France, on April
1st, 1613. He was educated at Paris.*, and
Caen, and studied for the law, which he finally
gave up for a military career. He entered the
army, serving throughout a great part of the
lliirty Years’ War, and being engaged at
Rocroi (1643), Friedburg (1644), and Nordlingen
(1645), where he was wounded. Ho was as
witty as he was bravo, and a few shafts of
satire against the Prince Cond4 (1648), by
whoso side he had foujght, and with whom
he had been on terms of friendship, caused his
disgrace. He lost his commission and was
kept in the Bastille for three months (1653),
fleeing to England in 1661 to escape a second
detention. He attached himself to the salon
of Duchess of Mazarin, and was one of the
chief ornaments of Charles II. ’s court. He died
in London on September 29th, 1703, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey. His worl^ were
circulated in manuscript during his lifetime
and it was only in 1705 that the first authentic
edition ’ was published (in London). Among
his most characteristic were the Comidie des
Aeadimiciens ' (1644), a skit on the young
Academy, Sir Politick Would-he, and Conversa-
Hon du Marichal d* Hocquincourt avec h P^re
Canape. He was master of a polished style,
lit up with subtle satire, and as a critic was
singularly sane for his surroundings.

8t.0aU, a canton in the north-east of Switzer-
land, bounded on the N. by Lake Constance and
Tburgau, on the E. by Vorarlberg (Austria),
on the S. by Grisons and Glarus, and on the
W. by Schwyi and Ziirich. It occupies an area
of 779 square miles, and completely surrounds
the canton of Appenzell. The surface is hilly,
in parts even mountainous, some of its Alpine
summits reaching an altitude of 10,000 feet.
The embroidery of cottons and muslins forms
the chief industry. The mineral waters of the
spas of Eagatz and Pf iff era are in high esteem.
The inhabitants speak German, and the majority
are Eoman Catholic. The state takes its^ name
from St. Gallus, who carried on his missionary
work in the country early in the 7th century.
The canton was constituted in 1803, and St.
Gall is its capital. Pop. (1900). 250,286.


8t./


St. SaUi cap^ttir of the preceding canton,
Switzerland, oh the Steinach, at an altitude el
2,200 feat, 7 miles S.W* ol Horschach, on Lake
Constance. It grew up betweoM the 8th and the
10th centuries round the Benedictine monastery
which marked the site of the hermitage of 3t.
Gall, a disciple of St. Oolumban who established
himself here in 614. During the Middle Ages
the monks became famous for their learning,
their love of music, and, above all, their zeal
in collecting MSS. It is to their care alone that
we are indebted for our knowledge of Quintilian
and other classical authors. Tlie monastiO
library is still preserved in the ancient build-
ings, which have been converted into govern*
ment offices and schools. The abbey church was
restored in the 18th century, and there is a
town librarv dating from 1536. St. Gall became
the seat of a bishop in 1836. The principal
manufactures are woollen, cotton and linen
goods, embroideries, lace, muslins, and prints.
Pop. (1900), 33,116.

St. George’s Ckaanel^ the reach of sea
between Wales and Ireland, connecting the
Atlantic with the Irish Sea on the south as the
North Channel connects it on the north. The
Channel extends in a north-north-easterly andL
south-south-westerly direction for fully 100 miles,
with an average breadth of 56 miles. The
greatest distance across, from Aberystwith to*
Cahore Point, is 90 miles, and the shortest, from
St. Davids Head to Carnsore Point, 50 miles.
Prom Fishguard to Rosslare there is a daily
express service, inaugurated in 1906 by the Great
Western Railway Company. The area of tho
Channel is estimated at 6,600 square miles, of
which Cardigan Bay occupies about one-sixth.
The floor of the Channel consists principally of
sand and gravel, and there are numerous sand-
banks ofi the Irish shore. In mid-Channel the
current running towards the north-saet fre-
quently impedes navigation, and in temTOstuous
weather is apt to drive shipping on to the iron-
bound coast of Wales.

St. Germai2i-eu-L^e» a town of the depart-
ment of Seine-et-Oise, France, on the left bank
of the Seine, 10 miles W.N.W. of Paris. The
royal castle, rebuilt by Francis I., was the chief
residence of the French kings prior to the||eign
of Louis XIV., when the court was estabushed
at Versailles, Louis, it is said, being anxious
to remove out of sight of the towers of the
abbey of St. Denis, where he would be buried.
James II. resided and died (1701) here after his
flight from England. After being used as a
barracks and a military prison, the palace was
converted by Napoleon III. into a museum for
Celtic antiquities. The forest of St. Germain
covers about 10,000 acres. The noble terrace,
1^ mile long and 100 feet wide, constructed
by Le N6tre in 1672, commands a beautiful
view of the valley of the river and its vine-clad
slopes. In the church of St. Germain m a
mausoleum, erected by Queen Victoria to the
memory of James II. of England. In one of



CiO)




tike squaTes la a statue to Thiers, wlio died here
du September 3rd, 1877, Pop. (1901), 17,300.

0^ 0Ot^bLWdif a grotip of mouDtai&^iu the
Lepdiitine Alps* Switzerlaud, between the can-
tons of XJri and Ticino, some of the peaks of
which exceed 10,000 feet in height. The St.
Gotthard pass (6,936 feet), on the route from
Fliielen to Bellinzona, has a hospice for travel-
lers 69 feet below the summit. The road over
the pass was improved in 1820-24. The St.
Gotthard is now pierced by a railway tunnel
(oonstructii 187240), which extends from Gos-
ohenen to Airolo, a distance of over 9 miles.

XsltlUb (usually pronounced St. Helena),
an island of the South Atlantic, in 15® 56' S.
jtnd 5® 43' W., 1,200 miles from the West Coast
•of Africa. It is 10|^ miles long from east to
west, and 7 miles broad, and has an area of
47 abuafe miles. The cliffs rise to a lofty
tableland, the highest point on which is 2,82^
feet above the sea. Jamestown, the capital, is
situated in a ravine sloping down to the north-
west coast. The climate is healthy, the mean
temperature being 62® F. Whale-ffshing and
potato-grrowing are the principal occupations
of the inhabitants. The affairs of the island
are administered ^ a governor and an
executive council, oiuce the construction of
the Suez Canal it has ceased to be a port
of call for eastward-bound vessels, and its
prosperity has greatly declined. The island
was discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, and
in 1661 annexed by the East India Company,


by which it was administered until 1834. Long-
wood^ the residence of Napoleon from 1815 to
1821, is in the north, three miles from James-
town. A bust of the Emperor stands on a
pedestal at the spot in the little room where


at. xwMi.


he died. The island was used in 1900 as a
place for the reception of Boer prisoners of war.
General Sir William Butler said the deported
Dutch farmers never tired of lookiuE at the
bust. The garrison was withdrawn &om the
island in 1906. Pop. (1904), 3,882.

St. Kelenis. a town of Lancashire, England,
12 miles E.N.E. of Liverpool. The town hall
has a clock-tower 130 feet high, and in a niche
above one of the windows is a figure of St.
Helen, patron saint of the borough. The town
is the headquarters of the crown-, sheet-, and
plate-glass industry , fiiut-glass and bottles being
also made. It has, besides, chemical and copper-
smelting works, iron and brass foundries, pot-
teries, and several collieries. Brewing is also
carri^ on, and watch movements are made.
Victoria Park and Taylor Park are nicely laid
out grounds. Within the second half of the
19th century it grew from a village to a large
and populous town. Pop. (1901), 84,410.

St. Kelidr^ the capital of Jersey, Channel
Islands, pleasantly situated on St. Aubin's Bay
on the south side of the island. It is protected
by Fort Eegent (1806-16), which stands on a
height on the east side of the harbour, and by
Elizabeth Castle (1651-86), built on a rock which
is connected with the shore by a causeway. The
principal buildings are the Cohue, or Royal
Court House, containing a portrait of Major
Pierson, who fell in the battle of Jersey, which
was fought hard by after the landing of the
French in 1781; the Public Library, erected
in 1736 by Philip Falle,
a chaplain to William
III. ; the Gothic parish
church, dating from
1341, but restored ;
Victoria College, a
public school of some
consequence, built in
1860-2 as a memorial
of Queen Victoria’s
visit in 1846, and the
Hospital. The port has
good harbour accom-
modation, protected by
Hermitage breakwater,
and carries on a ^con-
siderable trade. During
the early potato season,
when the island-labour
is strengthened by Bre-
ton peasants, it pre-
sents an extremely
animated appearance.
A marine biological
station was opened in
18 93. Pop. (19 01),
27,866.

St. Hilaira. [BxBTHisLKMY ; Geoffboy.]

St. Iveif a town of Huntingdonshire, Ei^-
land, on the left bank of the Ouse, 5 miles E.
of Huntingdon* It was originally called Slepe,



ST. 1V£S BBIPOfi,




( )




blit i« saM to baW' received its present name
in memory of a Persian bishop, fro, who died
here about the end of the eth century. The
church of St. James is an interesting Norman
and Early English edihce. The Ouse is crossed
by a beautiful bridge built by the abbots of
Bamsey* It consists of six arches, and near the
centre, over one of the piers, stands an ancient
tower-like structure, the lower part of which
was once used as a chapel, but is now a dwelling-
house. The streets adjoining the river are liable
to destructive floods. Among the charities is
one for the distribution of Bibles, subject to
the condition that six boys and six girls shall
cast dioe for the Bibles in church during divine


m.


leper hoapital, dedicated to St. James the lieeei
occupied the site, but the of a lew
friars otil of the funds made it a religious house.
On the dissolution of the %ligious houses,
Henry Till, appropriated the site and replaced
the hospital with a palace, the grounds of which
were combined with Whitehall, as a residence
for Anne Boleyn. After the fire at Whitehall
Palace in 1697 the Court was removed to St„
James's. Levees are still held here, but Draw*
ing-rooms have been transferred to Buckingham
Palace. The quaint gate-house with its littl#
turrets was designed by Hans Holbein, but the
buildings (largely added to since, his time) ate
of a nondescript character, comprising the



sr. jAWKs’a vmjlck .


service. Oliver Cromwell resided at Slepe Hall.
Pop. (1901), 2,910.

St, iTeA, u town on the north coast of Cornwall,
England, 8 miles N.N.E. of Penzance. The pier
was built by John Smeaton in 1770. Most of
the inhabitants are engaged in the pilchard and
mackerel fisheries. Some boatbuilding is carried
on, besides manufactures of sails and nets.
Pop. (1901), 6,697.

8t. !PaJaC6f an old-fashioned, red-

brick building situatod at the south-western
end of PaE Mall, London, with a front to St.
Jhmes's Park. In spite of its shabby and dingy
ap^arance, however, it is the seat of the Court
olBt. James's (not St. James, as it is sometimes
erroneously printed). In the 12th centnry a


Chapel Boyal, offices of several members qf the
Boyal Household, and dwellings aseigrild to
friends of the Sovereign. Charles ll,, Ceorge IT ,,
and the Old Pretender were born in the Palace,
and hence Charles I. walked to the scaffold
at Whitehall. The Sovereign is proclaimed in
Colour Court, and in the (Chapel Boyal Queen
Tictoria was married (February 10th, 1840). The
adjoining St. James’s Park covers about 60 acrea,
and is well laid out in trees and shrubbery. In
the centre is an ornamental sheet of water,
where Charles 11. used to feed the ducks. At
the east end are the Horse Guards, the Foreign
Office, Admiralty, and other Government offices.
At the west end are Buckingham Palape and
the National Monument to Queen Tictoria, On
the north side extends the Mall, considerably






in i907» and on tlie sontli side are
Sitdcag>e Walk (so named from the cages that
used to be suspended from the trees i($r the
delectation of the Merry Monarch) and Welling-
ton Barracks. A speciality is made at the park
of breeding water-fowl, including such rarer
kinds as pdicans.

8t. JTolllli capital of St. John county, and the
largest eity^n the province of New Brunswick,
Dominion of Canada, situated at the mouth of
the St. John river, 53 miles S.E. of Fredericton.
The harbout ia sale and commodious, being the
only Atlantic port north of Baltimore that is
ice-free, St. John has a large timber trade,
and shipbuilding is an important industry.
The manufactures include steam-engines, iron-
castings, .agricultural implements, boots and
shoes, etc., and the fisheries, especially of salmon,
shad, halibut, haddock, and herrings, employ
hundreds of men. The city has several times
been deyastated by lire, and in the conflagration
of June ^Oth, 1877, was nearly half destroyed.
Pop. (1901), 40,711.

St. Joluif Hbnbt. [Bolinqbboke.]

St. Johiif Knights of. [Hospitallebs.]

St. John’s Br6a4. [Cabob.]

St. John’s-wort, the popular name for most
members of the genus Hypericum, the type of
the thalamifloral order Hypericacea. They may
be shrubby or herbaceous, and have opposite
and decussate simple leaves, often dotted with
glands; yellow, pentamerous, polysymmetrio
flowers, with triadelphous or polyadelphous
stamens originating in branching; and a cap-
sular fruit with distinct styles (generally tri-
ca:^llary). Once considered a remedy for
epilepsy, St. John's-wort came to be looked upon
as a charm against evil spirits, and to be used
in rustic divination. It is named from the fact
that it flowers about the time of the feast of
the nativity of St, John the Baptist (June 24th).

St. John’f, the capital of Newfoundland, on
the north-east coast of the peninsula of Avalon,
which projects from the south-east of the island,
1,700 miles W. by S. of Queenstown, Ireland.
The city is grandly situated, rising boldly from
its fortified and landlocked harbour, which is
approached through the Narrows. The principal
buildings include Government House, Colonial
Building (Parliament House), the Athenaeum,
St. Bonaventure College, and the Roman
Catholic Cathedral. The industries are largely
connected with the refining of seal-oil and the
fisheries, but it has iron foundries and machine
shops, breweries, distilleries, tanneries, boot
and shoe factories, soap works, roperies, furni-
ture factories, and cod-liver oil refineries. Xt
is a point of departure for the whale and
seal fisheries. It is probably the earliest English
settlement in America. During a fire in 1892
liearly half of the town was destroyed. Pop.
(1901), 29,694.


St.::S:iXdlb;


Saint Joaaplu capital ol Btmhiuitta countf »
Missouri, United States, on the left bank o| tm
Missouri, 63 miles N.N.W. of Kansas City ^
Among the principal buildings are the city hail,
court-house, library, and several educational and
charitable institutions. The manufactures in-
clude cotton and woollen goods, clothing, boots
and shoes, leather goods, and foundry products,
in addition to slaughtering and ipeat-packing,
which constitute the leading industry. A fish-
hatchery is in operation, ^e growth of the
city has been remarkable: In 1870 the popula-
tion numbered 19,566 ; by 1900 it had grown to
102,979.

8t.-Jti8tp Louis Antoine L^on db, revolu-
tionist, was born at Decize, in the department of
Ni^vre, France, on August 26th, 1757, and studied
law for a while, eventually turning his attention
to literature, and writing various poems from
which decency is always absent. During the
Revolution he rose rapidly to prominence, and
became one of Robespierre^s most sanguinary
associates. Indeed, it is now believed that
Robespierre's cruelty was largely the result of
St. -Just's bloodthirsty inclinations. He was a
fanatic and hesitated at no-thing. He strongly
advocated the execution of Louie XVI., ana
voted for the destruction of the Girondists. In
Alsace, to which he had been sent as com-
missioner, his feroci^ was equally marked. He
was guillotined in Paris at the same time as
Robespierre, on July 28th, 1794.

St. Seyiief or St. Kean, a village of Cornwall,
England, on the Looe, 2 miles S. of Liskeard.
The parish church stands on a hill, and from
the summit of its tower may be seen the Eddy-
stone Lighthouse, 18 miles distant. About a
mile from the church is the famous well of
whose waters tradition saith that whichever of
a newly-wedded couple first drinks will secure
and retain the supremacy throughout married
life. Robert Southey made the legend the sub-
ject of a poem. Robert Scott was rector of the
parish from 1840 to 1850, and wrote much of
Liddell and Scott's Greek^Engluh Lexicon here.
St. Keyne, a pious British virgin of blood royal,
flourished about 490. Pop., 132.

St. Xilda, an island in the North Atlantic,
an outlier of the Outer Hebrides, belonging
to Inverness-shire, Scotland. It measures fully
three miles from north to south, less than two
from east to west, and covers an area of about
two square miles. Conagher, the highest hill,
is 1,220 Test above sea-level, and is a sheer pre-
cipice, the loftiest in the British Isles. Except-
ing at the landing-place on the south-eastern
shore, the cliffs are precipitous, the haunts of
innumerable sea-birds, of which the most com-
mon are fulmar petrels, puffins, and solan geese,
in the snaring of which the men prove them-
selves daring climbers. When Richard Keartoa
visited the island in 1896, he identified twenty-
seven different kinds of birds. He inclined to
the opinion that the St. Kildan wren is a dis-
tinct apecies. The inhabitants cultivate potatoes,.


( 12 )




». Mtts.


(48)


oat8« and barley« on some 40 acres of good soil.
There is pasturage for a thousand sheep and a
few' score West Mighlaad cattle. On the isle
of Soa, hard by* is a Tbreed of small brown sheep,
which, so Kearton was informed, are peculiar to
this island and are descended from a few left,
perhaps 800 years ago, by some Vikings who had
called in for fresh water. Ck>arse tweed and
blanketing are woven for home use. Gaelic is


fit.


is called $t. Mar^^s, between Lakes Huron and
Brie the St. Clair and Hetrolt^ between Lakes
Erie and Ontario tha Kiaga#, and between
Lake Ontario and tho Atlantic Ihe fit. Lawrence
proper. For nearly half it» course the St.
Lawrence varies in width froin 1 mile or under
to 3 or 4 miles, but about 400 miles above the
Gulf it begins to expand into a broad estuary,
the distance between the banks at the mouth



FANOBAUIC VIEW OF ST. HILDA.


the only language. Neither crime nor drunken-
ness is kno^. The natives call the island
Hirta (*'the western land'"). It was the scene
of the incarceration of La^ Grange by her
husband from 1734 to 1742. Having belonged to
the Macleods from time immemori^, it was sold
in 1779, but bought back in 1871. The attempt
to deport the natives — out of pity for their
suppraed hard lot — to Australia in 1856 was
stultified by the return of the emigrants. Ships'
boats touching at the island communicate what
is called " strangers' cold " ; but the eight-day
sickness," formerly a terrible scourge (since it
was the exception and not the rule for an infant
to survive its eighth day), has yielded to treat-
ment; the use of antiseptics and the practice
of some regard for sanitation having almost
stamped it out. There is a mail service a few
times every year, but during about nine months
out of the twelve the natives are without news
of the world’s doings. Pop., 80.

St. Kitts. [Bt. Chbistopheb.]

St. ILawreiloe, S. great river of North America
which flows about 760 miles in a north-easterly
direction from Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. In a wider and more usual sense
the name embraces the whole chain of great
lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario),
with the rivers between them up to the springs
of the river St. Louis in the Mesaba range of
mountains in Minnesota, the ultimate source
of this enormous mass of fresh water, which
has, tins regarded, a total length of 2,200 miles
and a drainage basin of 600.000 square miles.
Between Lakes Superior and Huron the etream


being over 100 miles. Some of the broader parta
of the upper river are studded with numerous
islands, and a long stretch immediately below
Lake Ontario, called the " Lake of the Thousand
Isles," is famous for its beautiful scenery. The
channel was widened and deepened in 1868, so
as to afford access for vessels of 4,000 tons to
Montreal, 600 miles above the mouth. The chief
tributaries are the Ottawa and the Richelieu.

The great lakes and the river to the point where
it crosses the parallel of 45® N. form the
boundary between Canada and the United States.
Jacques Cartier ascended the stream in 1535-6
as far as the site of Montreal. On August 30th,

1907, the huge bridge on the cantilever principle,
then in course of erection across the river seven
miles above Quebec, collapsed with a loss of
at least 80 lives, all workmen. The Giru' of
Sf. Lawbxncb, into which the river flows, lies
between Labrador on the N., Lower Canipa on
the W., New Brunswick on the S.W., Nova
Scotia and Cape Breton Island on the S., and
Newfoundland on the E. Its length from north
to south is about 300 miles, and its breadth
about 240 miles. It " communicates with the
ocean by the Strait of Belle Isle to the north
of Newfoundland, Cabot Strait dividing New-
foundland from Cape Breton Island and the ^
Gut of Canso between Cape Breton Island and i,

Nova Scotia. /h

-ir

fit. Xidonards-oii'^fiaaf a fashionable water*
ing-place on the coast of Sussex, England, 64
miles S. by E. of London. Although lyiac^
immediately to the west of Hastings aw
forming an integral part of the boroughi

, §



( 44 )


'Mrm




and 'apfieara'nbe'.of 'the two'plices'are'
so dissimilar that, in spite of their aetgal eoii'^
tittiity» thej look like separate towns. iSmstings
is aaeient,. St. Leonards is ecaroelj older than
the first Bnform Aet, l^'he only telio of antiquity
it possesses is the hnere hlook of undressed stone
which lies in a small enclosed garden on the
parade, and which, according to tradition, was
used by William the Conqueror as a dining-table
on the day he landed at Bulverhythe, some
two miles westwards. The front is spacious and
handsOmc^^ The principal buildings are the
Victoria Hotel, and, b^ind it, what was toiv
merly the Assembly ^oms— the two being the^
nucleus round which the fashionable Quarter
grew ; tbt parish church off the Marina^ and the
great houses of Warrior Square. It is un-
fortunate that the arch which once crossed the
front towards the bbnada^-line between Hast-


by Geoffrey Tlantagenet, but welcomed ThiJlF
Augustus in 1203. IVken by the English under
Edward IH. and again in Hll, it Was per-
manently attached to France in 1460. It suffered
for its adhesion to the Beformation, and when
the Edict of Nantes was revoked many of its
people emigrated. Leverrier^ the astronomer^
was born here in 1811, and is commemorated by
a bust which has lor a pedestal the Torigny
Marble, marking the site where the Gauls held
their assemblies in the Eoman period. The Chief
buildings are the oAthedral of Notre Lame (14th
century), the picture galley, and the abbey of
St. Croix. Weaving, spinning, and tanning are
the main industries, r op. (1901), 10,829.

Sfet XfOiligi a city in the State of Missouri,
United States, on the right bank of the Missis-
sippi, 20 miles below its confluence with the



ST, malo. [Photj: Neurdein, Paris.


ings and St. Leonards (the site now marked by
a block of red granite) was removed, for it was
qiiaint and was nob an obstacle. The public

3 aces include tbe romantic gardens at Maze
ill and Gensing Gardens, besides the pro-
menade pier. In picturesque country, two miles
to th^ south, stands Hollington Church, the
beautiful little " church in the wood referred
to in one of Charles Lamb's letters. Pop. (1901),
26,872.

St. L6, a town in the department of Manobe,
France, on the right bank of the Tire, 16 miles
S. of the river's mouth in the English Channel,
and4he same distance E. by N. of Coutances.
Lriginally called Briovira (Bridge of Tire), it
received its present name from Bishop Ld. or
Lauduf, who flourished in the 6th century.
Sacked by the Normans, it was captured in 1141


Missouri. It ranks fourth in the Union in point
of population, and forms an important commer-
cial centre. The city is built on three terraces,
beyond the highest of which extends a broad
plain, four miles from the river and 200 feet
above its level. Its river frontage is 20 miles,
several miles of which are occupied by wharves.
The newer part consists of broad straight
streets, but the public buildings, though massive
and solid, are not remarkable for the beauty of
their architecture ; the city hall, law courts, the
county court-house, the custom-house, chamber
of commerce, art gallery, Coliseum, and the
post-office are the most important. The city
contains two universities (the Washington and
the St. Louis), besides numerous schools of high
repute. It possesses in Forest Pal% (1*370 acres),
Tower Grove Park (276 acres), and the Missouri
Botanical Garden (the gift of Henry Shaw)


(45)


St. l^nis.


pleasure grounds botk lordly and spacious, and
in 1904 was the site of the Irouisiana Purchase
Exposition, or World's Fair. The Eads steel
bridge (constructed 1869*74) is built on three
arches, of which that in the centre has a span
of 520 feet and each of the others a span of 504
feet, and three miles farther up the river is
the Merchants* Bridge, completed in 1890 and
utilised exclusively by railways. The history
of the city dates back to 1764, when the French
Louisiana Fur (Company established a station
here; but it had made little progress in 1803,
when Irfouisiana was purchasea from France by
President Jefferson, Since 1840 its growth has
been rapid, and its trade continues to increase
from year to year. It is the centre of an agri-
cultural district from which it receives large
supplies of grain; cotton is also imported ex-
tensively, and beer, corn, and tobacco rank


St. MilOy.

'' ;

cxxc jTJtveir iown. There is a railway to
Dakar (10,447), 130 miles to the south-east,
where there is exceEent harboiiar accommodation
available for steamers* and which is the adminis^
trative seat of the 0overnor-0eneral of French
West Africa. Pop. (1901), 24,070.

St. Xitioiai one of the British West Indih
Islands, in the Windward group, lying> in
14° N. and 60° W., between Martinique to the
north and St. Vincent to the south. It has aft
area of 233 square miles. The island; is Of
volcanic origin, and the crater of Soufrifere still
gives off sulphurous gases. The surface uet
mostly mountainous, rising at two points to a
height of 3,000 feet. Dense forests still prevail,
and the valleys are well cultivated. Sugar,
cacao, rum, logwood, and spices are the prin-
cipal products. The island is governed by an



among its chief products. The principal manu- |
facture is that of boots and shoes. Pop. (1840),
16,469; (1900), 575,238.

St. capital of the French colony of

Senegal, West Africa, on a sandy island, about
10 miles from the mouth of the Senegal in the
Atlantic. Though substantially built, it is
unhealthy, lying very little above the level of
the river and the marshy lagoons it forms, the
exhalations of which are noisome. The principal
buildings are Government House, the great
mosque, the Eoman Catholic cathedral, and
the court-house. Owing to the bar at the mouth
of the Senegal, ships cannot approach the city
without the aid of a pilot, but the export and
import trade are nevertheless considerable, es-
pecially in textiles, arms, rice, and building
mateipals, with the tribes through whose terri-


administrator, with a nominated executive and
legislative council. Discovered by Columlftts in
1602, when it was peopled by Caribs, it was
settled by the English in 1639. Afterwards it
passed * alternately into the hands of English
and French, being finally ceded to Great Bhtain
in 1808. In 1797-8 Sir John Moore was in com-
mand of the island. Castries (7,767), on the
north-west coast, is the capital. Pop, (1904),
52,682.

St. ValOf a fortified seaport in Brittany, at the
mouth of the Ranee, in the department of Hie-
et-Vilaine, France, 42 miles N. by W. of Rennes.
It is built in ' the form of an amphitheatre on
a rocky, island connected by a causeway (the
Sillon) with the mainland. The ancient walls
and narrow, winding streets give thft town a
picturesque medimval aspect, almost ftcbentuated



(46)


flt. IfAff %


nt mws^M


JbjT its smells. Among the iJiincipal buildings
axe the old castle cathedral, town baH, si^d
museum. The harbour, which is safe but diffi-
cult of access, is dry at low water, but at spring
tides has a depth of 45 or 50 feet. St. Male
carries on a large trade, mainly with Great *
Britain, the chiei exports being butter, eggs,
potatoes, buckwheat, barley, ana fruit. The m-
dustries include shipbuilding, the hsherieo, and
the making of ropes and sails. In summer the
excellent aea-bathing attracts large numbers of «
idsitors. is coastal communication be-

tween St. Servan and St. Malo by means of the
pmU rouiant, or rolling bridge.” The town


at its broadest part, between Coppercleuch and
Bowerhope. Of the ancient Kirk of St, Mary
nothing remains but the rude churchyard. It
was first mentioned about 1275, and bore Sncb
Tarious names as the Forest Kirk (where, it has
been said, William Wallace was chosen Warden
of Scotland), St. Mary’s of Farmainishope, St.
Mary of the Lowes, and the Kirk of Yarrow.
It was destroyed in June, 1557, during a feud
between the Scots of Buccleuch and the clan
Oranstoun. It was partially restored, but never
regained its former consequence, and when a
new church was built farther down the valley »
St. Mary’s ruins were gradually swallowed up



MOKT ST. MICHIL.


took its name from Malo (Maclovius or Malo-
vius), a Welsh priest, who sought its shelter in
the 6th century. In the 17th and 18th cen-
turies E^lish fleets repeatedly sustained severe
checks off the port. Among the goodly number
of famous natives were Jacques Cartier, the
explorer; Edn4 Duguay-Trouin, the admiral;
Lamennais, the theologian ; Maupertuis, the
mathematician; and Chateaubriand, who was
buried, by his own desire, on the adjoining

f xanite islet of Grand B5 in 1848. Pop. (1901),
1,486.

St. Mary’s Zioolli a freshwater lake, Selkirk-
shire, Scotland, the largest in the south of
Scotland, 16 miles W. by S. of Selkirk, 154 miles
K.E, of Moffat. It measures 3 miles in length,
7| miles in circumference, and 1 mile in breadth


in the ground. It figured in many of the old
ballads, such as "The Douglas Tragedy.” The
lake is situated 729 feet above the sea, and its
quiet beauty and deep peace have ^on sung
by Sir Walter Scott, James Hogg, William
Wordsworth, and many Border poets. Near the
head of the loch stood Tibbie ShieFs famous inn,
which, considering its unpretentious character,
attracted more cdebrated men than any other
hostelry of similar size in the world. Among
the clients of Tibbie (1782-1878) were " Christo-
pher North,” the Ettrick Shepherd, .^oun,
Stoddart (the angler-poet), Alexander Kussel,
Henry Glaasford Bell (sheriff and poet), Sir
David Brewster, Principal Shairp, Dr. Chalmers,
Dr. Guthrie, Heau Stanley, Professor Caird,
Professor Blackie, and a host of other professors
from Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews;



( 47 )


St. XioliMil’s Xoimt.


wMle the iroll of distin^abed visitors included
the names of Edward Irving, Thomas Carlyle,
Eliot Warhurton, W, B. Gladstone, Dr. John
Brown (author of Mah and his Friends), and
Bobert liouis Stevehson.

Si. ViohMl’s Motui'i a pyramidal rock of
granite in Mount's Bay, Cornwall, 3 miles E.
of Fensance. It is connected with Marazion
on the mainland by a causeway which is covezed
^ the tide during eight hours out of the twelve.
The castle on its summit (195 feet above the I
sands), which has belonged to the St. Aubyn
family since 1660, occupies the site of a Bene- i
dictine priory founded by Edward the Confessor.
The ancient portion comprises a hall, a refectory,
a Perpendicular chapel, and a tower, also Per- :
pendicular, with a stone lantern (commonly
called St. Michaers Chair) at the south-west
angle. At ^ the base of the Mount, on the
Marazion side, are a few houses, a harbour
and pier.

St. Miohely Mont, an insulated granite rock
of conical form off the department of Manche
in Normandy, France, 8 miles W.S.W. of Avran-
chee. Its steep ascent from the surrounding
sands to a height of 242 feet, where it terminates
in a platform on which there are buildings,
gives it a very picturesque appearance. A
temple or fortress attributed to Druids existed
here at a very early date, and in the 8th
century a Benedictine monastery w^ erected
on the spot where St, Michael had appeared in
a vision. The castellated buildings of the abbey
range in date from the 12th to the 16th cen-
tury. At the foot of the mount there is a town
of ' about 400 inhabitants. For considerable
periods the buildings have been a State prison,
and Cardinal Ballue and Armand Barbas were
among those confined here. The rock is con-
nected with the mainland by means of a cause-
way.

St. Ndj;air6f a seaport of the department of
Loire-Inferieure, France, on the northern shore
of the estuary of the Loire, 35 miles W. of
Nantes. Owing to the difficulties of navigating
the river as far as Nantes, St. Nazaire has
become the deep-sea port of this town. It con-
tains docks capable of accommodating liners.
The industries include shipbuilding, carried
on on an extensive scale, and it has large
iron-works, flour-mills, and saw-mills. A sana-
torium has been established at La Baule, and
this place and Saint Marguerite, noted for
their invigorating air, are largely resorted to
for sea-bathing and purposes of health. Pop.
(1901), 36,813.

St. aveotgf a town of Huntingdonshire,
England, on the right bank of the Ouse, 9
miles S. by W. of Huntingdon. The river is
crossed by a stone bridge of three arches, built
in 1589, which communicates with Bedford-
shire. The Perpendicular church of the Blessed
Tirgin Mary is an exceptionally fine structure,
un^ other buildings include the corn exchange,
the public rooms, Victoria Museum, and the


Mt, Bmvl IkMiilidLai.


librarjT iind literary institut^^ The industries
comprise paper-muls, brew|]fiei, flour-mills,
engineering works, and maltiig-kilns and barm.
Pop. (1901), 3,880.

St. JTieolaSf a town of East Flanders, Belgium,
20 miles E.N.E. of Gheht. It has a fine town ball,
and a spacious market-place, where, in 1497, Philip
the Fair vowed to maintain the privileges of the
Pays de Waes, an ancient district of which St.
Nicolas was the capital The chief manufactures
are textiles and needles. Pop. (1900), 31,083.

St. Omar, a town of the department of Pas-de*
Calais, on the Aa, 24 miles S.E. of Calais. It whs
named after Omer, Bishop of Th^rouanne in the
7th century. Owing to its position it was repeat-
edly harried by French, British, and Flemings, but
was assigned to France in 1678. Among the prin-
cipal buildings are the cathedral of Notre Dame,
containing a 12th-century image of the Virgin in
wood to which pilgrimages are constantly made,
the church of St. Sepulchre with a fine spire and
stained-glass windows, the town hall, largely con^
^structed of the materials of the abbey of St. Bertin
(of the abbey church only the lofty tower and some
arches remain), the military hospital (once the
English Jesuit College, founded in 1692, where
Daniel O’Connell was educated), the court-house
formerly the episcopal palace), and the library.
The manufactures comprise textiles, hosiery, to-
bacco pipes, sugar, starch, spirits, floor, and paper.
Pop. (1901), 20,687.

Saintongei formerly a province in the west of
France, bounded on the N. by Aunis and Poitou,
on the E. by Angoumois, on the S. by Guienne, and
on the W. by Guienne and the Bay of Biscay.
Saintes was the capital. The area is now repre-
sented by most of the department of Oharente-
Inf6rieure and part of that of Charente,

St. Fanl, the capital of Minnesota, United
States, on the left bank of the Mississippi, a short
distance below the point where it is joined by the
Minnesota, 10 miles below the falls of St. Anthony.
It is thus the head of navigation. The settlement
of the city dates from 1838, and it derives its
name from the log church which was erected in
1841, and which a Jesuit priest had dedicated to
Saint Paul. The site was not an ideal op^ for a
town, the ground rising in terraces (in some places
steeply) from the stream and not lending itsell
readily to the construction of streets. The larger
part stands on a plateau 70 feet above the river, in
the midst of an amphitheatre of lulls. The public
buildings include the State Capitol, custom house,
city hall, city market, and chamber of commerce.
Associated with the city are Macal^ter College
(Presbyterian), Hamline University (Methodist),
and St. Thomas’s College (Roman (5atbolic). The
manufactures comprise agricultural implements,
waggons, carriages, machinery, flour, and boots
and shoes, but the town is a distributing rather
than an industrial centre. Pop. (1900), 163,066.

St. Faul de Loaada (Bio Paolo da As-
sxJMP<?o DB Loanda), the chief towp of An|ola,
Portuguese W6st Africa, situated in 9’ S. Fouaded



(«)




111 1&78« font jeairg after the l^ortegoese had
annexed the oountry. it was captured in 1641 vl^
the Dutch/ who held it for a period during which
it hecame a slave port. When the Portuguese re*
corered it they still made slave traffic their chief
business, and after this trade ceased the town de-
clined. It was laid out on spacious lines, but its
grandeur is more apparent than real; the harbour,
thoi^h the best in the Atlantic tropics south of
the Equator, is shoaling up, and the general air of
shabby geilliiity Is unmistakable. Gas was intro-
duced in 1603, and a railway has been constructed
inland as far as Ambaca, 150 miles to the east. It
is almost wholly a distributing oentre. Pop.
(estimated), 50,000, though some authorities place
it at not more than half of this number,

#tf Paul’v ikiliool, IfOTOON, was founded
(1500-12) by John Colet, Dean of St. Paul's Cathe-
dral, for 156 boys without restriction as to class
or nationality. It was originally in St. PjiuPs
C hurchyard, and was burnt in 1666. Two later
schools were built, and in 1884 it was removed,
under a scheme of the Charity Commissioners, to
King Street, Hammersmith, And has accommoda-
tion for 500 boys, with a modern school for 500
boys and a high school for 400 girls. Its governors
are appointed partly by the Mercers* Company and
partly by the Universities. There are exhibitions
to Oxford, Oambridge, and Woolwich. William
Lilye was the first high-maSter, and among noted
Paulines were John Milton, Samuel Pepys, the
Duke of Marlborough, Judge Jeffreys, and ]fenjamm
Jewett.

St. iPovtf the chief town of Guernsey,

Channel Islands, situated on the east side of the
island, 115 miles S,W. of Southampton, Owing
to its natural features and the Oohtmental .aspect
of the houses on the front, it presents a very
picturesque appearance from the harbour. The
principal builaings are St* Peter’s CbUJ^h (1312), a
good the. flamboyant style, St. James's

Church (1618), the oouit- house, the markets, the
Guille- Alias library and museum (formerly the
assembly rooms), Candie House, Fort George,
Elizabeth College, founded by Queen Elizabeth in
1568, the hospital (1742), the Victoria Cottage
Hospital (1888), Castle Comet, at one side of the
harbour and connected with the mainland by a
breakwater, and Hauteville House, the residence of
Victor Hugo, still in much the same condition as
when he occupied it, and containing, among other
things, some beautiful examples of oak carving.
The industries are chiefly concerned with the
granite quames and the growth of tomatoes,
grapes and other fruits and vegetables for the early
markets. The capacious harbour does the whole
of the export and Import trade of the island.
Pop. (1901), 18,264.

St. Petexttliiirf • [PBTBBSBirito.]

St. the largest town though not the

Capital of the French colony of Martinique, one of
the Josser Antilles Islands, in the We^t Indies.
It founded in 1665, and was the birthplace of
Jos«|»hine, Napoleon*s first wife. It had man^


handsome buildings, but was overwh^med by» an
eruption of &L Feke On May 8th> 1901, w|ien the
bulk of the population and 5,000 of the dTrellnrs in
the suburbs perished. Yet another fine town has
risen from the ashes of the old one. fop* (li01),
26,011..

St.«3P£0VVn9 JACQUBS HbNBI BBBBABBIlir I>B»
romantic writer, was born at Havre, France, on
January 19tb, 1787, and educated at Caen and
Rouen. He was apprenticed to an engineer, after
which he served for a time in an engineering corps
in the army, and spent a few years in wandering
from one European country to another in some-
wbat aimless fashion. He was despatched to lie
de France (Mauritius) on a Government oommis-
sionin 1768, and passed three years on the island,
not without results, as afterwards appeared. His
literary tastes, however, led to his formally^devoting
himself to authorship, and he produced various
admirable works, such as Za ChaUmUre InMmne^
Mudea de la Nature (1784), Harmonies de la
Nature^ and especially the beautiful story of Paul
et Virginie (1787), which went through ~ fifty
editions in a year, and is known and appreciatea
throughout the civilised world. So touching and
graceful an idyll came as an oasis in the material;
istio desert of French literature of the period.
St.-Pierre was an enthusiastic disciple of Rousseau,
and his intense love of nature was largely due to
his study of Jean JacquesV writing. Kapcleo(|
conferred upon him the Legion of Honour, and he
was given a pension of 6,000 francs by Jo^ph
Bonaparte. He died at Eragny, near Pontoise/ on ^
January 21st, 1814. ' / : r

fit. Quantiil^ a tdwn of the department of
Aisne, France, on the right bank of the fiOmiie)
23 miles S. of Cambrai. The church it A noble,
building, ranging in date from the 12th to the 15tl||
century, with a crypt of much greater age. The
handsome Gothic town ball was erected in the 16th
and 16th centuries. Cotton goods and embroidery,
maohineiy, paper, vstigar, soap and beer arb manu-
factured on a large scale. It was named in honout
of Cains Quintinus, who was martyred in the 3|rd
century whilst preaching Christianity. Philip II.
of Spam celebrated its capture in 1667 by building
the palace of the Escorial, but it was restored^to
France two years later, and in 1560 formed part of
the dowry of Mary Stewart. During the ^ranoo^
German war a hostile attack was repulsed on '
October 8th, 1870, but the Germans retaliated on
January 19tb, 1871, with a crushing defeat of
General Faidherbe and the capture of thousands
of prisoners. Pop. (1901), 60,270.

CjSsau Visghabd, ABui: bb, his-
torian, was born at Chamb5ry, Savoy, in. 1639, and
was educated by the Jesuits at Paris, whither he
was sent at the age of sixteen. He gave mubb
attention to historical study, and was made historio-
grapher Of Savoy after his return from England,
whither he had accompanied St. EvremoBd and
the Duchess of Mazarln. He wrote the memoirs
of the last-namedt but his principal work i« his
^ (1674), a masterpieoa in its



mi.4Mam ( 49 ) tt. StoplMB** Clwvel.



GhabIiSS Camille, composer and
mn^ioiiuQ, was bom at Paris on October 9th, 1836.
He early showed great musical talent and studied
the piano under Stamaty, harmony under Maleden,
and (at the Conservatoire, which he entered in
1847, and where he won numerous prizes) the organ
imder Benoist : here, too, he studied under J. F.
Hal6vy. He became organist of the church of
St. M6ry in 1853, and, five years later, was ap-
pointed to the Madeleine. He gained the prize
offered in 1867 by the International Exhibition for
his cantata iVom de PromeMe, In 1877 his
sacred drama JSdnism et Delilah was produced at
Weimar. Among his best-known works should be
named, in addition to the two already mentioned.
La Princem Jame (1872), Le Timbre d^ Argent
(1877), Mienm Mao'cel (1879), HenH VIII, (1883),
Aemnio (1890), Phryne (1893), Dcjamire (1898),
and Les Parbares (1901), besides symphonies in
A and 0, the “ Danse Macabre,” and concertos for
the piano, violin and violoncello, and several
orchestral pieces. He was elected a Member of
the Institut in 1881, and is LL.D. of Cambridge
University. Though his operas were not successful,
his attainments are of the highest, and he ranks as
one of the most scholarly musicians his country
has ever produced, while as an executant on the
and organ he^ has displayed the greatest
*^[^litles of a virtuoso.

flainiuibtiry, George Edward Bateman,
man of letters, was born at Southampton, England,
on October 23rd, 1846, and educated at King’s
Collie, Uondon, and Merton College, Oxford. For
some he held appointments as a master at

tferiouB tohoolgf but from 1876 to 1896 became an
I iPBLuential reviewer and critic on the London daily
' and weekly press and in the monthly magazines,
’ specialising in English and French literature. In
1895 he was appointed to the Chair of Khetoric
apd English Literature in Edinburgh University,
and no higher tribute could have been paid to
his aocompUshments than to be chosen os the
successor of David Masson. His works include
Dryden (1881), A Short HUtory df French Liter-
(1882), MO/rUborfAtgh (1885), Mizahethan Liter-
ature (1887), JSamy* in Fnalish Literature (1890;
189^, Misayt on J^mch Novelists (1891), The Earl
of Parhy (1892), Nineteenth Century Literature
(1896), The Mourishing of Momance a/nd the Pise of
Allegory (1897), Sir Walter Scott (1897), A Short
Mistory of MwUsh Literature (1898), Matthew
ArwuM (1899), A Nistory of Criticism (1900), The
EobrUer Menadssanoe (190y, Minor Caroline Poets
(I906)i and ^ of Enylish Proiody (1906).

SI. tifvmip a town in the department of Hie-
etr¥ilalne« France, on the right shore of the estuary
of the Eance, adjoining SL Malo, from which it is
i^parated by a creek one mile wide. The strong-
n^ of Dmidism in that part of Gaul, it was con-
verted to Christianity bj St. Malo in the 6th
oentnry, and at a later date was named after St.
Servah, the apostle of the Orkneys. The tower of

196-^k.b.


Solidor was erected in the 14th centuiy in order to
resist the claim of the Bisyp of St. Malo to
temporal authority over the towi. There is a con-
siderable influx of visitors every summer. Pop.
(1901), 12,697.

8t.-Si]iioap Claddb Henri, Count de,
socialist and humanitarian, was born at Paris on
October 17th, 1760, and studied under D’Alembert,
afterwards proceeding, in the name of Liberty, to
fight for the New England colonies against Crept
Britain, though taking scarcely any part in his owii
country’s Kevoliition. His sympathetic nature led
to his founding the party or sect called after his
name, his desire being to ameliorate the suffering of
the masses. In pursuance of this object he spent
his fortune, and, disbelieving in hereditary rank,
renounced his title. One of his chief propositions
was that industry alone was the cause of happiness,
and that rank should depend upon the fitness of the
individual to live up to the ideal of labour. He
made himself a beggar by his scheme, and was at
times literally starving, being glad at last to obtain
a clerkship at £40 a year. In 1823 he attempted
suicide, and died two years afterwards in Paris on
May 19th. He had comparatively few disciples,
though many of them were, or became, men of nigh
distinction. The sect broke up chiefly through
disputes as to the position of women. His system
was an essentially religious and despotic type of
Socialism. In 1807 he formulated it in the Intro-
duction to the Scientific Achievements of the 19th
Century^ and his later works, such as L Industrie^
ou Discussions politigues, morales et philosophignes
(1817), CaUchisme des Industriels (1823), Nouveau
ChrUtianisme (1825), are full of his ardent philan-
thropy. He was the inspirer of Auguste Comte.

St.-Simoiii Louis db Rouveroy, Duo be,
statesman and memoirs- writer, was born at Ver-
sailles, France, on January 16th, 1676, and ednoated
privately and at Rochefort. He became a notable
diplomatist in the reign of Louis XIV, H© had
been a soldier, and had fought in Flanders, but
diplomacy was a natural outcome of his keen,
observant mind. He lived in what has been called
the Augustan age of French literature, and his
remarkable MSmoires are probably the most valu-
able record of the time in existence. There all his
famous contemporaries appear, and mai^lhldden
springs of royal action are revealed . Saint-Simon wa#
a courtier, and was entrusted in 1721 with the task,
as ambassador to Spain, of arranging a marriage
between the Infanta and I^uis XV. He was also
a member of the council of the Duke of Orleans.
He died in Paris on March 2nd, 1756, weighed down
by years and debt. The first complete edition of
his MSmoires appeared in 1830, but there is a latef
^ition in 30 volumes.

St. Okapal, WBgTitlNBTBR, ^wa®

buUt by Kmg Stephen in immediate contiguity to
the Palace, Rebuilt by Edward I., it was burned
down in 1298, and rebuilt under Edward II. and
Edward III. in the most perfect style of Decorated
Gothic. Its walls, painted in exquisite
work, were covered with wainscoting when f ho



St» Tbumajk


(60)


SaU.


chapel was adapted for the use of the Slotise of
Comiuons in Edward VI.’s reign. It was partly
demolished in 1800, when the House had to be
enlarged to provide room for the “Irish members,
and was almost completely destroyed by the fire of
1831. Its crypt alone survived, and is now incor-
porated— a “ bedizened coal-hole,’’ in the words of a
minister of savage tongue— in Westminster Palace.
Its name, however, has survived as a synonym for
the Housef of Parliament themselves.

8t« Tli01|iai8 (Portuguese, Sao Thom£), an
island in the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, imme-
diately north of the Equator, 166 miles W. of the
Gaboon, the nearest point of the continent. It is
32 miles long, 21 miles from east to west, and
covers an area of 360 square miles. The surface is
mountainous, reaching a height of 6,000 feet in the
peak of St. Thomaa. The rich volcanic soil yields
cacao, coffee, rubber, and cinchona. St. Thomas,
the capital, is situated on the north-east coast.
The island was discovered by the Portuguese about
1470. Pop. (1902), 42,103.

8t. !tllOliia0i one of the Virgin Isles, West
Indies, 36 miles E. of Porto Rico. It is 13 miles
long from east to west, 3 miles broad, and covers
an area of 33 square miles. Its highest point is
1,686 feet above sea-level. Before the abolition of
slavery (1848), sugar-planting flourished, but now
vegetables, fruit, guinea grass, and cotton are the
only products, and the island is not self-sustaining.
'The port of Charlotte Amalie, on the south coast,
is the chief town. The island was discovered by
Columbus in 1493, colonised by the Dutch in 1657,
and acquired by Denmark in 1671. The neutrality
of Denmark in several wars stood in good stead, as
it was the port where prizes were taken for sale
and also whence colonial produce could be sent to
Europe. In 1764 the Danish king threw the port
open to vessels of all nations, and in 1871 removed
the headquarters of his West Indian possessions
from St. Croix to St. Thomas. Pop. (1901), 11,012.

St.-Victor, Adam of, a Latin hymnologist of
the 12th century, who lived in the Augustinian
abbey of St. Victor in Paris, and was a personal
friend of Thomas Becket. His complete hymns
were published in 1858, and are considered excel-
lent specimens of mediaeval Latin poetry. Hugh
OF St. Victor, who was bom in 1097 and died in
1141, was called the Second Augustine, and was a
famous mystic. He taught theology at the abbey
of St. Victor, and one of his pupils was Richard
OF St. Victor, a Scot, who became prior in 1162
and died in 1173, and whose works were collected
and published for the first time in 1606. He was
more of a mystic even than his master.

St. Vinoent, an island of the Windward group
of the Lesser Antilles, West Indies, 100 miles W.
of Barbados. It measures 18 miles from north to
south by 11 miles in breadth, and occupies an area
of 132 square miles. The island is volcanic, the
highest point, the Souffrifere, being in activity in
1812 and 1902. It was also devastated by a hurri-
cane in 1898. Though the yearly rainfall averages
80 inches the climate is not unhealthy, and the


fertile vaUeys and coastal land produce sugar,
cotton, cocoa, spices, arrowroot, and timber, and
rum is distilled. Kingston, on the south-western
coast, is the capital. St. Vincent was discovered
by Columbus in 1498. When Charles I. gave it to
the Earl of Carlisle in 1627 it was still inhabite4
by Caribs. In consequence of hostilities with them,
and of the French making common cause with the
natives for their own ends, Great Britain took over
the island and governed it herself. It is under an
administrator and legislative council. Pop. (1901),
47,548.

8t. Vincentf Cape, the south-western extrem-
ity of Portugal, situated in the province of Algarve
in 37® N. It has been the scene of the following
naval battles : — Sir George Rooke defeated the
French fleet on June 16th, 1693 ; Lord Rodney
defeated a Spanish force on January 16th, 1780 ;
on February 14th, 1797, Lord St. Vincent defeated
the Spanish fleet ; and Sir Charles Napier, in the
interests of Queen Maria of Portugal, defeated and
partially destroyed the fleet of JDom Miguel, the
usurper, on July 6th, 1833.

8t. Vincent. [Jervis.]

8t. Vitns’s Dance. [Chorea.]

8akalairaS9 the aborigines of the west coast of
Madagascar. They are a wild people little removed
from the savage state, serpi4ndependent of the *
Central Government, but xvillbut national coherl
ence, and diviifed into a great many trib»| groupkj
of which the ipost numerous are the BOhisotra,
Isimahety, Tandrona, and Antankaras, They v
worship Zanahary, a great spirit dweliy|||bn the
mountain-tops, in the forests and river®^ Their||
type is fundamentally Negro, now doubtless -
modified by Malay and perhaps by Arab elements, i
Their speech is Malagasy and differs little from^
that of the Hovas. Their numbers have been
estimated at about 600,000.

8a]ci {Pithecia)^ a genus of non-prehensile-tailed
monkeys of the New World, confined to the
swampy forests of the Amazons and tributary and
adjoining rivers of tropical South America. The
partition between the nostrils is broad ; these open
sideways and the lower part of the nose is flat.
The tail varies in length in different speoies, so
much so indeed that the genus has been divided
into the long-tailed section and the short-tailed.
The Hand-drinking Monkey (Pitkeoia cheirojpote^f
of a brownish-red colour, is two feet nine inches
long including the tail, and derives its name from
its habit, which is doubtless acquired, of lifting the
water to its mouth instead of putting down its
mouth to drink, in order t6 avoid wetting its long,
thick beard, of which it is inordinately vain. It
struck Humboldt and Broderip as being singularly
human in its aspect. In the Hairy Saki {Pitkeoia
kirmta)^ the tail of speckled grey is eighteen inches
long (fully longer than the body). This creature,
which seldom lives more than a few weeks in
captivity, yet displays more attachment to man
than any other monkey of the continent. There is
a rare Saki {Pitkeeia or Brachyums efdvvs) whose
appearance is extremely grotesque. This is



BalmTitaVa,'


( 51 )


Saladin;


variously kflown as the Scarlet-faced or Bald-
headed Saki, or tJakari. It is a little creature
with very short tail, has long, shining, whitish
hair, a nearly bald head, and its face is of a
bright scarlet. Its bizarre look is enhanced by a
pair of bushy, sandy whiskers meeting under the
chin, and reddish-yellow eyes. In the Black-
headed and White-headed Saki {Pit%eci4i Ttielano-
c^hala and l&ueocmkala) the tail is very bushy,
but does not exceed three inches in length.


Sakantala, a female character of Hindu
mythology whose story forms the subject of a
drama. Heavenly nymphs used to descend to
tempt the sages, and such a one overcame Vis-
wanidra and bore him a daughter, Sakuntala.
After a time the mother returned to heaven, and
the sage to religion, and the daughter was taken
care of by another sage, who dwelt in a forest
where reigned the princes of the Lunar line. A
I prince met her and married her with the sanction
!: of the deities, and her son was founder of the race
^ of Bhfiratas,

i Sala* Geobge Augustus, journalist, was born
I in London on November 24th, 1828, and educated
I at home and in Paris. His grandfather was Italian,



Q. A. SALA.

tP^Oto: Van der Weyde)^


his mother French, and, 1 hanks to the latter, he
soon became an expert in her language. His
decided giffe for drawing induced him for a time
to turn to scene-painting and the illustration of
books, but Charles Bickens’s appreciation of some
articles contributed to Mmsehola Words, and later
to All the Xmr Bmird, finally led him to adopt the
literkry <^llng. In 1867 he began his connection
with the Telegraphy which lasted almost un-
broken till 1888. From the proprietors of the paper
ho rcoblvcd, ns he said, “ the wages of an ambas


sador and the treatment of A gfentleman.” In 1859
he published Twice Mound tMi Cloohy or the Moure
of the May and Night in London, a collection of
social sketches which had a wide and lasting vogue.
From 1800 to 1886 he was engaged in supplying
the lUuetrated London Newe with a column of
gossip and anecdote under the title of “ Echoes of
the Week,” and initialled “ G. A. S.,” which became
a feature of the paper. To the first and second
volumes of The Comhill (1800) he contributed the
series of essays which six years later appeared in
volume form as William Mogarth, Faii/der, Bn-
graver and Philosopher, In 1860 he founded
Temple Bar. Among his novels, which never
acquired any real hold on popular favour, were
llte Seven Sons of Mammon (1802), Qtiite Alone
(1863), and The Strange Adventures of Captain
Dangerous (1803). Towards the latter end of his
career he undertook many journalistic travels to
various countries of Europe and the United States,
culminating in a trip round the globe, of which
the descriptive accounts were published in the
Daily Telegraph, liis experiences being retold in
Things I have Seen and People / have Known (1894).
His failing health was aggravated by pecuniary
losses in connection with a weekly periodical,
Salads Jortrnal (1892), which collapsed in two
years. In 1896 he wrote The Life and Letters of
George AugxisUcs Sa>la, and in the same year pub-
lished a comprehensive cookery book, The Thorough
Good Cooli, the subject of c%dnne having attracted
him all his life. He died at Brighton on December
8th, 1895.

SalaaiXLi the form of samtation (strictly, oral)
in vogue among certain Oriental peoples. It is
their version of the more familiar daily salutations
observed among Western nations, and the ex-
pression means “ Peace 1 or “ Health be with
you 1 ’’ At times the salutation acquires a much
more ceremonious character, in the presence of
persons of higher rank than the saluter, when it
is gravely performed in dumb show by bowing the
head downwards (in extreme cases almost to the
ground) and placing the palm of the right hand on
the forehead.

SaladiUy or Salah-ed-debn, the great Sultan
of Egypt and Syria, was born at Tekrit, on the
Tigris, in 1137, and when about thirty y<mrs old
went with his uncle Shirkoh to Egypt to fight the
Crusaders. His remarkable courage was soon dis-
played to advantage, and his uncle was made
Grand Vizier, Saladin succeeding him. Gradually
increasing his power, he was named sultan on the
death of Noureddin in 1173, and soon signalised
his prowess by the capture of Damascus, Aleppo,
and other cities, entering the Holy Land in 1187,
and totally defeating the Christians at Tiberias,
under Guy de Lusignan, who was taken prisoner.
In October of the same year he captured Jerusalem,
and in November laid siege to Tyre without success.
When the Third Crusade was started, Saladin had
to meet Kichard Coeur de Lion, who proved himself
a formidable foe ; and in 1192 a three years’ truce
was agreed to, but Saladin died in the following
year at Damascus. He. was a man of no1)la


ehmmter, moderate and benevolent, <^onr8ging
tbe murders and robberies of his foUowers, and
bnilding thronghout Egypt, Syria, and Arabia,
moag^nes, colleges, and hospitals.

iin.^wtii.ny Obableb Eeksibotok, the eminent
pianist and composer of mnsic, was born in London
on March 3rd,' 1814. He studied the pianoforte
with Beethoven’s friend Charles Neate (London)
and Hepiri Hers (Paris), composition with Dr.
Crotch, '4rid in 1828 first appeared in public.
Performing at Covent Garden Theatre in 1830, in
the same year he conducted his Jubilee Ode (choral
and orchestral) at the Shakespeare Festival, Strat-
ford-on-Avon, and at the King’s Theatre, in the
Havmafket, London. In 1833 he began an important
series of orchestral concerts, and in 1836 inaugurated
Chamber concerts. Elected to the Philharmonio
Society and the Eoyal Society of Musicians in 1837,
he ttiade a successful tour in Germany In 1838, and
at Vienna played a trio for three pianofortes with
Robert Neumann and Mozart’s son. Resident in
Italy from 1846 to 1848, composing vocal and
instrumental music, and conducting concerts, a
Beethoven symphony being first heard in Rome
under his hdton, he was elected honorary member of
the Academy of St. Cecilia, Rome, and of the Roman
Philharmonio Academy. Returning to England in
1849, Salaman founded the first Amateur Choral
Society, and played at the Philharmonic concerts
hi the following year. In 1865 he began a series of
musical lectures, that on the history of the piano-
forte and its precursors, illustrated by performances
of old music on the old-time instruments (which he
delivered in private to Queen Victoria and the
Prince Consort), being the basis of all subsequent
studies of the subject. In 1868 Salaman was
mominent in founding the memorable Musical
Society of London, of which he was honorary secre-
tary until 1665. He was also one of the founders of
the Musioal Association (for the investigation and I
discussion of subjects connected with the art
and science of music) in 1874, acting for some years
as honorary secretary and vice-president. Of Sala-
man’s published compositions, ranging from 1828 to
1901, many have taken classic rank— such, for
instance, as thb anthems, 84th, 29th, 16th, and 6th
Psalms j the choral synagogue services in Hebrew ;
the songs, arise from dreams of thee,” « Gelia,”
‘*liy Star,” “A Hebrew Love Song,” “A Leave,
taking,” **T‘hm6,” ‘♦“Farewell, if ever fondest
prayer,” “Sweet, have the roSCs,” “ This rose,” “ I
would tell her,” “ Love’s Legacy,” “ Zahra,” “ A Love
Song,” ” The Butterfly Song,” ” Ad Chloen,” “ Donee
Gratus” (duet), ana other settings of Horace,
Catullus, Anaoreoht ^hd the great English and
foreigp poets ; the pianoforte pieces,” Saltarello,”
“OlCBiia,” “ La Notie Serena,'*’ Toccata,’’

Thoughts,” “ La Morenita,” ” Prelude and Gavotte,”

“ Rondo nel tempo della giga,” “ Pegasus,*’ “ Zephy-
ru8|'* “ Remembrance,” “Medbra,” and the funeral
robreb lor orchestfn. Charles ^laman's literary
Wprks included Jews as they (1882), numer-
CbS addresses and articles on musical and Jewish
ibhjb^Sv and PUinisits tf the Past, being personal
teoblleotiims ofall the famous musicians of his time,


I frpm dementi onwards, published posthumously
in Blackwoods Magoj&ine, He dieq in London
on June 28rd, 1901. His elder son, MAnbOLic
CbarIiEs SaiiAhak, the well-Wown author and
critic, was born in London on September 6tb, 186$,
Drifting from mechanical engineering into jour-
nalism, from 1883 to 1894 he was the art and
dramatic critic of the Smday Tinm, and from
1890 to 1899 was on the staff of the Paily OTo^Uio,
His chief publications are loads Love-‘ Quest and
Other Poems (1879), Woman^Tkrottgh a MmCs
Eyeglass (1892) and The Old Engravers of EngUmd
(1906). He is the editor of A. W. Pinero’s pub-
lished plays, while his own acted plays include
Peeeivers Ever (1883-4), Boycotted (1884-6),
JHmity^s Eilemma (1887), Both Sides of the Ques^
tion (1891), and A Modem Eve (1894).

Salamanoaf a city of the province of the same
name, Spain, in the old kingdom of Leon, on the
right bank of the Tormes, a tributary of the Douro,
110 miles N.W. of Madrid. It is situated on hills
rising from an arid plain, and its narrow, winding
streets and lofty, splendid structures give it a
picturesque and distinguished appearance. The
University, one of the most renowned among
mediaeval places of learning, was founded in 1243,
and continued to flourish till the latter part of the
17th century. In the 16th century the 26 colleges
of which it then consisted contained some 10,000
students. The buildings are, for the most part, in
a late style of Gothic architecture. There are two
cathedrals, the more ancient of which is a Roman-
esque structure of the 12th century. The Duke of
Alva was buried in the church of San Esteban. The
Jesuit College was erected in 1614. Salamanca has
a library containing upwards of 70,(X)0 volumes,
besides MSS. The great square, or Plaza Mayor,
which is surrounded by colonnades, and was used
as a bull-ring, is said to be the largest in Spain.
Some of the private mansions, such as the famous
Casa de las (Wchas (or “ House of the Shells,” so
named from the shells with whinh the front is
decorated), are still perfect €xam|)les of the
domestic architecture of the city’s prosperous era.
The leather industry has declined, arid the linen,
cloth, and earthenware manufactures are not very
extensive. Near here Wellington defeated Marmont
on July 22nd, 1812. Pop. (1900), 25,000.

Salamandicyf an animal belonging to the two
species of the genus Salamandra, type of a family



8FOTTXD' SALAMAabcR, ’


(Salamandridve) of tailed Aipphibiens, Thei are
small, newt4ike animals, frbm she tp |ught Inehbs
'long, land when;;adnlti;;ahd''‘zee^t^''''m^^



( 58 )


wotua^ molliiac 0 » and insects. The Spotted Sala*
mhndev from Ihirope andHorth Afrioa,

is marlG^ with large yellow patches on a black
ground. It has a thick, large head and clumsy
My and a tail that is cylin^ical at its outer end.
Its eyes and tongue are large, and the mouth-gape
is wide. It haunts cool, damp places, like old walls
and laBen timber, hibernates during winter coiled
up in a tree, or wall, or the earth, and in spring and
summer sheds its coat piecemeal. Its young are
born in the water and have gills. The Black
Salamander u^m), found in the Alps, brings
forth its young alive and breathing by lungs.
Salamanders are falsely reputed venomous, and
were fabled to be able to live in fire, and to ex-
tinguish it. Francis I. adopted as his badge a
Uzard (hut the salamander is an amphibian) in
the midst of flames with the motto, NutrUco et
extingiiOt ** I nourish and extinguish.”

Salamifly the ancient name of Eoluri, a moun-
tainous island of Greece, in the Saronic Gulf, off
the north-western coast of Attica, 10 miles W. of
Athens. It covers an area of 36 square miles, and
the nearest point of the mainland is only about a
mile distant. A war for its possession between
Athens and Megara terminate in favour of the
former towards the close of the 7th century B.o.
The narrow strait between its eastern shore and
the nouilnland was the scene of the great naval
battle of tbe Persian War, in which the armament
of Xerxes, containing 1,200 triremes and 3,000
smaller vessels, was completely vanquished by the
combined fleets of the Athenians, Spartans, and
Corinthians, numbering in all 366 triremes (480 b.c.).
Solop, the great law-giver, and Euripides, the famous
dramatist, were natives of the island. Pop., about
7*00Q.

Sal Ammoniao consists of chloride of am-
monium, NH 4 OI, a white solid which may be
artificially prepared by the direct union of hydro-
chloric acid and ammonia, dense white fumes
resulting frbm the combination of the two colour-
less gases. It has been known from early times.
It was imported first from Asia, afterwards from
Egypt, where it was prepared from camel’s dung,
and later it was manufactured by the distillation
of horns, hoofs, etc. At the present time it is
almost entirely obtained as a bye-product in the
manufacture of coal-gas. The gas liquor, as it is
called, contains large quantities of ammoniacal
salts ; it is hbated with lime and the ammonia
expelled and received in dilute hydrochloric acid.
From the solution so formed the sal ammoniac is
obtaiaed pure by recrystallisation and sublimation.
It forms colourless crystals of the regular system,
frequently forming arborescent aggregations. As
obtained by sublimation it is usually a tough
fibrdus mass. It hS easily soluble in water, the
solutioh possessing a sharp taste. It is used to a
slight extent in medicine, and very largely in the
dyeing industry, besides which it finds frequent
application in the chemical laboratory.

. Ilsliiililbft IlftllSl, dole CARLOS,

DtTKB Of V ebldier and statesmaniwas bom at Arefiaga,


Portugal, on Nommber itth, 1101, and ierved under
llamhal Benihsnk, distingulshiii^

himself greatly during his mlitary career. About
1817 he went to South America, where he fought
both in Monte Video and Brasil, mtuming to
Europe soon after the latter country declared her
independence of Portugal. He became, in 1826,
minister of foreign affairs and governor of Oporto,
and fought bravely on the side of Isabella in the
struggle between her partisans and those of DOm
Miguel. He was not so successful as a statesman,
ana made many blunders. He led the reactioUtiny
party, and between 1836 and 1846 was in exile. Hift
was appointed later to the embassy at Rome, and
in 1870 was Prime Minister of Portugal for a few
months. He died in London on November 21st,
1876, whilst acting as ambassador of his Portuguese
majesty.

Saleia town of Cheshire, England, on the left
bank of the Mersey, Sf miles S. by w. of Manchester,
of which it is virtually a suburb. Many of the
merchants of “Cottonopolis” occupy handsome
villas in this quarter. The Bridgewater Canal
(now the property of the Manchester Ship Canal
Company) passes through the town. The rich soil
is extremely productive, and market-gardening
therefore flourishes. There is also a botaniem
garden, laid out in hothouses, flower-beds, ferneries
and a lake. Pop. (1901), 12,008.

SalOf the transfer of property from one person
to another in consideration of a price or recompense
in value — in other words, for a valuable considera-
tion. The contract for sale in English law is a
real contract, or in the nature of such, some tender
or transfer being required to make the sale com-
plete. There is this striking difference between
the English and Roman law in the contract for
sale, namely, that in the English law the property
in a specific article (or in a non-specific article or
unascertained bulk so soon as the s^me becomes
specific or ascertained) passes to and rests in the
purchaser even before delivery, the vendor retaining
only a lien on it while in his possession for the
price ; whereas in Roman law such property does
not pass to the purchaser until after payment of
the price and also delivery of the article (Benjamin
on J^Us).

Sale, Bill of, a deed or writing und^ seal
designed to furnish evidence of the sale of fwrsonal
property. It is necessary to have a bill of sale
when the property sold is not immediately^ trans-
ferred to the purchaser. As a safeguard against
fraud English law requires a bill of sale to be regis-
tered within seven days of its execution, and it
must also contain a schedule giving an inventory
of the personal chattels assigned.

Sale, Geobgb, Orientalist, was bom in or about
1697 in the county of Kent, though his father was
a merchant in London. In 1720 he was admitted
at the Inner Temple. He was, however, never
called* but practised as a solicitor. At an early
period he devoted himself to the study of Arabic,
in which he became an accompilsM Scholar,
though Voltaire's statements that he lived among



moM. (60


tbe Arabs are hopelessly In error, since he never
left England. In 1726 he acted as corj^tbr of
the Arabic New Testament tainted by the Society
for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, and
officiated for the society in various capacities until
1734. In this year he published his translation of
the Koran, which yet remains the best version in
any language. To Bayle’s General Diotumary he
contributed all the Oriental biographies up to the
time of his death, and contributed the history of the
world from the Creation to the Flood to the
Universal MUtory. He died in London on Novem-
ber ISthf 1736, and was buried in 8t. Clement
Banes, Strand.

SalOi Sib Bobebt Henby, general, was bom on
SeptemW 19th, 1782, entered the army in 1796,
and, after going to India, where he was present at
the storming of Seringapatam in 1799, served
throughout the ^first Burmese War, rising rapidly
in rank. From 1838 onwards he commanded the
well-known 1st Bengal Brigade, and fought stren-
uously to extend the British power in India. In
Afghanistan, and after the revolt of 1841 against
the British in Kabul, he won many victories with
his small body of men. As his sobriquet of “ Fight-
ing Bob ” proves, he was fond of the fray and was
repeatedly wounded. At Ghazni (1839) he killed
his man in hand4o-hand combat, just as in Burma
(1824) he had a personal encounter with the Com-
mander-in-chief, whom he slew. On July 23rd,
1839, he was given the local rank of major-general,
and for his services with the Army of the Indus
was also created K.C.B. From November 12th,
1841, to April 7th, 1842, he was besieged at Jelala-
bad, and heroically defended the garrison, finally
issuing forth and completely routing Akbar Khan.
It is known now that Major George Broadfoot
(1807-46), garrison engineer, rendered Sale yeoman
service, as the life ana soul of the defence and as
being instrumental in preventing the capitulation
at one time contemplated by Sale and a majority
6f the officers. For his defence of Jelalabad
Sale received the Grand Cross of the Bath (1842),
^nd for the intrepidity and skill he had shown in
military operations in Afghanistan, the thanks of
both Houses of Parliament (1843). He died on
December 21st, 1846, from wounds received three
days before in the battle of Moodkee.

SalOlll (properly, Shelam)^ a district of Madras
Presidbnoy, India, bounded on the N, by Mysore
and North Aroot, on the B. by Trichinopoly, South
and North Aroot, on the S. by Coimbatore and
Trichinopoly, and on the W. by Coimbatore and
Mysore. Its area oooupies 7,629 square miles.
Excepting in the south, the district is hilly and the
Oauvery, Palar and Penner are the chief rivers.
The wild animals include the leopard, bear, bison,
elephant, wild hog, sambur deer, antelopes and
hymnas. The soil is fertile, yielding rice, mgi,
millet, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, sugar, tobacco, cofiee,
indigo and medicinal plants. The leading industries
are weaving and cutlery. The district has been
terribly scourged at times by famine. Salem
(70,627), the chief town, is situated 176 miles S.W..
ofMawas, Pop. (1901), 2,206,^98.




a seaport of Massachusetts, United
States, 16 miles N.E. of Boston. Founded in 1628
by John Endicott, Salem soon became noted for its
persecution of witches, many of those poor wretches
perish!^ on Gallows Hill. The house in which
Boger Williams resided in 1635-6 is still extant,
and First Church is the oldest Protestant place of
worship in America. Nathaniel Hawthorne and
W. H. Prescott were natives of the town. The
principal public buildings are St. Peter’s Episcopal
Churcn, Plummer Hall (containing the Salem
Athenmum), Essex Institute, East India Marine
Museum, Peabody Academy of Science, and
several philanthropic and educational institutions.
The town's commercial traffic has largely declined,
but the manufactures are important and include
cottons, leather, boots and shoes, machinery and
lumber products. Pop. (1900), 36,966.

Salerno, a seaport and capital of the province
of Salerno, Italy, finely situated at the head of the
Gulf of Salerno, 30 miles S.E. of Naples. In the
latter part of the 1 1th century it fell into the hands
of the Normans under Bobert Guiscard, who fixed
his court here and built the stately cathedral.
This edifice, which has a facade of granite Corin-
thian pillars, is dedicated to St. Matthew, whose
bones are said to have been brought hither in 964.
In mediroval times the university was celebrated for
its medical school. The manufactures include
silks, cottons and linens, pottery, leather, wine,
and macaroni, besides printing and iron-founding.
Pop. (1901), 42,700.

Salford, a town of Lancashire, England, situ-
ated immediately to the west of Manchester, from
which it is separated by the Irwell. The Corpora-
tion has displayed a very progressive spirit, and
owns the tramways, gas and electric light and
power, markets (including cattle), and slaughter-
houses, baths, library, and cemetery. The munici-
pal charter dates from 1844. The town was repre<f
sented by one member of Parliament from 1832 to
1868, and by two from this date to 1886, in which
year a third was added under the Bedistribution
Act. It is a Boman Catholic diocese, and the
cathedral of St. John is in the Decorated style.
The public buildings include the town hall, the
free library and museum, and the Boyal Hospital
and Di^ensary, and other philanthropic institu-
tions. The beautifully laid-out Peel Park, named
after the^ great statesman, containing statues of
Queen Victoria and Sir Bobert Peel, is the most
generally known of the public spaces. Salford
combines with Manchester in many common inter-
ests and manufactures. Pop. (1901), 220,957.

Salicin, a substance belonging to the group of
compounds known as gluoosides, which is found
chiefly in the bark of various species of willow and
poplar. It may be extracted from this source by
means of water, and by crystallisation is obtained
as bright colourless prisms which melt at 198®,
It possesses a very bitter taste, and by the action
of acids or certain natural ferments— e.<7., emulsiif
— ^it splits up into glucose and salicylic alcohol.

CisHieOy + OHg = CVHgOa + CeHx^.



fftliciti.


C5S> Mwmmrjt.


0alioiii« Salictuo Acip^ Salictlatb of
SopiUM* These drugs are largely employed in the
treatment of joint affections^ the . salicylate of
sodium being especially used in acute rheumatism
(in doses of 10 or 20 grains). When the drug is
administered in large doses, it produces buzzing in
the ears, deafness, perspiration, impairment of
vision, and it may be even delirium.

Salic Iiaw was the code which governed the
Salian Franks, who founded the Frankish kingdom.
In a stricter sense it is applied to the custom which
makes a female ineligible to reign or hand on a
right to the crown. This law obtained in France
from the time of the Frankish Clovis to the end of
the monarchy, and was used to bar the claim of ‘


decomposes. It is readily recognised by the pro-
duction of a deep violet colour vfnen ferric chloride
is added to its aqueous solution* It is a good
antiseptic, and is used as such & surgery, whilo it
also finds other medicinal applications,

Salisbury, or Niw Saritm, the county town of
Wiltshire, England, a cathedral city situated in a
valley at the confluence of the Avon, Wiley, Bourne,
md Nadder, 80 miles W.S.W. of London. The city
is built on a regular plan, consisting of streets
which cross at right angles, thus forming square^,
called “ The Chequers,” with houses facing the
thoroughfare and opening at the back into a court
or garden. The glory of Salisbury is its cathedral
(1220-58), which is a perfect specimen of Early



SAI.I8BUaT CATHEDRAL.


Edward III. to the French Crown. A similar law
is in force in most German states, and therefore
Queen Victoria did not succeed to Hanover.

Salicylic Acid, or Ortho-Oxtbbnzoic Acid,
is represented by the chemical formula C.H 4 (OH)
COgH, and consists of benzoic acid in which one of
the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by the group
OH (hydroxyl). It occurs naturally in the buds of
some species of spirjaea, and also combined with
methyl alcohol in oil of wintergreen. It may be
also prepared artificially by many chemical reac-
tions, as by the action of carbonic acid and sodium
on carbolic acid.

C^HjjONa + 002= CaH4(0H)C02Na.

It forms four-sided prisms which melt at 166®.
It is only slightly soluble in cold water, but readily
in hot, so that it can be easily crystallised. If
healed slowly It sublimes, but if heated rapidly


English architecture, the tower and spire alone
being additions of the Decorated Period (1330-75).
The building comprises a nave of ten bay| with
aisles, a choir of six bays with aisles, two tralfeepts,
one with four, the other with three bays in each wing,
a Lady Chapel at the east end, and a central tower
with a spire of 400 feet. The external length of
the cathedral is 473 feet, and its breadth 111 feet;
its height, measured from the inside, is 81 feet.
This harmonious structure is unique in that the
exterior can be readily and admirably viewed
from every side, while the interior is extremely well
lighted. There is some remarkably fine stained
glass by William Morris from designs by 3ir Edward
Burne-Jones. Irreparable injury was done to
the building by the “restorer” James Wyatt
in 1782-91. The beautiful cloisters date from
the latter part of the 13th century. Within
the Close, which has an area of about half a



( 68 )


Jtalim.


■aXMnuf.


iqtiace mil^, Atandi episoopftl palace, a long,
irregular, picturesque ouildfng with gwens ippeidn^
into the cloisters, and round it are grouped serertu
other interesting old houses; The Market Flace*
which occupies a central position, covers 2} aores,
and has . a handsome council-house (1795) at its
scuth-eastern angle, in front of which are statues
of Lord Herbert of Lea (Sidney Herbert), who died
at Wilton House in 1861, ancl Professor Pawoett,
Who was born in the city in 1883. The Blackmore
Museum ooftains an unsurpassed collection of pre-
historic reihalna. The Halle of John Halle, a ban-
quoting-room built in the latter part of the 16th
cetttury, is a very interesting example of the
domestic arohiteoture of the period. Other bnild-
Ings inolude the Theological College, Diocesan
Training School for Elementary Teachers, School of
Boienoe and Art, Bishop Wordsworth School for
Technical Instruction, Godolphin High School for
Girls, County Hall, Free Library, St. Nicholas
Hospital, Trinity Hospital, and the Grammar
School A splitary conical mound, a mile north of
the city, surrounded by ditches and massive earthen
rahipjirts, is all that now marks the site of Cld
SauOM, an important Boman station and the seat
of a bishopric from 1075 to 1220, when it was trans-
ferred to New Sarum, or Salisbury. Cld Sarum was
one of the most notorious of the old rotten boroughs,
and actually returned two members to Parliament
from the reign of El ward I. till 1832, when the
scandal was swept away. Pop, (1901), 17,117.


Halifttiiuyf Kobeht Abthur Talbot Gas*
Goki^B-OEOlL, 3 rP MaBQUIS of, statesman, was

, born at Hatfield,
Hertfordshire,
Hugland, on Feb-
ruary 3rd, 1880.
He was educated
at Eton and Christ
Church, Oxford,
and in 1863 be-
came M.P. for
Stamford. He
married the
daughter of Baron
Alderson in 1857,
and was long a
leading contribu-
tor to the Satur-
day UevieWf and
pretty frequently
to the Quarterly
toon SALissuB'V* Review t In 1865,

tmto : Mumdi d Sons.) on the death of
his elder brother,
he became Lord Oranbome and heir to the mar-


oiiisate, and in the following year was made
Secretary of State for India in Lord Derby’s
Ministry, retiring in 1867 in consequence of
Disraeli’s Franchise Bill Succeeding to the mar-
quisate in 1868, he went to the House of Lords,
and in 1874 was again Secretary for India, and in
1877 Foreign Secretary. H® represented Great
Bitoin at the conference which met in Constanti-


nople in December, 1876, to discuss arrangements


with Turkey whereby Uie Sultan might allay the
discontent of his prorinoes mid the adjoining com^
munities. Turkey proved unamenable to reauqn,
and the conference dissolved, to be followed bp
war with Kussia. At the Berlin Conference of 1678,
summoned to reconstruct the map of Europe, Lord
Salisbury was the colleague Of Lord Beaoonsfleld,
who returned with the proud boast that they hhd
brought “peace with honour.” On Lord Beacons-
field’s death (1881) he became leader of the Con-
servative party. He attained to the Premiership
in 1885, and again after the defeat of the Home
Rule Bill in 1892, and once more in 1896, when he
was also Foreign Secretary. In 1900 he was for
the fourth time Premier, but relinquished the
Foreign Secretaryship. In 1902 he retired from
political life, and was succeeded in the Premiership
py Mr. Balfour. He died at Hatfield on August
22nd, 1903. In private life he was of unsullied
character and a devoted student of electrical
science, a pursuit in which, had he been minded to
take it up professionally, he might, it is understood,
have confidently aspired to the highest honours.
In politics he was an unbending Tory, the greatest
statesman of his party during the second half of
the 19th century. His cold, haughty, reserved
demeanour, however, bis caustio pen, and venomous
tongue—Disraeli described him as a “master. of
gibes and flouts and jeers”— ill fitted him to be
a leader of men, and he was probably indifi^erent to
the r6le. But he taught the Lords to emasculate
Liberal measures, and it may yet appear, therefore,
that he was more of a curse than a blessing to bis
party.

Salisbury Plain, an undulating tract, Wilt-
shire, England, consisting of chalk downs, inter-
sected by fertile, well- wooded valleys. It extends
westwards from the eastern border of the county to
Westbury and Warminster, a distance of about 22
miles, and from Rushall in the north to the vicinity
of Salisbury about 16 miles. It has an average
height of 400 feet, the highest point (776 feet)
being reached on Westbury Down. The famous
Druidical remains at Stonehenge, some six miles
north of Salisbury, are the centre of interest. The
plain is now utilised for military operations and
encampments, for which purposes it is administered
from Aldershot.

Saliira, a digestive juice secreted by the chan-
nels leading from the three pairs of salivary glands
— the parotid (near the ear), the subraaxillary
(below the jawbone), and the sublingual (beneath
the tongue and between it and the lower gums) —
mixed with secretion from the mucous membrane
of the mouth. It is in order that the viscid saliva
— whioh consists of salts, mucin, and an exceed-
ingly minute quantity of ptyalin (a ferment that
turns starch into grape-sugar)— may thoroughly
interpenetrate each mouthfnl of food befoi^ it
is swallowed that perfect mastication is so con-
stantly insisted on by the doctor. The flow of
saliva through the various ducts is stimulated by
the presence of food, and should the article of diet
be of the nature of h bonne bouoke Or excessively
appetising, the secretion will be so great that, in




(«t)


pajsfiliar |^lcl^ month will water/* The

ii iulialine and, when the food in the stomach
luss been mixed with the acid gastric jaice, is
neatnsdieed and ceases to act However, by then
it has done its work. In certain feverish states the
secretion of saliva is very deficient and the month
and tl^oat become parched. On the other hand,
the flow may be abnormal, as in the administra-
tion of mercury or iodide of potassium, the con-
dition being known as Balivatioz^ or ptyalism.
j^teration of the saliva is characteristic of some
diseases. If it become acid, as in acute rheuma-
tism, this may be qualified by the use of bicar-
bonate of soda ; if it be foul and evil-smelling, as
in dyspepsia and ptyalism, this may be checked by
care in diet ana the employment of antiseptic
mouth-washes, chlorate of potash, or some pre- |
paration of charcoal.

Sallee. [Babat.]

SaUnat (Oaius Saplustius Ceispus), Eoman
historian, was born at Amitemum, at the foot of
the Apennines, Italy, in 86 b.o. He entered on
public life at an early age, and in the year 62
became a member of the ^nate, but two years
later, owing to his immoralities, was expelled. He
was a warm adherent of Ossar, who restored him
to his position. He became prrotor-elect in 47, and
accompanied C«sar on his African expedition,
being appointed governor of Numidia afterwards.
He accumulated enormous wealth there by oppres-
sion and extortion, and returned to Rome to enjoy
a life of luxury. Here he built himself a lordly
mansion in princely grounds on the Quirinal, and
here he died, sated with pleasure, in 34 B.o. He
wrote a good deal, much of which is now lost, but
his histories of the Jugurthine and Catiline Wars
have survived and are models of Latin composition.
According to Mommsen they are written in Crosar’s
interest, the latter to minimise his complicity in
Catiline’s conspiracy, and the former to glorify his
relative Marius. Sallust was the precursor of Livy
and Tacitus, and his style is oommendably terse
and forcible.

Bally IjtUlSIv a light sweet teacake, rather
larger than a muffin, and usually toasted. It is
said to have been named after a young woman who
hawked this kind of bun in the streets of Bath
towards the close of the 18th century.

p an Italian dish consisting of
chopped meat, eggs, anchovies, onions, oil, vinegar,

S er and salt. It is in some respects akin to the
ish olia podrida. There seems no warrant,
r in fact or reason, for the suggestion that it
was named after a lady-in-waiting of Marie de
Medici, the second wife of Henri IV. It is more
probably derived from the Italian ^aloAnis^ “salt
meat,** and cfmdit&f “ seasoned,** “ pickled,’* being
thus related to a salmi of game.

SaJliiftBiUy Claudius, whose real name was
Claudh SaumaisS!, scholar, was bom at Semur-
en-Auxois, in the department of C6te d’Or, France,
on April 16th, 1688, and educated at the university
of Heidkberg. He wrote Greek and Latin verse at
ea early age, was devoted to study, and, without a


master, taught hitnaelf Arablo^ llebrenr^iand other
languages. He succeeded Soall^ ks profbBsOr el
history at Leyden, and was a M^nd Of Casaubon,
Grotius, and others. Id 1620
of the AuffUitm Sitiof^ with CasaObOU’s notes. He
embraced Protestantism, tbe faith of his mother
and in 1623 married Anna Meroier, a Protestant
lady of good family. Apparently the union was
not happy, for erudite wags of the day likened the
pair to Socrates and Xantippe. Six years later he
published his chef d^auvre^ his oommentary On the
PolyhUtor of SoUnus, Ho published in 1649 the
work by which he is best remembered, name^,
Befenm regia pro (krolo J., which was not written
in vain, since it evoked a masterly answer by
Milton, who in his Defence of the People of MgtaM
(1661) entirely demolished the case of Salmaslus.
The latter replied, but his reply was mot published
tin after his death. In 1660 he went to Sweden at
the invitation of Queen Christina, who, however,
neglected him after Milton's crushing rejoinder,
and he is said to have died of disappointment at
Spa in Belgium on September 3rd, 1668. He was
greatly admired as a scholar by his contemporaries,
and Richelieu desired to keep him in France, that
he might write the history of his administratibti,
but he told the cardinal that his pen viras not a
venal one.

Salnioix, a fish belonging to the genus Salmo,
type of the Physostomous family Salmonidee, Which
also contains the trout, Smelt, grayling, vendaoe.
etc. The family has representatives in fresh and
salt water, some migrating from one to the Other ;
all food fishes, and most of them highly esteemed.
The body is generally covered with scales, the head
is naked, and there are no barbules. Behind the
dorsal is an adipose fin— a mere fold of skin con-
taining fat ; the air-bladder is large and simple,



SALMON.

(Three stages of the development of the salmon.)


and the spawn falls into the abdominsl cavity
before extrusion. In the type-genus the body is
covered with small scales, the mouth-cleft Is wide,
and there are teeth on the jawbones, palatine bones,
vomer and tongue. The anal ftn w short. The
young bear dark transverse bars, which disappear
in the adults. This coloration has been <Kmi|»«ed
to the spots of lion-cubs and some young d^;
The geographical range of the genus Is limited to


( 68 )


SalouiMk




the temperate aPd arctic sones ot the Bortbem
hemiaphere, their scuthernmost point ia |he Old
World being the rivers ol the Atlas in Morocco
and the Hindu Koosh in Central Asia, and in the
New World the rivers falling into the head of the
Gulf of California.

The Common Salmon {SaXmo Bator) is the largest
and most valuable species of the genus, and the
most shapely and most beautiful of living fishes.
On the upper surface the colour is bluish- or
greeni8h-grey» fading into silvery-white below, and
above the lateral line, which is nearly straight,
there is a plentiful sprinkling of large black spots.
The hinder edge of the gill-cover is rounded. T^h
brought to market usumly range from 20 lbs. to
40 lbs. in weight. Frank Buokland noted one
tom the Tay that scaled 78 lbs., and specimens of
from 88 lbs. to 98 lbs. are on record. Fish of such a
sise, however, are very rare, and will grow rarer,
owing to the systematic way in which rivers are
netted for the market. The adult male is easily
distinguished from the female by the protrusion of
the lower jaw, and in the breeding season this is
developed into a kind of hook, which becomes a
formidable weapon in combats with rivals, and
with it mortal injuries are sometimes inflicted.
During the summer salmon are found along the
coasts of the United Kingdom, and in estuaries,
entering rivers about the autumn, though the time
varies in different rivers, the temperature of the
water being probably an important factor in the
matter. As a general rule, salmon return to spawn
in the rivers in which they wore bred. It was
formerly thought that salmon were driven from
the sea, where their ova will not develop, to the
rivers in the fresh water of which they will develop,
by the overmastering need for spawning. This is
believed now to be only a secondary factor, the
migration being primarily due to nutrition — the
salmon having, in the sea, stored a certain quantity
of food, ceases to feed and returns to the streams.
The work of ascending to the upper reaches is
often, one of great difficulty. The fish move chiefly
by night, and are able to pass over a perpendicular
obstacle of about six feet in height. To afford
them assistance in their journey, fish-ladders are
fixed, which serve as landings or resting-places
whence fresh leaps can be taken. On arriving at
the spawning-gronnd the female sweeps away the
gravel with ner tail, and in the trench so formed
deposits her ova, the male keeping guard the while.
When she hoe finished her task he swims over the
place shedding the milt which fertilises them. As
soon as this is done a few sweeps of her tail cover
the ova with gravel, and the spawning, which
generally occupies about ten days, is completed,
and the spent fish are ready to return to the sea.
A period of tom 9(1 to 120 days is required to
hatch the eggs, but this term viries according to
the temperature of the water, and is consequently
longer in the Scottish than in the English salmon
streams. The eggs, too, have many enemies, and
but a very small proportion of the fry that come
out ever reaches the sea. When hom the young
fish still bear the umbilical vesicle attached, and it
is not absorbed , f Of some, weeks* The form of the


fry is probably as well known as that of the full*
grown fish, for the former are well-known micro-
scopic objects,” readily obtainable from any
dealer in such wares, and they will live and thrive
in an aquarium where there is plenty of vegetation
and an abundance of “ water-fleas.** Few descend
to the sea in the first year. It was formerly
thought that the migration was always delayed
till the second year ; but there is evidence that in
fish artificially bred the migration of at least a
part of them takes place earlier. On the return to
fresh water the fish are generally sexually mature,
and on their subsequent descent to the sea they
assume the character of adults. In its different
stages of growth the salmon has a variety of,[names.
According to Dr. Day, “ the fish in its full-grown
condition is known as the sahwn; one on its
second return from the sea is often termed a
gerling in the Severn, or a hotcher on its first
return, when under five pounds’ weight, although
the more general designation is grilse ; when under,
two pounds’ weight it is usually ieita&d. salmon peal
by fishmongers. From one to two years before it
has gone to the sea it is known as a pem'^pinlt^
smolt^ smelts salmon-fry^ sprag^ or salmon~spring
(Northumberland), samilet^ hrcmdling, fingerling^
hlaoli-fin^ hlue-fiot shed^ skegger^ gravelling ^ hepper,
lasprinpy gravel laspring, skerling^ or sparling in
Wales. In Northumberland a milter or spawning
male is known as a summercock or gih-JUth^ and a
salmon as a simen. In the Severn a salmon which
has remained in fresh water during the summer
without going to the sea is a laureL After spawn-
ing this fish is a kelt or slat, but a male is generally
termed a kipper and a female a shedder or haggitf

The Pacific Salmon belong to the closely-allied
genus Onchorhynchus, differing only from • the
in the increased number of rays in the
anal fin. There are five species, from the rivers
of the North Pacific, of which the most important
are the Quinnat or King Salmon ((?. quimat)
and the Blue-back Salmon {0, nerka). The
annual take of the former, which may reach a'
weight of 100 lbs., in the Columbia river averaged
30,000,000 lbs., of which a large proportion is
canned for European markets. The weight of the
Blue-back ranges from 4 lbs. to 8 lbs. The flesh of
salmon is of a pinkish-orange colour, probably due
to the crustaceans which form their principal food.

Salmon-Trout, Sea-Trout (Salmo trutta), a
valuable British food-fish, ranging from the south
of England to Orkney and Shetland, and found in
Wales and Ireland, where it is known as the
White Trout. It is closely allied to, but smaller
than, the salmon, which it resembles in habit. The
body is thicker than that of a salmon of the same
length, and the hinder margin of the gill-cover is
not BO rounded. On their first return from the sea
they present a silvery appearance, whence fish at>
this stage were someUmes made a distinct species
(5. albrn), ^

Salonion, or Salokiri, a city and port of a
province of Macedonia, Turkey ' in Europe, at the
head of the Gulf of Balonioa, an arm of the Jl^ean
Sea, bounding the peninsula of Chalkis on the westw



(69)


Salop*


The original name, Thernaa (from the hot springs
in the vicinity), was changed to Thessalonica by
Cassander (315 b.C.), the founder of its importance
and commercial prosperity, which was increased by
the groat Boman road from Dyrrachium (Durazzo)
to Byzantium, the Via Bgnatia, passing through it.
The city is finely situated on the western slope of a
hill in a fertile region, but nearly everything that
links it with the remote past has perished. The
arch of Constantine still stands, though in a dilapi-
dated condition, at the east end of the Via Egnatia,
but that at the west end was taken down in 1867
for building materials. Three of the principal
mosques— those of St. Sophia, St. George and St.
Demetrius— were originally Christian churches. A
great import and export trade is carried on at the
harbour, and the manufactures include flour, cotton,
bricks and tiles, cutlery, beer, soap, leather, agri-
cultural implements, ironware and spirits. Cicero
dwelt here for seven months during his exile, and
St. Paul’s visit was the occasion of a tumult. The
apostle addressed two Epistles to the church v»^hich
he had set up here. The Saracens sacked the
city in 904, and sold the inhabitants into captivity.
Their barbarities were improved upon in 1185 by
the Sicilian Normans. For the barren honour of
King of Salonica a succession of claimants kept the
city in constant unrest throughout the 13th and
part of the 14th century. The Turks, under Sultan
Amurath, captured the city on May Day, 1430, when
they signalised their success by hacking to pieces
the body of the patron saint Demetrius. In 1876
a fanatical Turkish mob massacred the French and
German consuls, an outrage that at one time threat-
ened serious reprisals. Pop. (estimated), 100,000.

S|U.op. [Shropbhibe.]

Salpai one of the best-known genera of the
Ascidians belonging to the order Thaliacea. It
includes some free-swimming forms of interest, as
they exhibit the phenomena of alternation of
generations. There is an asexual generation or
nurse consisting of a long stolon, upon which buds
are developed ; these are ultimately set free in a
chain and developed into sexual forms ; the chain
is then broken up into single Salps.

Saliett^f an island of Bombay Presidency,
India. It lies immediately to the north of Bombay
Island, with which it communicates by a causeway,
bridge and otherwise. It is 16 miles long and has
an area of 240 square miles. The highest point,
Thana peak, is 1,630 feet above the sea, and wells
yield a wate;f s'lpply* Rice is the principal crop,
but the cocoa and palmyra palms flourish. By
Buddhists the island is deemed holy, since it
contained a tooth of Buddha. The possession
of this relic occasioned in the devotees a zeal
for excavating caves in the rock, and these, with
their colossal statues of Buddha, are now among
the sights of the island. The caves at Keneri near
Thana are particularly noteworthy. The island was
seized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, and
properly, along wit)i Bombay, should have formed
part of the dowry of Catharine of Braganza (1662)
when phe married Charles II. The Portuguese dis-


•' '


puted the terms of the oontrtdt* and did not cede
the island for more than a hundred years. The
Mahrattas tore it from their feeble grasp in 1789,
but they, in turn, were compe&d to give it to the
British in 1774. Pop. (estimated), 120,000,

Salsify, or Salsafv {fragc^m pofrif 0 Utu%
or (from the taste) Oystbb.Pi.ant, a biennial
vegetable, apparently native to Southern Europe,
which was more cultivated formerly than now. It
has long, narrow, tapering leaves ; hollow peduncles
thickened near the apex ; and an involucre of eight
bracts, longer than the purple or roso-coloulid
ligulate florets. The whole plant is glabrous, The
fusiform tap-root has much milky latex and
resembles the parsnip in flavour. This wholesome
esculent belongs to the sub-order Ligulifloraj of the
Compositce.

Salt, the general name for sodium chloride
(NaCl). It occurs either as bay salt from the
artificial or recent evaporation of sea-water, or as
rock-salt, in beds resulting from such natural
evaporation in past geological times. In sea* water
it varies in proportion from under 3 per cent, in
polar seas to over 3 6 per cent, at the equator.
This sea-salt is still the chief source of the salt of
commerce in many dry countries such as France,
Spain, Portugal, and Austria. Being generally
impure, it is known in France as sel gris (**grey
salt *'). In its gradual concentration the sea- water
deposits many of the double potassium and mag-
nesium sulphates and chlorides which occur
associated with rock-salt in the mines at Stassfurt
in Saxony. Rock-salt occurs in beds of almost
every geological formation, from the Salina ^oup
of the Silurian in Canada, the Permian of Middles-
brough, Yorkshire, and the Hala (Salt) range in
Sindh, and the Trias of Cheshire and Salzburg, to
the Cretaceous of Wieliczka, in Galicia, and even
more modern deposits. It is often associated with
bitumen, and almost invariably .with gypsum, and
much salt is pumped to the surface as brine. This
has led to extensive subsidences in Cheshire,
Worcestershire and elsewhere, and the formation of
lakes or meres.” The salt occurs pure white,
ochreous, blue, violet, green, or other colours, and
crystallised in cubes or in hollow cubes of remark-
able construction. It is 2 in the scale of hardness.
Great Britain exports a large quantity annually,
mostly from Liverpool, India and the United States
being the principal consumers. As mineral or
supplementary salt is not requisite to a dietary of
milk and raw or roast meat, but is so to ceieal or
vegetable food, many primitive nomadic peoples
have done without it, whilst its use has come in
with agriculture. Salt thus also became, and;
remains, an important article of commerce, many
old trade routes being created by this traffic, such
as that between Syria and the Persian Gulf by way
of Palmyra, a place celebrated for its salt. Cakes
of salt have been used as money in Abyssinia, In
Tibet, and elsewhere, and Government monopolies
or heavy taxes on the trade have been very general.
Jts use as a preservative is universal. Its value to
health has invested it with a quasi-sacred charaotW,
so that Homer calls it ” divine,” and at»W .W5



•iU.


<0O)




aiid ifl a ft%ii of

md d£ tii« bond of lionoiu^ thoroby oroated.
Ai&ctog tb% Jtobs this feolinf? operated so pow^
loEy t^t i! ^ host loimd that he had tmwittingly
permit^ an bhemy to eat Of his salt^ he would let
mm go forth unmolested, l^he position of the
guests at table was lortnerly partly settled with
merenoe to the salt/those seated above it being
the eelsot, th^ beneath it being of lower order or
dependents, plays a part In superstition — to
spill it being supposed to m unlucky. This is, of
course, a tribute to its exceptional virtues.

Saltp HxitfBT, traveller and collector, was bom
at XichMd, StaiSordshire, England, on June 14tb,
1780, and educated at Lichfield Grammar School
and Market Boswofth. He was taught drawing by
Glover, of Lichfield, and, in London, by Joseph
Eadng^on, B. A., and John Hoppner, B.A. Having
aoc^panied Lord Valentia on his Eastern tour, in
18^ he was sent to Abyssinia by the British
Government with presents for the king, who
received him with marked favour, and puhlished
(1814) A. Voyage to Ahystiniaf which was very
successful. Appointed British consul>general in
Egypt in 1815, he made three' collections of the
antiquities. He disposed of the first to the British
Museum (1823) for £2,000 ; the French Govern-
ment gave him £10,000 for the second; and the
third, sold by auction after his death, fetched
£7,168. Among his examples were the colossal
bust of Bameses II. (British Museum), which he
empl(^ed Giovanni Baptista Belzoni to remove
from Thebes, and the alabaster sarcophagus which
Belzoni found in the sepulchre of Seti I., and
which he sold for £2,000 to Sir John Soane, who
placed it in his museum, of which it is now a
leading feature. Salt died at Dessuk, near Alex-
andria, on October 29th or 30th, 1827.

Salt, Sir Titus,* philanthropist and manu-
facturer, was born at Morley, in the West Biding
of Yorkshire, on September 20th, 1803, and was
educated at Wakefield, Apprenticed to the wool
trade at Wakefield and Bradford, he joined his
father’s business of wool-stapler in 1824. He
ahowed unwonted aptitude for the utilising of un-
likely materials, his first great success following
from his handing of a rough Bussian wool which
dther manufacturers could not or would not tackle.
Balt subdued it, not by attempting to adapt it
to existing aoachinery but by having machinery
speolaliy built for it. In 1636, accordingly, he was
already running four njills in Bradford. Similarly,
Alpaca, the hw of the Peruvian llama, hitherto
unmanageable, yielded to Salt’s treatment, and he
introduce the new fabric called alpaca. He had
been elected mayor of Bradford in 1848, and
was actually oonteniplating retiring from business,
when he decided to found a manufacturing town
paarticularlv adapted to his trade. The result of
this new departure wis the town of SAltni^t fhe
main mill in which was set going in September,
|85a. In 1861 he was photon i^ideitt of the
Cmumber of Gommeron th i^dfofd imd, three years
llttor,'‘;was' el0.oted MiP, Buijpolttos'

lilii no pharm for himr ahd he


representation in 1861. He was created a baroUet
in 1869, and died on Beoetnbef 29th, 1876.

Saltoy a province in the north-west of the
Argentine Bepublio, South America, bounded on
the N. by Jujuy and Bolivia, on the 1, by Formosa
and Oh^o, on the 3. by Santiago del Estera,
Tucuman and Catamarca, and on the W. by Chile.
It has an area of 62,184 square miles. The Andean
portion of the province is mountainous^ but in the
east the surface is more level. There is consider-
able mineral wealth, but the chief industry is
agriculture. Pop. (1904), estimated, 136, 069*
The capital, Salta, 160 miles N. by W. of Tucuman,
is a bishopric, and has a national college and
custom-house, besides several churches. Pop.
(estimated), 18,000.

8altaira| a town of Yorkshire, England, on the
Aire, miles N.W. of Bradford. It owes its
existence to the enterprise of Sir Titus Salt, who
had it built in 1853 for the enlargement of his
business. The works are estimated to occupy an
area of nearly six acres. The town was con-
structed with every regard for the health of the
operatives, who form the bulk of the inhabitants.
Besides the mills and accompanying buildings, the
other structures include an institute, unusually
well equipped, a technical school and the Salt
high sobools for girls and boys. Sir Titus Salt
also presented a park of 14 acres, partly laid out
as a recreation ground and partly as a pleasure
garden. Pop., 6,000.

Baltagli, a town of Cornwall, England, on the
right bank of the Tamar, which separates it from
Devon, 6 iniles N.W. of Plymouth. Its whole en-
vironment is extremely attractive, but the feature
of the place is the Royal Albert Bridge, which
carries the Great Western Railway across the river
into Cornwall. The bridge was constructed in
1857-9 from the designs of Isambard Kingdom
Brunei, Besides the approaches on either side,
there are two spans, each 465 feet long. The
central pier rests on bedrock and rises to a height
of 240 feet from the foundation. The span is of
oval tubing, the ends being connected by chains
forming a parabolic curve, from which the perma-
nent way is suspended at a height of 100 feet Above
high water. The structure is strengthened *by
struts and diagonal braces. Prince Albert, after
whom it was named, opened the bridge on May 2nd,
1869. Among the public buildings are the church
of St. Niohol^ and St. Faith, the Guildhall and
several charitable institutions and convalescent
homes. In the 17th century the town’s Parlia-
mentary representatives included Clarendon the
historian (1640) and Edmund Waller the poet

ffi . Two hundred years after this latter date,
h received its new charter of intorporation,
its first dAting from the reign of John. Pop. (1901)^
8,357.

8Ait1iU]r]|. a watering-place of the North
Biding of Yorkshire, England^ 19 miles N.W. of
Whitby, m® town is built on the cliffs, 150 feet
above the sea, but there Is tommuniCAtion with
the beaoh by iheans of roads and an


(61 )


JUtseoati,


inclined tramway. Owing to the salubrity of the
climate the town has acquired great popularity as
a health and holiday resort, the firm sandy beach
stretching for several miles to the mouth of the
Tees. Besides brine and swimming baths there is
a mineral spring, the water of which is said to
possess properties not unlike those of Harrogate
Springs. Bop. (1901), 2,578.

SaltCOfttlff a town in the Cunninghame division
of Ayrshire, fetland, IJ mile S.E. of Ardrossan.
It is in growing repute as a seaside resort owing to
its facilities for bathing and the golf links. The
public buildings include the parish church, the
Koman Catholic Church of' Our Lady, Star of the
Sea, the town hall in immediate proximity to the
picturesque old town hall, and the Mission Court
House. Originally made a burgh in 1528, it was
almost on the point of extinction when, in 1686,
several large salt pans were built. The industry
thus created flourished till the repeal of the salt
duty in 1827, when it gradually expired. A mag-
nesia works, opened in 1802, and conducted in
connection with the salt pans, was the first estab-
lishment of the kind in Scotland. Pop. (1901), 8,121.

Salt Xialce City, capital of the State of Utah,
United States, at the western base of the Wasatch
Mountains, near the right bank of the Jordan, 12
miles S.E. of Great Salt Lake, at an altitude of
4,240 feet above the sea. Laid out in 1847 by
a number of Mormons, under the leadership of
Brigham Young, the city is the headquarters of
the Motmon Church, or Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter Bay Saints. The principal buildings are the
Tabernacle, an oval structure, 250 feet long, 150
feet wide, and 70 feet high, with accommodation
for 8,000 persons seated ; the Temple, chiefly used
for Ceremonials and worship (baptism, marriage,
prayer) ; the Assembly Hall to seat 3,000 persons ;
the University of Utah ; the Museum, and the Zion’s
Co-operative Mercantile Institution. The city is a
distributing rather than a manufacturing centre,
and the industiyof its people has made the sur-
rounding wilderness to blossom like the rose. Pop.
(1870), 12,854 ; (1900), 58,681.

8altoil| or SaltouN, a parish of Haddington-
shire, Scotland, on the ’IVne, some 6 miles S.W. of
Haddington. It lies chiefly in a fertile valley on
the northern flanks of the Lammermoors. The
church, a cruciform structure with a tower and
spire, was ttm first benefice of Gilbert Burnet, the
historian, wbc became Bishop of Salisbury in 1689.
He used her© the only copy of the Book of Com-
mon Prayer alleged to have existed in the Church
of Scotland during the reign of Charles II. To the
parish he bequeathed his library and an endow-
ment fund for teaching, clothing, and apprenticing
thirty poor children. Andrew Fletcher, his pupil,
the patriotic If perferrid antagonist of the union
with England, was born in Salton in 1655, and is
less reinembered for his patriotism than for his
much adnilfOd pronouncement, “I knew a very
wise man, so much of Sir Christopher’s sentiment,
that h© heli^ved if a man wete permitted to make
all the Intl^ ho heed not tare who should make




the laws of a nation.** Selfon famous as tha
place in Scotland where pot-barley was first manu-
factured, and the firstpiac© in th© United Kingdom
where the wearing of hollandei^as ©st^
both industries being introduced iro^ tha Kether*
lands in or about 1710. It was also assooiated
with the earliest bleachfield, paper miB, and starch
factory, and with the invention and improvement
of agricultural implements. Pop., 481. %

Saltpetre. [Nitre.]

Salt Range, a hill system In Kawalpindi,.
Punjab, India. The main chain begins at the hill
of Chel (.8,701 feet), and runs westwards in two
parallel ridges, with a slight trend towards th©
south, culminating in Sakeswar (5,010), its highest
point, near the loft bank of the Indus. Between
the ridges lies an elevated and fertile tableland
picturesquely broken by gullies and peaks. The
beds of salt which give the range its name
occur as solid rock on the flanks of the tabklend,
form the largest deposit in the world and are prac-
tically inexhaustible. They are quarried at several
points. Coal of inferior quality, consisting of a
brown lignite difficult to light, and other more
valuable minerals are also found. The scenery,
in parts rugged and sublime, in parts bleak and
barren, is wanting in the softer element of romantio
beauty.

Salts. When an acid is gradually added to an
alkaline substance the characteristic properties of
the latter are slowly destroyed, those of the acid
also disappearing, until finally a compound is ob-
tained which possesses neither acid nor alkaline
properties. Such compounds are termed salts. As
many compounds which do not show alkaline
properties also neutralise acids, a more complete
statement is that bases and acids by uniting to-
gether form salts. Such a reaction is expressed
by the following equations : —

(1) NaOH -f- HCl = Naa -f- OH*.

(2) CaO -4- H 2 S 04 = CaS 04 -f OH**

It is seen that in the salts the hydrogen of the acid
is replaced by the metal present in the base, so
that in constitution salts are compounds formed
from acids by the replacement of the hydrogen by
a metal. Gertain groups of elements ammo^
nipm, NH4) also bmiave as metals in this respect,
forming salts, as ammonium chloride (NILOl). In
many acids, however, there is more than She atom
of hydrogen present in the molecule. In such cas©©
the hydrogen may or may not be completely re-
placed by the metal. In the former case th©
resulting salt is known as a normal or netHf©.! salt
— e?.y., normal sodium sulphate (NaaSOi). If th©
replacement be incomplete acid s^ts result, as
acid potassium sulphate (HKSO4). These ar© elk}
known as hydrogen salts, as dihydrogen sb^iuni
phosphate (H2NaP04). In some sits also th©re Is
present a greater amount of the base than is neces-
sary to combine with the acid, and We hence obtain
basic salts. The term salt, or common salt, is
applied popularly to the chloride of sodium (NaCl)
[Bohitrii], and was the original signiftcahoe, the
general term being due to an after-eitension of the



Ealtwol^.


(62)


Sallraiiiltt JLirmy*


meaning, In ordinaiy langnaara and in medlcinfe
the term imlts also is given to Epsom salts or Sul-
phate of magnesium (MgS04*70H2). A number of
compounds also are known under such names as
salts of lemon, salts of sorrel, etc. Smelling salts
consist of carbonate of ammonia (which has a
strong odour of the latter), usually mixed with
some perfume, as lavender, etc. In organic chem-
istry compouhds strictly analogous to salts are
abundant in which certain hydro-carbon radicals
play thh part of the metal. They are usually known
as ethereal Salts or as esters.

Saltwort, a name strictly applied to Salsola
Kali, a British seaside plant belonging to the order
Chenopodiacese, but often extended to the allied
genus Salicornia. They take the name from grow-
ing upon “saltings,” and were formerly largely
used in the preparation of the ash known as barilla,
an impure sodium carbonate used in the manu-
facture of glass and of soap, but now in the main
superseded by the introduction of soda made from
common salt.

Salvador, a republic of Central America,
bounded on the N. and N.E. by Honduras, on
the S.E. by the Gulf of Fonseca, on the S. by the
Pacific, and on the W. by the Kio Paz and Guate-
mala. It occupies an area of 7,225 square, miles.
The coastal land is moderately level, but the
Interior is mountainous. Several of the peaks have
been in volcanic activity within the historic period,
and Izalco has continued active almost since its for-
mation in the 18th century. Lake Gui jar, near the
Guatemalan boundary, is 15 miles long by 6 miles
broad and, at its eastern end, discharges the Lempa,
the longest river, which, pursuing a south-easterly
direction, falls into the Pacific after a course of
about 130 miles. Lake Ilopango, 5 miles E. of San
Salvador, is 9 miles long and 3 miles broad. The
volcano which formed in its basin in 1880 has almost
exhausted itself. The mineral wealth comprises
gold, silver, copper, iron and mercury, attention
being principally bestowed on the gold. The soil
is fertile, and cultivation has been carried to a high
degree of perfection. The chief crops are coffee,
indigo, sugar, cotton, tobacco and rubber. The
larger towns are San Salvador (69,540) the capital,
Santa Ana (48,120), and San Miguel (24,768).
When the Central American Federation was dis-
solved in 1839, Salvador became an independent
republic. The government consists of a president,
elected for four years, assisted by a ministry of four
members, and a Congress of 70 deputies. Education
is free and compulsory, and justice is administered
by a supreme court and subsidiary and local courts.
The country received its name from Pedro Alvaredo,
who reduced it for Spain in 1626-6, but the Spanish
yoke was not thrown off till 1821, Pop. (1901),
1,006,848.

Salvagd, the compensation allowed to persons
by whose assistance a ship or boat, or the cargo of
a ship, or the lives of the persons belonging to her,
are saved from danger or loss in cases of shipwreck,
derelict, capture, and the like; and a salvor is he
who renders sudh assistance. The assistance must


be voluntary, and not under any contract or duty,
and must involve skill, enterprise, and risk on the
part of the salvors (see the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1864). The right to salvage may be forfeited,
either totally or partially, by miscon^^^ct on the
part of the salvors, but the evidence of misconduct
must be conclusive. A towing-ship, if it render
salvage services, will be entitled to salvage reward
like any other ship. Similarly, one ot the vessels
that have been in collision may, if the innocent
party, be entitled to salvage for services rendered
to the other party, but not if both ships were equally
at fault.


Salvation Army, a religious society, having
for its objects the conversion of unbelievers ani|he
reclamation of tiie outcast. It had its origSHn
the Christian Mission started in the East Etta of
London in 18()6 by the Rev. William Booth (b. 1829),
who had previously been a minister of the Methodis|,,
New Connection Church. Appalled at the wide^**’
spread destitution in the East End, he devoted ,
himself henceforth to its relief no less in a physical
than in a spiritual sense. In 1878 he adopted for
the large band of followers he had gathered th#*
semi-military organisation of Genenil, Chief of the
Staff, commissioners, colonels, brigadiers, tnajors,
and other commissioned and non-commissioned
o fla c e r 8, becomin g|.
himself the first .
General, fin assumi f
ing the name of Arcagr
and thei»ili tary ‘
model, i|fis probable
that he was guided
by his intimate know“-
ledge of human na-
ture ; but whateveF
the motive, the efforts
of the founders were
rewarded with an ex-
traordinary degree of
success. The Army
appeared to reach all
grades of society with
equal facility, but
showed unusual skill
in winning the confi-
dence and sup-
port of the re- .
siduum. It aimed
a t introducing
greater human
interest into its
services by the
lavish use of brass
bands, proces-
sions with ban-
ners and lively music. It encouraged plenty of
open-air preaching and, not abating a single
jot or tittle of its pronounced Evangelical or
Calvinistic doctrines, was soon identified with the
mission of Blood and Fire in which it rejoiced*
SocMIy the ramifications of the Army’s 0opag$nd^
ism are mctensive and complex. It received an
exceptional Impetus from the publication in 1890 of



UKiFORM^ OF PRIVATIC9 OF THE
SALVATION ARMY.

(Photo : Pictorial Agency.)


(€3)


Salvini.




General Booth’s 1% Darltest England dnd the Wag
Out, and the schemes he formulated in connection
therewith impressed public opinion favourably. The
Army has established farm colonies, labour factories,
shelters, and a variety of other institutions. Having
vigorously-conducted branches in every country of
the globe, most of which were visited by General
Booth in person, the Army was enabled to handle
the question of emigration with unusual effect. Its
literature, militant and other, in the shape of weekly
papers, monthly magazines and books, is estimated
to have an annual circulation in excess of 60,000,000
copies. The Army’s headquarters are in Queen
Victoria Street, London. An organisation that num-
bers its officials and employes by tens of thousands
andjbs adherents by tlie million, and has the ex-
peilpjig of large sums of money, can scarcely escape
caliphy ; but on broad grounds, and after making
due allowance for the magnitude and difficulties of
its task and mission, public confidence has not been
•withdrawn from the Salvation Array.

Sftlvini, Tommaso, actor, was born at Milan,

♦ Italy, on New Year’s Day, 1829, and educated at
riorence. At the age of fourteen he took to the
iitige, ahd his first engagement was with Madame
^ BistOri’s company, his early performances giving a
bromis#' that was soon fulfilled. His career was
^ f intirrupted by the Italian War of Independence,
Ipirough which he served, but ho was afterwards en-
;;tibled tq resMe his prbfessionwith greater success
IjC'than Over. »is fine presence and phydgne no doubt
^jiKped him, but part of his tritoph as an actor
was due t<)iife4totuitive gift for knowing just how
far ideajistnll^ould be carried. He was the most
lamoua “ Othello ” on the contemporary stage, and
other noteworthy impersonations were “ Paolo ” in
Erancegca da Bimini, “ Egisto in Alfieri’s Meropc,
nhd the more conspicuous heroes of Shakespeare
a&d Gorneille. In 1895 hfe published a volume of
reminiscences (Ricordi, Aneddoti ed ImjfTmiont),

^ and in 1902 took part in the celebration of Adelaide
^ Bistori’s eighty-first birthday.

Salwiiii or Salween, the principal river of
Burma, with a mainly north and south course. Its
head-waters have not been fully explored, but its
sourqe is believed to be near that of the Irrawaddy
in the Eastern Himalaya, though it may yet be
found to rise farther north in the south-eastern
region of Tibet. After traversing the Chinese
province of Yunnan and the Shan and Karen States,
the Salwin enters Lower Burma, and from this
point it runs almost due south to the sea, into
which it falls by two mouths, the northern flowing
past the old town of Martaban, the southern passing
Maulmain and reaching the sea at' Amherst. It is
a noble river, but rendered useless for navigation in
consequence of the formidable rapids in the lower
reaches. Long passages are utilised by native
craft, however, and enorinous quantities of teak
are floated down to Maulmain for export. The
timber is dr^ged bv elephants into the forest
streams, marked, and borne iU flood into the main
river. Some sixty miles above Maulmain the logs are
intercepted by ropes stretched across the river and
rafted. They are then identified, the owners pay-


ing the salvage dues. The length of the Salwin
has not been ascertained definitely, owing to the
doubts as to its source, but aopprding as this is
limited to the. Himalaya or ekiiended to Tibet,
the length may be stated at from 800 to 1,700
miles.

Salsbargi capital of the province of Salzburg,
Austria, beautifully situated on both sides of the



BALZBUKO.


{Photo: Frith & Co., PtigtxU.)


Salzach, at the mouth of a valley at the foot of the
Austrian Alps, with a fertile plain to the west and
south, 157 miles W.S.W. of Vienna. The chief
manufacture is hardware. This city was the birth-
place of Mozart. The principal buildings include
the fine Benaissance cathedral; the Romanesque
church of St. Peter ; St. Sebastian’s with the tomb
of Paracelsus ; a palace in the Italian style in the
Besidenz Platz ; the Neu Bau containing the Govern-
ment offices and law courts; the archiepiscopal
palace in the Capitel Platz ; the Mirabell palace,
onbe the summer residence of the prince arch-
bishops, presented to the city in 1867;fb,v the
Emperor Francis Joseph; the Summer Biding
School, formerly an amphitheatre : the Carolino-
Augusteura Museum; the Theological Seminary;
occupying the buildings of the university suppressed
in 1810; and, most imposing of all, the grandly-
situated citadel of Hohen-Salzburg, founded in the
9th century, but rebuilt in U96-1619, the towers
rising 400 feet above the city. Pop. (1900), 33,067.
The crown-land and province of SALZBURG is an
irregular triangle intruded into on the west by the
south-east corner of Bavaria, the capital city lying
near the apex to the north, and the main ridge of
the Austrian Alps forming the base to the south.
It is surrounded by the provinces of Upper Austria,
Sbyria, Carinthia, and Tyrol, and (as already said)
the kingdom of Bavaria. It occupies an area of




<«*>




2J<J7 »c[nto piles. Tbe enrla<p being exfaeinely
moniitfdmoas^ tbe area under cultivation is small.
Tbe bbiel mineral is salt Tbe see was secularised
in 1I02-3, but in former times the archbishops were
prominent among the princes of the Holy Boman
(German) Empire. Napoleoti gave the territory to
Austria in 1806. Pop. (1900). 192,763.

SalB]impp«V|nit (literally, **Balt-exchequer-
property ”), a celebrated mountainous region in the
south-west of the province of Upper Austria,
between Styria on the east and Salzburg on the
west. Its iarea occupies some 250 square miles.
Owing to the grandeur of the Alpine scenery, the
idyllic beauty of the lonely lakes, and its lying off
the beaten track, it is a favoured haunt of tourists
*‘in the know.** The chief lakes are Traunsee,
Hallstattersee, Altersee (the largest in Austria),
Ifpndsee and Sankt Wolfgangsee. Tbe principal
epinenoes are Daohstein (9,830 feet), Thorstein
(9,666), the Todten Gebirge (rriel, 8,248), Schafberg
(6,840), and Traunstein (6,648). Gmunden (pop.,
7,126) on Traunsee is the capital of the re^on,
bnt Ischl (2|646) is the most fashionable watering-
place, havine a complete equipment of baths.
Bait-mining is the leading industry, the most im-
prtattt worhs being found at Ischl, Gmunden,
Hallstatt, Traunkh^hen, Aussee, Ebensee, Gosau
and Mondsee. Oattle-rearing and forestry are also
carried on. Pop. (estimated), about 19,000.

a dry winged synoarpous fruit. It
may be single, as in the ash, elm, or birch; or



double, or rarely triple, as in the Paples, and .the
wings may be lateral or a|mc^t a}l round the sOed^
cavity. Though the double samam breilM In haH


it does not, whether double or single, split sO as to
disolose its seeds. The wing serves to disperse the
contained seed away from the shade of its parent
plant, those of the sycamore spinning round in the
wind when falling from the treelike a screw-
propeller, the shape thus being excellently adapted
to secure this end.

Samarai a government of Bouth-Eastem
Russia, bounded on the N. by Kazan, on the W.
by Simbirsk and Saratoff, on the E. by Ufa and
Orenburg, on the 8. by Astrakhan, the Kirghiz
Steppes and the territory of the Ural Cossacks.
It occupies an area of 68,820 square miles. In the
north the surface partakes of the character of flat
hills and tablelands, in the south it is mainly low-
lying steppe. The Volga "flows on its western
border, and the Samara, one of its tribupries, is
the chief stream. The principal crops are wheat,
rye, oats, barley, tobacco and oil-seeds. Gardening
is largely pursued, and sunflowers and water-melons
are cultivated in fields. The raising of live-stock
is an important industry, horses especially being
reared in great numbers. Bee-keeping and poultry-
farming are being increasingly pursued. The manu-
factures, mostly flour, leather, soap, candles and
spirits, are only in course of development. The
capital, Samara (91,672), is situated on the left
bank of the Volga. Pop., 2,763,478.

Sauarangy a seaport of Java, capital of a
residency of the same name, on the north coast,
near the mouth of the Samarang, 260 miles E. by S.
of Batavia. The principal buildings are the town
hall, military school, law Cburt and hospital. It
does a great export trade in the produce of the
fertile hinterland, especially coffee, p^per, indigo,
rice, sugar and tobacco. Pop. (1901),
89,286.

Samaria, a* city of Palestine, 35 miles
N. of Jerusalem, which gave its name to
the district between Judma and Galilee. It
was founded by Omri, about 922 B.C., and
became the capital of tbe kingdom of
Israel. About 725 B.O. Shalmaneser, King
of Assyria, besieged it, and though he died before
his conquest was achieved (722), his successor
replaced the inhabitants by Assyrian settlers,
many of whom were converted to the worship
of Jehovah by a priest of the tribe of Levi.
When the temple at Jerusalem was rebuilt, the
Samaritans offered to aid tbe Jews, but met with
a refusal, which led to bitter relidous animosity
between Samaritans and Jews, in which the former
were usually the aggressors. Sir Charles W.
Wilson says they were ready enough to acknow-
ledge kinship with the Jews when the latter were
prosperous, but at other seasons they ignored the
relationship and maintained their Assyrian descent.
It was in consequence of this mutual hostfllty t^^
Jesus forbade ms disciples to enter anir clty of tbe
Samaritans. John Hyroanue destroyea tbe oity\ as
well as the Samaritan temple on Mount dexisim,
near Sichem, in 129 M* It was soon ret^ifllt. and,
:iind6r Hei^'<'acqu!red;;8omeimpi^ <

since ,dwMled;lni^''4'.ii^ ^




( 66 )


SaaMCfttuu.


'‘IsiMiiiltMiAs


i a


SlklilSirititttf a smaU Israelitiah community of
Nablus (Hoapolis, Slchem) at the north foot of the
sacred Mount Gerizim, Samaria. They claim direct
descent from the old Israelitish inhabitants of
Palestine, and profess a primitive form of the
Hebrew religion, as embodied in a very ancient
version of the Pentateuoh in a Semitic language
formerly current in Samaria, but modified by
namerous Hebrew and Aramaic elements, and
written in a Phoenician script which spears to
have been in nse in Palestine under the Maccabees.
The MS., which is of great age, is preserved at
Nablus with some other venerable documents. The
Samaritans rigorously observe the prescriptions of
the law, are strict Sabbatarians, and still offer
sacrifices on Gerizim according to the rites or-


bara on the S. and W. The sutlaoU is u^ostly desert i
in the north, but in the south is mountainous. It
covers ah area of squi^ milhi. The chief
river is the Zerafshan, ApioOlture, trhich Is in an
advanced state, is the leading industry. The prin*
cipal crops are wheat, rice and barley, but millet,
peas, lentils, flax, hemp, poppy, madder, tobacco,
and melons are also cultivate. Sericulture and
cotton-growing have been successfully introduced.
The raising of Uve-stook is ; the main occupation
of the Kirghiz. The manufactures are almost
entirely connected with villages, such as weavihg,
saddlery, boot-making, tanning and metal-working,
but a few distilleries, flour-mills, glass works and
cotton-cleaning works are found in the towns. Pop.,
867,906.



dained in Leviticus and Deuteronomy. They also,
like the Jews, await the Messiah, who is to descend
on the holy mountain, rival of Zion, and lead the
faithful into everlasting bliss ; but in the meantime
the faithful are dying out. They arc reduced to
between 100 and 200 persons, the small number of
the families left being the subject of local proverbs.
Though they apparently entertain no objection on
reli^ous grounds to marriage with neighbouring
Jewish families, they will not consent to such
i^ions, which afford, it is said, the only prospect
ft the continuance of their race. Possibly, how-
' ;itrer, this may be a pessimist view, since the people,
it miy supposed, would not vrillingly consign
Ihem^lves and all their dreams and hopes of glory
bp cumihilation.

a government of Bussian Turk-
ostaiif Ail^ havi^ Perghana on tbe B. and Bok-


Samarkand, the capital of the preceding
gcTvernment, 6 miles from the left ba^K of the
Zerafshan. It is divided into tiie old or native
quarter and the new or Russian quarter, the latter
laid out since 1871. The mosque of 8hah Zindeh,
one of the finest in Central Asia, is situated out^
side of the town walls- The principal buildings
are the mosques, colleges and citadel. The town
is of great antiquity, the ancient city Marcanda
having been destroyed by Alexander the Great.
Under the Arabs, who subdued it early in the 8th
century, it reached a high degree of civilisation.
Tamerlane made it his residence, and since it con-
tains his tomb the town is regarded with reverence.
One invader after another reduced it to ruin, but in
the 18th century it showed si^s of returning ani-
mation and is now the emponum of a lar^ and
diversified trade. It has a fine climate and beauti-
ful environs. Pop. (1900), 68, 19 A





Sknlwiinis.


( 86 )


'SfUliOlls'


8Aii!i1)0iini«» Edward LlNLETt artisl/ wfui
bom in Xiondon on January 4tb, 1846, and ednoatod
at tbe O^ty of London School and Ohester College.
He was apprenticed, at the age of 16, to Messrs.
Eenii and Son, the well-known engineers at Green>
wich; bat being encouraged by Mark Lemon, the
editor, to become a contributor to Punch, he sub-
mitted a drawing in 1867, and since that date his
work has conatantly appeared in its pages. He has
illustrated a large number of books, including the
New Sandford and Merton (1872) and Charles
Kingsley’s Water Bahias (1886). In 1900 he was
appointed one of the Eoyal Commissioners and
sole juror for Great Britain in Class 7 (black and
white) of the Fine Arts, Paris Exhibition, and on
January Ist, 1901, succeeded Sir John Tenniel as
the leading cartoonist for Punch, Though to some
extent lacking his great predecessor’s classical


lord and is of a yellowish hue. The Sambur prefers
stony hills, where there is abundance of cover and
ready access to water. They browse rather than
graze, and their habits are nearly nocturnal.
During the day they seek shady retired places,
the old stags being particularly diPoult to find,
retreating to spots where only experienced hunters
would think of looking for them, and even the old
shikari has to trust quite as much tOi luck as to his
knowledge of woodcraft.

SamniteSf people of ancient Italy, who in-
habited Samnium (i.a., Sabinium), which bordered
on Campania and Apulia. They were originally a
band of Sabines who emigrated earlier than the
foundation of Kome, conquered the original Opicians
and adopted their language. Their warlike nature
and love of freedom made them formidable enemies



BOBBBT LOUIS steveksob's HOUSE, ” YiiLmA,'* SAMOA. {From 3 holograph supplied by Mr. Stevenson.)


refinement —Which, apart altogether from any
question of teohniqve, has a unique value in the art
of the political cartoonist — Linley Sambourne has
nevertheless produced several effective and memor-
able pictorial comments on public affairs. A
master of invention and design, his skill in these
branches has been repeatedly requisitioned on
special occasions with the happiest results, as in
the diploma for the Fisheries Exhibition (1883) and
the W. E. Gladstone memorial card.

Sambur, or Gebow (Rum AristotelU), a deer
found in great numbers throughout the hill districts
of India. The stag, a massive creature, stands
nearly five feet high, is of a deep brown colour, with
the hair of the neck developed almost into a mane,
and has a fairly long tail. Its antlers are of the
rusine type, present three points, and are over three
feet in length. Above tbe brow antler the beam
forks high up into two pretty equal branches,' like a
great catapult. The hind is less massive than her


of the Romans. The first Samnite War — undertaken
by the Romans in aid of Campania — began in 343
B.C., the second in 327 B.c. In 321 the Samnites,
aided by neighbouring tribes, gave the Romans a
severe check, but in 290 B.c. Roman supremacy was
established. In 90 B.o. a revolt of the Samnites
was followed by an almost universal massacre, and
their career as a nation was ended.

Samoa, or Navigator’s Islands, a group of
islands in the South Pacific, between 18® 26' and
14® 30' S. and 168° and 173® W. They are 14 in
number, the largest being Savaii (660 square miles),
Upolu (340 square miles), Tutuila (64 square miles)
and Manna (25 square miles). Tbe total area may
be estimated at 1,100 square miles. They are
mountainous and covered with rich tropical vegeta-
tion. Copra is the principal product. The natives
are Christianised Polynesians of fine physique^
pleasant appearance, decided mental capacity and
good beba^our and are bom sailors. To adjust con*



Sajnos.^


( e?)




iioting interests of the Great Powers which had
become interested in the Soath Seas ib the last
quarter of the ISlth century, a conference at Berlin
led up to a treaty (1889) guaranteeing the neutrality
of the islands, recognising the right of the natives to
follow their own laws and customs and to elect
their king, and reserving to the three signatory
powers — Great Britain, Germany, and the United
States — equal rights of trade and residence. Friction
ultimately arose, due partly to rival claimants for
the kingship and partly to dissensions secretly
fomented by Interested Powers, and in 1899 the
kingship was abolished. Great Britain renounced
all rights over the islands in favour of Germany in
respect of Savaii, Upolu, Apolima and Manono, and
in favour of the United States as regards TutuUa,
Manua, and other islands. Apia, In Upolu, is the
capital of the German section, and Pango-Pango in
Tutuila of the American. To all lovers of literature
the islands and the natives must always possess a
deep interest for the sake of Kobert Louis Stevenson,
who ibuilt for himself a house (“Vailima,” from
which so many delightful letters were addressed)
in the hills above Apia, where he died in 1904. He
had endeared himself to the natives by many deli-
cate attentions, and his Samoan “ boys *’ bore their
master’s remains to their resting-place on the
summit of the mountain of Vaea. Pop. (1900),
38,412 (Upolu, 18,341 ; Savaii, 13,201 ; Tutuila,
3,800).

Samoat an island of the Greek Archipelago
lying near Cape St. Maria in Asia Minor, 42 miles
S.W. of Smyrna, forming a principality under the
sovereignty of Turkey under the guarantee of
France, Great Britain and Russia (December 11th,
1832). It covers an area of 180 miles, measures 27
miles from east to west and 10 from north to south.
Its earliest inhabitants are said to have been Carians
and Leleges, but it was colonised by jEolians from
Lesbos and lohians from Epidaurus. ^ The Ionian
element soon predominated, and the island was a
powerful member of the Ionic confederacy. It
acquired considerable maritime power, planted
colonies in Asia Minor, Thrace, Crete, Sicily, and
Italy, and, under the tyrant Polycrates, established
an extensive trade with Egypt and Cyrene. It
became subject alternately to Persia and Athens,
until it was nominally attached to the Graeco-
Syrian monarchy. It joined Mithradates against
Rome, and consequently was absorbed in the Roman
Empire in 84 B.C, The island became tributary to
Arabs, Venetians, Genoese, and eventually to the
Turkish Empire. In the early period of Hellenic
history Samos was famous for the cult of Hera
(Juno), for art, and in particular for the invention
of casting in bronze, and generally for the highest
Ionian civilisation. Towards the end of the
Peloponnesian War this island became the asylum
of the democratic party of Athena. From 1821 to
1824 the Samians maintained a successful resistance
against the Turks. In the 6th century b.c. the
capital city (Samos) was one of the finest cities of
the world, and extensive ruins still mark its site. Its
surface is mostly mountainous and in Mount Kerki
reaches a heiglit of 4*726 feet. There is abundance


of forest land and the valleys are very fertile. The
mineral wealth includes anliinony, iHver4ead, man-
ganese, copper, adno and mafblb, excepting the
quarrying of marble, there is scarcely any mining.
The chief crops are grain, carobs, tobacco and
grapes, and the manufacture^ comprise wine, brandy
and oil, while raisins are largely exported. Pop.
(1902), 53, *424, almost wholly adherents of the
Greek Orthodox Church.

Swosata (modern Bahsat), a village of the
province of Aleppo, Turkey in Asia, on the right
bank of the Euphrates, 160 miles E.N.E. of the
Gulf of Iskander un, an arm of the Mediterranean.
The present village occupies part of the site of the
famous city which was the capital of the Syrian
kingdom of Commagene and the birthplace of
Lucian, the Greek humorist and writer of dialogues,
and Paul of Samosata, the forerunner of the
Unitarians. The scanty remains of the ancient walls,
an aqueduct and a castle are all that is left, apart
from the pages of histoiy, to recall a famous past.

Samothracey or Samothbaki, an island in the
.Egean Sea, belonging to Turkey, 16 miles N.N.W.
of the island of Imbros and 22 miles S.W. of the
mainland, where the Maritza falls into the sea. It
has an area of about 30 square miles and is of oval
shape, the longer axis running from east to west.
It is mountainous, the highest point bein^ 5,240
feet above sea-level. In ancient times it was
noted for the worship of the Cabiri, a primitive cult
the rites of which are supposed to have drawn many
people to the island, but the nature of which can
only be guessed at. Since, however, this cult is
conjectured to have been concerned with the wor-
ship of Castor and Pollux as divinities who protect
those in peril on the sea, the mysteries were
probably of an unobjectionable character. The
Samothracians lent Xerxes some assistance in his
invasion of Greece, and their ships took sides with
the Persian fleet at the battle of Salamis in 480 B.O.
— scarcely a notable emergence from the general
obscurity in which their history is wrapped.
Smyrnese fishers fish for sponges off the coasts.
Pop. (estimated), 6,000, mostly Christians.

SamoyodeSy a main division of the UraLAltaic
family, closely allied in speech to the Finnish
branch. Their original home appears tq have been
the district about the sources of the Yenisei river,
west of Lake Baikal, where they are still represented
by the Soyot people, and whence they have spre#!
as breeders of reindeer to the shores of the Frcten
Ocean from the White Sea to Chatanga Bay. The
chief tribes are the Yurak, Taguri, Ostyak, Abator
and Koibal, with a total population of about 20,000.
They are of coarse Mongolian type,low stature, squat
ungainly figure, long jet-black hair, scant beard,
broad fiat features, high cheek-bones, long narrow
and slightly oblique eyes and dirty-yellow com-
plexion. All are nomads, fishers and hunters, living
in little rectangular birohwood huts in winter
{y^rt9% and in cone-shaped tents of birch-bark in
summer (chums). Nominally Christians of the
Orthodox Greek rite, they are still essentially
Shamanists, worshipping the old stone idols and


( 68 )


Sidifliftdvilia


''flUllAJMf


believing In the good and bad princitdes
and V4mM Respite their wretched savage einst-
enoe, they possess a rich oral llteratare/ myths,
folklore ana songs, many of which have been
collected by Castren. Everything points to the fact
that they are another unfortunate race for whom, so
civilisation has decided, the world has no room.

a succulent umbelliferous plant
( Crithmum mariUmum), growing on rocky sea-coasts
whence it was Cjtiginully known in French as peree-
pierre. This was corrupted to Saint Pierre, whence
the English name Is derived. Its flowers are
greenish-yellow, ahd its leaves are bi-ternate. These
last are gathered, before the appearance of the
flowers in June, for pickling, and were formerly
valued as a digestive. The plant occurs on most
European coasts, jiist above high-water mark. Its
collection for pickliog is alluded to in Mng Lear
(act iv. scene 6).

SI1IIISOII9 the liberator of Israel, was of the tribe
of Dan, and was born at Zorah (the modern Surah),
a town of Judah, in 1155 b.g. His many exploits
are recounted in the Book of Judges, since he
officiated as a judge for twenty years. His strength
lay in his hair, and Delilah betrayed him into the
hands of the Philistines by cutting it off. He was
taken into the temple of the god Dagon, and pulled
the edifice down on himself and his enemies in the
year 1117 B.c. Modern commentators incline to
the opinion that Samson cannot be regarded as a
leader, or judge, so much as a popular hero, re-
nowned for bis strength and his mother-wit, not
unaware of his Divine mission, but sweeping to his
revenge on the Philistines in all the fighting spirit
of a mere man.

Saaitielf judge and prophet of Israel, was the
son of Blkanahof the tribe of Levi, and was bom
about 1155 B.C. |Ie was made a judge when he was
about forty years of age, as related in the Scrip-
tures, and consecrated Saul. The latter angered
him by sparing the Amalekites on one occasion,
and he warned him of the evil consequences of
showing mercy to the enemies of the Lord. Samuel
consecrated David afterwards, and died in the year
1057 B.C. He is supposed to be the author of the
Book of Judges in the Old Testament and also of the
First Book of Kings.

flhuilMlf Books of, received this name at the
time of making theSeptuagint translation, previous
to which they, or rather it (for the Hebrew MS, is
one), was caUed the Book of Kings. The first part
deals with the history of Samuel, and the latter with
that of Saul and David, who were appointed by
Samuel. Generally they may be said to give the
history from Eli to the death of David, and may
have been begun by Samuel, and perhaps continued
by Gad, Nathan, and later writers.

Samuraiy a word applied either collectively to
the military class or individually to a soldier of the
ancien rigime in Japan. When the revolution of
1867 was fully accomplished, the feudal system
perished, and six years later the Samurai were dis-
toauded, They did not relinquish their privileges
without a struggle, especially that which gave them


the exclusive right to wear a sword, a cuStoih
that in course of time had come to be accepted as
the badM Cf a ** gentleman,*’ as distinguishing the
wearer from an ordinary mao. Indeed so keenly
did many Samurai feel the new ordinance that in
1876 they rose in rebellion. The Government,
however, was prepared, and had no difficulty in
suppressing the rising. The Samurai were the
scholars as well as the fighting men of Japan. In
the earlier period of their existence the^ cheerfully
accepted a life of Spartan discipline, including the
“ happy despatch ” or disembowelment, but growing
luxury and overweening pride ultimately demoraL
ised the bulk of them, and they became both a
burden and a nuisance to the nation. The Samurai
carried at least two swords, a long one and a short
one, stuck in his girdle (not slung from his person),
and in action might cumber himself with five, one
of which, in the event of defeat, was reserved for
his own suicide.

Sana, or Sanaa, capital of Yemen, Arabia,
situated in a valley at a height of 7,800 feet above
the sea, 100 miles N.E. of Hodeida on the Bed Sea,
and 190 miles N. by W. of Aden. Its walls are
nearly six miles in circumference. The principal
buildings are mosques, baths and caravanserais.
There is a considerable trade in coffee, and the
manufactures include arms, jewellery and silks.
In 1872, during the Yemen rebellion, the town
was besieged and captured by the Turks, who have
established an apparently permanent occupation.
Pop. (estimated), 50,000.

San Antonio^ the capit^ of Bexar county,
Texas, United States, on the San Antonio, which
here receives the San Pedro, 80 miles S.W. of
Austin. The principal structures are the cathedral
of San Fernando, the Federal building, the court-
house, St. Louis College, and the Ohuroh of the
Alamo, part of an old Franciscan mission, which is
historic^ly interesting in connection with the
Texan war of independence in 1836, when a
garrison of 175 men defended it for twelve days
against an overwhelming fo]fce of 4,000 Mexicans,
and died to a man rather than surrender. The
surrounding country is fertile, and its leading
products are cattle, cotton, wool and hides. In
these the town drives a brisk trade, while the^
stock markets of cattle, horses and mules are the
largest in the State. The chief industries are
iron-founding, brewing, and milling of flour. Fort
Sam Houston, a mile to the north, is one of the
most important military stations in the Union.
As a health resort San Antonio is in growing
repute, its climate being well adapted to sufferers
from lung complaints. Pop. (1900), 53,321.

Sanatovia, Opisn-aib, structures not neces-
sarily of a permanent oharaoter, and indeed pre-
ferably of wood, adapted to the treatment of
consumptives. The vast improvement, and in some
cases cures, alleged to have resulted from the
system of treatment adopted at Nordiaoh in the
Black Forest««-whioh consisted 0f forced feeding
and an open-air life— -drew attention to the need
for reoonsidecihg the stereotyped treatment of






( 69 )




phthisis. One result was to derelopf almost in-
definitely, the open-air treatment. With this
object substantially 'built wooden huts have been
erected in various localities, the structures being
readily movable, either as a whole or by wording
on a pivot, so that a sheltered position from the
day's wind may at once be obtained. In other
respects the sanatoria are open to the air, in all
weathers and at all hours. The patients are en-
couraged to go out in all weathers, the funda-
mental rule being always to change the clothing in
rainy weather and never, in wet or dry, to allow
the feet to become cold. In other respects, as
regards bed-clothes, personal clothing and the like,
the patient’s comfort may be studied, so long as
every precaution is taken against cold and chill.
That is why woollen clothing is desirable, and why
the bed-clothes should be abundant. Oases are
treated on these lines even in mid-winter. The
questions of food and drink are, of course, regu-
lated by the doctor’s dietary. The whole method
of treatment, however, is still in the experimental
stage.

SftnclllUiiatllOll, a somewhat shadowy Phoe-
nician historian, who is said to have lived in the
2nd or 3rd century before Christ. The literature of
Phoenicia had perished before advancing Greek
thought and energy, and was considered irrecover-
able. Sanchuniathon was cited by Porphyry when
he attacked the Mosaic account, and Philo Byblius,
who bad translated into Greek the fragments
known as TJie KUtory of Phcenioia and assumed to
be Sanchuniathon’s, vouched for their authenticity.
Philo s character for honesty was considerable, but
many scholars believe the work to be a forgery.
Phllb says Sanchuniathon was a native of Berytus,
and lived in the reign of Semiramis. That such a
writer existed seems clear, his name being held in
reverence in ancient times, but there is grave doubt
as to his JffutorVf which would be of immense
importance if quite genuine. Philo may either
have worked upon some real fragments of Sanchu-
niathon’s writing, or he may himself have been
deceived by a forger.

Sancroft, Wiixiam, Archbishop of Canterbury,
was born at Fressingfield, in Suffolk, on January
30th, 1617, and was educated at Bury St. Edmunds
Grammar School and Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge. After filling several posts at his college
and travelling on the Continent, he became rector
of Houghton-la^Spring and King’s Chaplain (both
in 1661) and prebendary of Durham in 1662. He
was made Dean of York in 1664, and later in the
same year Dean of St. Paul’s, and in 1677 was
raised to the see of Canterbury. He was a man of
much power and great obstinacy, and was one of
the Seven Bishops who were sent to the Tower for
drawing up the petition against the illegalities of
James II. He took a prominent part in the events
which followed the flight of James and the arrival
of the Prince of Orange. In 1691, for refusing to
take the oaths to William and Mary, he Was de-
prived of his see, hut absolutely declined to leave
Lambeth Palace. When finally obliged to retire,
he relumed to his native place, where he parti-


cipated In a vain attempt to preserve the succes-
sion in the Nonjuring body, and wlfce he died in
November, 1693.

Baiictnaiqr denotes the exemption from pur-
suit and legal process enjoyed by certain spots
or buildings, notably churches. The Hebrews had
their cities of refuge, some heathen temples had
right of sanctuary, and from the time of Constantine
certain churches were thus privileged. The rights
were modified by varying conditions, and seem to
have originated in the desire to insure against an
anticipation of the result of judicial process. A
Papal Bull was generally necessary to constitute
sanctuary, but the king's consent was in some cases
enough. Sanctuary from debt was afforded by
certain places in England till 8 5c 9 William IV.,
eneral sanctuary having been abolished by 21
ac. I. Holyrood with its precincts still gives
immunity from debt, but the privilege has been
practically of no account since the abolition of
imprisonment for debt in 1880.

Saudi finely-divided quartz, with admixtures of
other substances, accumulated by various ^encieSi
The grains may be perfectly regular crystals of
quartz; angular fragments freshly derived from
the breaking up of granite or schist ; water-worn
and rounded ; chemically corroded ; or with a
redeposited coating of silica. No sand in any
quantity is formed of flint. The other constituent
minerals of igneous rocks, such as scales of mica,
tourmaline, epidote, garnets, cassitorite, etc., often
occur in sands, as does also finely-divided shelly
calcareous matter. The name “ sand ” is sometimes
loosely applied to the ground-down coral and
nullipores of the shores of the Bahamas and
Bermudas. Sand may be accumulated by wind,
rivers, lakes, glaciers, or the sea; and," in the
absence of fossils, it is well-nigh impossible to
distinguish sands that have originated in one of
these ways from those originating in another.
Sands are generally poor in fossils, as their porous
character leads, by percolation, to the destruction
of any they may contain. They are commonly
stained red or yellow by oxide of iron, but may be
green from the presence of glauconite ; lilac from
that of humus acid compounds ; ^ey from carbon-
aceous matter ; or bleached to silver sand by the
reducing action of organic acids. Among the chi^f
English formations of loose sand are the Trias,
the Portland Sands, the Hastings (including the
Ashdown and Tunbridge Wells) Sands, the Lower
Greensand (including the Sandgate and Folkestone
series and some of the Hythe beds), the Upper
Greensand, more commonly incoherent, the Thanet
Sands, and the Bagshot Sands. Sand is employed
for many commercial purposes, for glass-making,
for making mortar, for earthenware, for foundry*
moulds, fojr the cultivating of ferns and for scour-
ing, whilst it was formerly put down on brick and
wooden floors. The quarries at Gilmerton, near
Edinburgh, were famous for their household sand,
and the carters for their fully-flavoured language.

Saudi Gsoboe, novelist, was the daughter of a
French military officer named Dnpin, ana was


Sfloiii.


(70)


^ SaacLftifaeli.


in Paris on July 1st, 1804. Her real name Was
Armandine Lucile Aurore Dnpin previous to her
marriage with M. Dudevant. She imbibed some of
Bousseau’s doctrines at an early age, and in 1817
entered the convent of the English Augostines in



QEOROB SAND.

{Photo: Nadar, Paris.)


Paris, where she stayed three years. Her earlier
life was spent with her grandmother at Nohant in
the department of Indre, and on the latter’s death
she married in 1822, but her wedded life was not a
happy one, and her husband and she separated nine
years later, she taking charge of the two children
(a boy and a girl). About 1831 she made the
acquaintance of Jules Sandeiiu, and, having pre-
viously written a little for the press, she collabor-
ated with him in a novel, Mose et Blanche, which
was published (1881) under the pseudonym of
“Jules Sand.” Her own first novel, Indiana,
appeared in 1832 over the name of “ George Sand,”
Having made some reputation, she devoted herself
to literary work, and produced many novels in
rapid succession. Having met with Alfred de
Musset, she went to Italy with him, and afterwards
formed liaimis with other famous men, especially
Ohopin the musician, with whom she remained
eight years. During the Revolution of 1848 she was
concerned in political affairs, and her pen was
devoted to them rather than to novels. She died
at Nohant on June 7th, 1876, having, after a period
of storm and stress, settled down for a quarter of a
century to the tranquillity of a country life. Her
very impressionable nature was stirred by certain
mystical phenomena, and she has left in many of
her novels strong eyidence of the religious or
8|>irituali8tic bent of her mind. Spiridion (1839) is
especially marked by this exaltation. Comuelc
appeared in 1842, and other novels of hers deserving.
Of mention are La Camtesm de Bmdehiadt (1848)^


Le Meunier d'AngihanU (1845), La Mare du B table
(1846), one of her most beautiful productions,
Betite Fadette (1848), besides Jean de la Boo)k\
Mauprat, La Baniellkj, Mistoire de ma Vie (1864),
and Impresiimt et ^uvenin (1873). Her most
successful play was Le Marquii de ViUemer (1864).
The beauty of her style is one of her chief merits.

Sandal MaglUif a town of the West Biding of
Yorkshire, England, pleasantly situated in the valley
of the Calder, 2 miles S.E. of Yorkshire. Among
the public buildings are the cruciform church of St.
Helen (restored 1888), partly in the Norman style,
and the Taylor and Soholey Endowed School, so
named after its two benefactors, Richard Taylor
and Alderman Scholey. Oa^p^n eminence are the
meagre remnants of a castle, restored about 1320
by John Plantagenet, last Earl of Warren. It
afterwards passed into the hands of Richard
Plantagenet, Duke of York, who fell in the battle
of Wakefield, near this spot, in 1460. The strong-
hold then became the residence of his son Richard,
Duke of Gloucester, who ascended the throne as
Richard III. The ruins of the castle and the
grounds were presented to the town in 1888 for the
purposes of a park. Pop. (1901), 6,843.

Sandalwood, the fragrant heart-wood of trees
belonging to the genera Santalum and Fusanus of
the order Santalacem among the Inoompletse. 8.
album of India, an evergreen from 20 to 30 feet high
and having the appearance of privet, is the source
of the chief supply. 8. Freycinetianum and 8.
pyrularium in Hawaii, Fusanus spicatus in West
Australia and other species are apparently inferior.
One hundred lbs. of good sandalwood should yield
from 23 to 30 oz. of a pale straw-coloured essential
oil ; but this, owing to its costliness, is largely
adulterated. Indian sandalwood is chiefly produced
in Mysore, and is worth from £12 to £40 per ton in
China. It is extensively used for carving and
inlaying and, wherever Buddhism prevails, for
burning in funeral and other religious rites. The
oil is used as a perfume, and of late years as a
substitute for copaiba in treating diseases of the
raucous membrane. Red Sandalwood, or Red
Sanders Wood, used in dyeing and calico-printing, is
the red heart-wood of the leguminous Jf^erocarpus
santalinus and of the “padouk” (^P.indieus) of
the East Indies ; and Barwood or Camwood, the
santal rouge d'Afrique of the French, is that of
Baphia nitida (P. arngoUnsu) from the Guinea
coast. _ The name is a corruption of Santal wood.

Sandalwood Zalandi or Sumba, an island of
the Dutch East Indies, south of the island of Flores.
It is situated in 10® S. and 120° E., and has an area
of about 4,400 square miles. It is noted for its
valuable timber and horses of an exceptionally fine
breed, both of which are exported. Pop. (estimated),
200,000,

Sandaaraollf the mastic-like resin which exudes
from the coniferous Callitris quadrivalvis of the
Atlas Mountains, from C. sinemie in China, and
from C verrncosa, C. robusta, €, eupres^forndi,
and (7. Meissii, known as “ pine gum ” in Ajqstralia.
It is an important ingredient hi spirit* varnishes.


Sandbaoii. ( 71 ) SuLdenmi.


Tbe wood is fragrant, hard and durable and largely
used in the construction of mosques. The Morocco
variety is chiefly shipped from Mogador.

SandbarOll, a town of Cheshire, England,
5 miles K.E. of Crewe. Though the streets in the
older quarters are narrow they are not unpicturesque
and the newer parts of the town are well and sub-
stantially built. On an eminence stands the church
of St. Mary in the Perpendicular style. The public
buildings include the town hall and market hall,
the literary and scientific institution, the temperance
hall and the savings bank. In the market-place
are preserved two ancient obelisks, said to belong
to the 7th century, the faces of which bear crude
figures and carvings of foliage. Amongst the
former designs it is possible to distinguish rough
representations of the birth and crucifixion of
Jesus. The chief manufactures are salt, chemicals,
fustian, flour, and boots and shoes, and there are
brine springs. Pop. (1901), 5,658.

Sand-blMtingi a method of engraving or
cutting glass or any other hard substance by
blowing with great violence minute particles of
sand upon it. It is frequently used for engraving
marble and also for sharpening files. By cutting
designs of a more or less complicated description
in paper, or other sand-resisting material, and
laying this on the surface of the glass or substance,
it is possible to reproduce the patterns with a
considerable degree of definition.

Saudbyt Paul, painter and engraver, was born
at Nottingham in 1725. He was employed, with
his brother Thomas (1721-98), as a draughtsman
to the Board of Ordnance and in this capacity
travelled a great deal in the Lowlands and High-
lands of Scotland, where he made a large number
of sketches and pictures. Having acquired un-
usual facility in etching, he engraved many of his
works, which included views of cathedrals, castles,
towns, and mansions in different parts of the
United Kingdom, besides etching the paintings
and drawings of other artists. In 1768 he was
appointed chief drawing-master to the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich and, in the same
year, was nominated an original member of the
Royal Academy. In 1775 he introduced the
process of aquatint engraving, an improvement on
a process employed by the French painter and
engraver, Jean Baptiste Le Prince, which imitated
the effect of a drawing in sepia or Indian ink. He
is entitled to the high honour of being the father
of water-colour art, the techniguc of which he did
much to advance. He died in London on Novem-
ber 7th, 1809.

SaadMn, LI^onabd Sylvain Jules, novelist
und dramatist, was born at Anbusson, in the de-
partment of Creuse, France, on February 9th, 1811.
He published his first novel, Rose et BUmohe^ in
18%S1, in conjunction with Madame Dudevant, who,
taking the first half of his surname, became

George Sand.” He was at that time an art
student, but gave himself up entirely to literary
work. He produced a great many works, the best
l^is novels being Mdlk. de la SeigUkre (1848),


afterwards dramatised with ifiuch sncoess, and his
most notable cdinedy dCe de M. Poi/riet^

written in collaboration with Augier. He

became Keeper of the Mazarin Xiibrary in Paris in
1853, was elected to the Academy in 1858, and was
appointed librarian at the Pjdace of St. Cloud in
1859. He died in Paris on April 24th, 1883.

Sanderling (CalidrU aremria), the single
species of a genus of birds of the Snipe family, in
which the hin^ toe is absent. It breeds in the Arctic
regions, visiting Great Britain in autumn and
leaving late in spring. The male is about eight
inches long; its nuptial plumage is rufous with
black marMngs, but turns to ash-grey in winter ;
the under parts are white.

Sanderson, John Scott Buedon, physio-
logist, was born at Jesmond, near Newcastle, Eng-
land, on December 21st, 1828, and studied at
Edinburgh University. For a time he jpractised as
a physician, but at intervals was officially appointed
to investigate the etiology of diphtheria (1868),
cattle plague and cholera (1866). His researches
led to his election (1874) to the Jodrell professor-
ship of physiology at University College (1874-82).
In 1883 he was appointed to the newly-established
Waynflete chair of physiology at Oxford, and his
lectures and laboratory work soon covered the
Oxford Medical School with distinction. In 1886
he became Regius professor of medicine at Oxford,
and in 1899 was created a baronet. He died at
Oxford on November 24th, 1905. Sir John was
President of the British Association when it met
at Nottingham in 1893, and served on the Royal
Commissions on Hospitals (1883), the Consumption
of Tuberculous Meat and Milk (1890), and the
University of London (1892-4). His best-known
works are his HmMook of the BphygTnograph (1867),
EandbooTi for the Physiological Laboratory (1873),
and his Course of Practical Lectures (1882).

Sanderson, Robebt, bishop and theologian,
was born on September 19th, 1687, at Rotherham,
Yorkshire, but Sheffield also claims to be the birth-
place of the greatest of English casuists. Educated
at Rotherham Grammar School, he matriculated at
Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1603, and was made
Fellow of his college in 1606. He was ordained in
1611, and in 1618 was presented to the rectory of
Wyberton, Lincolnshire. As his health became
affected there he resigned his living in 1619 for
one of less value in the same county, and beoilhie
rector of Boothby Pagnell, which he held for more
than forty yeays. In the same year he resigned his
Fellowship and married Ann Nelson, daughter of
the rector of Haugham, a wife who, according to
Izaak Walton, his friend and biographer, “made
his life happy by being always content when he
was cheerful ; who divided her joys with him, and
abated his sorrow, by bearing a part ot that
burden.” Laud, then Bishop of London, recom-
mended him to Charles I., who made hita one of
his chaplains. “I carry my ears,” the king said
later, “ to hear other preachers, but I cArry my
conscience to hear Mr. Sanderson.” In 1642 he
was appointed Regius professor of divinity at



( 72 )


8ftil




Oxford. Daring the Great BebeUion he saff^jd
imprisoniaentvand being reduced to want ht G^e
tim4 of tiie Commonwealth, wa9 assisted byBobert
Boyle. At the Bestoration his pret'erments were
restored, and in 1660 he became Bishop of Lincoln.
He soaght to know and be known by the

meanest of his clergy ” ; he was open-handed
and restored Buokden, the episcopal residence, at
his own expense. He died, “ far from being rich,*’
on January 29thi 1668. Author of the second
preface to the iReeA of Common Ftayor^ reputed
author of the ‘‘Prayer for all Conditions of Men,'*
and of the “ General Thanksgiving, *Vhis most cele-
brated work is Wine Ccms of Oonaoienee OcoasUmaliy
, published after his death, which is dis-
tinguished as much by its subtle reasoning as ly
its moral integrity^ Walton dwells upon his
humility and modesty. To these traits it was
probably due, as much as to an inflrm memory,
tWi Sanderson was the earliest preacher who read
his sefmons in the pulpit.

8ftlldfffbt6^ u watering-place of Kent, England,
1| mile Wi of Folkestone. It is built on a range of
chalk cliils facing the English Channel and, on a
clear day, commands a view of the French coast.
Though lacking the flamboyant qualities of its
fashionable neighbour, it is near enough to be in,
if not of them, and, the climate being almost
identical, its quietude has a charm of its own. To
the north of the town is the important military
station of Shornoliffc Camp, which was permanently
established in 1864. John B. Gough, the temper-
ance orator, laid the foundation stone of the
Soldiers’ Horae and Institute in 1881. Henry VIII.
built Sandgate Castle in 1539, and Queen Elizabeth
visited it in 1573. In 1806, during the Napoleonic
scare, it was thoroughly overhauled and placed in
a state for action. The changes obliterated its
original character, and the castle is now little more
than a martello tower. Pop. (1901), 2,023.

SaacUGrOTUief a small order (Pterocletes) of
birds, with two genera, characteristic of the Ethio-
pian region and Asia. They are pre-eminently
desert birds, and the plumage is protective — buff
with darker markings. The wings are long and
pointed, giving them great powers of flight ; the
legs and toes are short. They live generally in
large packs, and are rather shy, being prompt to
take alarm, however, and clever at escaping capture.
They lie low at the approach of the sportsman,
but fly off, at a rapid pace should he draw too near.
They feed at regular hours, assembling in droves at
rivers or tanks to drink. The female lays three or
four eggs of a peanish stone-oolour, closely spotted
with grey and brown, in a small hollow she scrapes
in the sand. The male helps to supply the wants
of the nestlings and, when these have reached
maturity, all fly off together. Sand-grouse can be
kept in captivity and are an ornament to the
aviary. Their flesh is good eating when sufficiently
“high "for otherwise it may be hard and tough; !
bull young birds are delicious and much prised, j
Th^ genus Pterocles, with about a dozen species, is
represea ted in Europe, P. oXoimta being known in
S^n as the Ganga. The genus Syrrhap^s is


Asiatic. Pallas’s Sand-grouse pamimm)
wanders westwards at uncertain intervals in large
nooks.

Sandhoopev {TaMme houeta), a small crus.*-
tacean of the order Amphipoda. The eyes are
sessile and fixed, and the last pair of limbs are
converted into leaping legs, like those of the grass-
hopper. It is plentiful on the seashore, where St
occurs between tidal limits. It usually feeds on
decaying garbage, both animal and vegetable.
Though it never enters the water, it would appear
to need a certain amount of moisture in order to
enable the branobise to perform their function. It
burrows under moist seaweed and in damp sand.
As a rule the young remain with their parents for
some time after reaching maturity. Orchestia,
another genus of Amphipods, also lives out of the
sea, but within reach of the spray. Some species^
however, in the southern hemisphere exist many
miles from the coast, selecting land plants for their
abode ; they are found at times even at a height
of 1,500 feet above the level of the sea.

Sandhnrstf a parish of Berkshire, England,
separated from Hampshire by the Blackwater, 44
mues S.E. of Wokingham. The ohuroh pf St. Michael
(restored in 1864) is in the Early English style.
There are remains of a Boman station (popularly
known as Csesar’s camp), and two hills axe sup-
posed to be barrows. The Boyal Military College
is situated in beautiful grounds. It was first
established (1799) at High Wycombe, was then
removed (1802) to Great Marlow, and was trans-
ferred here in 1812. The central block of the
buildings has a Doric portico with two wings, and
the chapel contains memorial tablets to governors
and others. The students are called “ gentlemen
cadets.*’ To the north of the institution lies
Wellington College, a public school founded by
public subscriptions in 1863 to the memory of the
Iron Duke. It was opened by Queen Victoria in
1859. It has a large number of scholarships open
to the sons of deceased army officers. Pop. (1901),
2,386.

SaadlllirBt, the official name of which is
Bendigo, a town of Victoria, Australia, 100 miles
N.N.W. of Melbourne. It is the seat of a Roman
Catholic bishop and the centre of the gold-minings^
grape-growing, and agricultural industries, but it"
also has breweries, potteries and iron-foundries.
The public buildings include the Government
offices, law courts and town hall. Pop. (1901),
31,020.

Sluad-Mavtiii. [Swallow.]

San BomingOf or Santo Domingo, the Domin-
ican Republic, occupying the eastern and larger
portion of the West Indian Island of Haiti (once
known as Hispaniola), the western section forming
the Republic of Haiti. It covers an area of 18,045
square miles. The physical features of this division
include the Cordillera de Qibao (highest point, Loma
Tina, 10,300 feet above the sea), and the Sierra
de Monte Christ! (highest point, 4,460 feet), the
rivers Yaqul and Ozama, and lake Enriquilo. The
SOU is exketaely productive and, uxmer Settled




iiA Bottlsifo.


(7a)


Sttamitoa#.'


government, the Eepnblic could readily be made
i$ell*tupportmg. The mineral wealth consists
mainly of gold, copper, iron, coal, asbestos, phos-
phate, salt and petroleum, but awaits development.
The principal crops are sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco,
rice, cotton and bananas. The forests are rich in
such valuable timber as mahogany, logwood, cedar,
satinwood, sabina and ironwooa. The Eepublio
was constituted in 1844 and was proclaimed on
November 14th, 1866 (after a revolution during
which the Spanish troops, who had held possession
of the country during the two previous years, were
expelled). The legislative power is vested in a
National Congress of 24 deputies, the executive being
vested in a President, elected for four years and
assisted by a Ministry of seven members. Each
province and district is administered by a governor
nominated by the President, and the communes
and cantons are controlled by magistrates appointed
by the governors, but the communes elect their own
councils. Civil war is the curse of the Eepublic, but
with a view to educe order out of chaos the United
States has, under treaty, agreed to administer the
customs and undertaken to collect the revenue and
to assist the Government to maintain peace and
to mediate between the Eepublio and its foreign
creditors. San Domingo, the capital, Samana and
Santiago de los Caballeros are the chief towns, and
Puerto Plata, on the north coast, is the principal
port. Pop. (estimated), 416,000.

San Bomingo, or Sai^to Domingo, capital of
the Republic of the same name, on the south coast
of the island at the mouth of the Ozama. The city
is an archbishopric and the chief structures are the
cathedral. Government building, the military maga-
zine (formerly a college), the high school and hos-
pitals, It exports sugar and coffee and is a trading
rather than a manufacturing centre. The city was
founded by Columbus in 1496 and is thus the oldest
European community in the New World. The re-
mains of Columbus (d. 1606) were transferred
hither from Seville in Spain in 1636 and lay in the
cathedral till 1796, when they were removed to
Havana Cathedral. After the Spanish-American
War they were conveyed (1899) to Spain and placed,
in 1902, in a mausoleum in Seville especially pre-
pared for them. Pop. (estimated), 20,000.

Sandowilf a watering-place, Isle of Wight, Eng-
land, 6 miles S. of Ryde. The long stretch of firm
sand, the bracing air, and the unconventional charac-
ter of the place have made the town a favourite
holiday resort, especially for children. The modern
church of St. John is in the Early English style and
Is remarkable for its lofty interior. Christ Church,
also modem, is in the Early English and Decorated
styles. The buildfRgs include the town hall, Odd-
fellow’s hall and barracks, now used as a military
hospital and < 3 aarters for the Island militia staff.
Pop. (1901), 6,006,

SMdpijpev, or SUMMiEB SniBB, a popular name
for birx^ or the sub-family Totaninoe of the Snipe
family (Bmlopaddm). The bill is sMgh^ or has
a sligiit upvmrd curve, and the toes are Joined at
the b^e by a fold of skin. The popular name


refers to their habit of freqtienting wet and sandy
places and to their piping i^te. Th^ feed on
small aquatic animals, which they ttfl by probing
in the sand with their bills, or oatdh la rocli-pools,
or at the water’s edge. They are very widely dis-
tributed and their migration is generally extensive ;
the winter is usually spent in South Africa, They
frequent the banks of rivers and lakes as well as
the seashore, and before migrating become shy and
wary, no longer beeping together in companies but
found in scattered groups of only two or three.
They are all of small size, with prettily marked
plumage, and are valued for the table. The Common
Sandpiper (Totanus hypoUttcus), about eight inches
long, yellow-brown marked with black above and
white below, is a summer visitor to Great Britain
and Ireland. The Redshank (T. calidris), with a
body about the size of a snipe’s, with longer legs,
is resident in England. The Spotted or Dusky Red-
shank (T. ftMotis) is an occasional visitor, as are
some other species, amongst them the Little Stint
(21 minuta), the American Stint (2’. 'ndnutella),
and Temminck’s Stint (21 temninoki'). The
Phalaropes, which have the toes lobed Hke those
of a coot and webbed at the base, are somer
times called Swimming Sandpipers. They are all
inhabitants of the northern regions, though in
winter they may be found at times as far south
as the Indian Ocean and the Moluccas. The Grey
Phalarope {Phalaropui fulicarim) and the Red-
necked Phalarope (K hyperbore^is) are rare visitors
to the coasts of the United Kingdom, though the
latter breeds in the Orkney and Shetland Islands.

Saiidringliaiil,F a parish of Norfolk, England,
7J miles N. by E. of Lynn. It is chiefly noted as con-
taining the country residence of the King. Sand-
ringham House, erected in 1870, is designed in the
Elizabethan style and is built of brick with stone
dressings. The residential quarters form a parallelo-
gram about 460 feet long by 70 feet deep, and present
a pleasant and picturesque elevation. Though
the gardens and grounds are not extensive they
are £.id out tastefully, and are diversified with old
trees and small sheets of ornamental water. The
entrance gates, fine examples of modern English
ironwork, were presented to Edward VIL, then
Prince of Wales, on the occasion of bis marriage

S . There are ample stabling, waterworks
, a dairy (with tea-room for the use of
the Queen), and a stud farm. The small but beau*
tiful Perpendicular church of St. Mary Magdelen^
standing in the grounds, contains a brass eaglh
lectern, a thank-offering for the recovery of his
Majesty from typhoid fever in 1872. In the church-
yard the infant Prince Alexander John Charles
Albert was buried in 1871 and the heir-presumptive,
the Duke of Clarence, died in the House on Janu-
ary 14th, 1892. Pop. (1901), 98.

SandstOXiOy sand cemented either by mere
pressure producing a welding of the quartz grains,
by carbonate of lime, by carbonate or oSde of
IroD^ or by silica. When coarse-graihed, it is termed
a grit. It is frequently flAggy frbm the presence
of scales of mica. Those in the Old Red Sandstone
of Caithness, Dundee, Arbroath, Cork, Rerry, eto.


Vandwlolt ( 74 }


Haiidwicli.


are among the oldest used in buildii^.
Yorkshire dags, used for paving and for gi^nd*
stones, and the Craigleith Stone, of which mucli of
Edinburgh is built, belong to the Carboniferous
system ; the St. Bees Sandstone, used for Furness
Abbey, is Permian ; whilst some of the variegated or
“ banter ” sandstones of the Trias are false- bedded,
and are only held together by cohesion due to
pressure, but others are used in building. In the
Hastings Sat^d* highly- ferruginous sandstones, in
former times the source of all the English iron, occur;
in the LowerGreensand,besides the valuable silioious
limestone known as Kentish Kag, beds of rubbly
sandstone ktiown as hassock are worked ; and the
upperGreensand containsthe valuable fire-stone used
for furnaces, hearthstones, and building. In the loose
sands of Eocene age, known as the Thanet Sands
and the Bagshot Sands, the very compact and
tough pure sandstone, known as Sarsenstone, of
which most megalithic monuments in the south-east
cf England were made, is found in lines of large
irregular nodular masses often left on the surface
of the Chalk.

Sandwicll, a town and Cinque Port, of Kent,
England, on tlie Stour, 5 miles rl.W. of Deal and



bakdwich: st. climskt’s church.
{Photo: Pietotial Agemy.)


about 2 miles in a direct line from the North Sea.
Once a place of great importance, it now presents
an air of decay, but retains much of its old-world
picturesqueness. The streets are narrow and


irregular, but parts of the quaint Barbican and
the Fishergate are yet extant. The walls have
been demolished and now form, planted with grass
and shrubs, a pleasant promenade. Some of the
churches are extremely interesting. The massive
tower of St. Clement’s is an unusually handsome
specimen of enriched Norman, the other parts of
the building being later. St. Peter’s, erected in
the 18th century on the site of an earlier edifice, is
Noromn and Early English and contains a fine
altar- tomb to Thomas Elys (flourished, 1320-40),
founder of the local St. Thomas’s Hospital. The
buildings include the Free Grammar School,
housed in the picturesque Flemish style with
stepped gables, founded in 1663 and reorganised In
1894 ; the Guildhall, dating from 1579 ; and the
charitable foundations of St. Thomas’s Hospital
and St. John’s Hospital. Tanning, wool-sorting,
brewing, malting, seed-crushing and iron-founding
are carried on, and a considerable export and im-
port trade is done. Between Sandwich and Deal
has been laid out the well-known St. George’s Golf
links, one of the five courses on which the open
championship may be played. Created by Edward
the Confessor a Cinque Port, Sandwich lost much
of its commerce by the silting up of its harbour in
the 16th century. It was repeatedly attacked by
the Danes, who suffered a severe defeat in 851 at
the hands of Athelstan. Canute the Great landed
here and in the reign of Henry IV. the town was
thrice pillaged and burned by the French. Rich-
borough Castle, mile to the north-west, is the
remnant of the Roman station of Rutupim and at
Ebbs Fleet, about midway between Sandwich and
Ramsgate, Hengist and Horsa, the Jute pirates, and
Augustine and his colleagues were reputed to have
landed. Pop. of Sandwich (1901), 3,170.

Sandwich, Edwabd Montagu, 1 st Eabl
OF, naval commander, son of Sir Sidney Montagu,
or Mountagu, born on July 27th, 1626, In
November, 1642, he married Jemimah, daughter of
John Crew. Owing probably to the influence of
his father-in-law he joined the Parliamentary
party, raised a regiment of foot and fought at
Marston Moor and Naseby. His friendship with
Oliver Cromwell led to his being appointed colleague
of Admiral Blake in command of the fleet, 1656,
and when he brought home the treasure captured
outside Cadiz, amounting to £600,000, he was
formally thanked by Parliament. After the Pro-
tector’s death he loyally supported his son, but
when Richard Cromwell’s nominal authority was
gone the new Government treated him with sus-
picion and he yielded to the influence of Royalist
friends. In February, 1659, he was reappointed
general of the fleet jointly with Monk, but mutual
jealousies delayed the Restoration. On May 8th
Charles was proclaimed and Montagu waa sent by
Parliament to convey the king to England. For
his services he was made a Knight of the Garter
and created Batl of Sandwich. He was subse-
quehtly appointed to bring the young queen,
Oatherii^ of Braganza, home, and was high in
Court favour until the quarrels of the Idng and
queeh caused him to be blamed by botli. Sand*



(76)


8ttii€ltdo]i Xslaadflk


wioh greatly disticguished himself while command-
ing the Blae Squadron doring the war with the
Dutch, especially in the action off Lowestoft, on
June 3rd, 1665. Attacks in Parliament made it
impossible for him to retain this command, but he
was despatched as ambassador to Spain to mediate
peace with Portugal, whose independence he se-
cured by treaty. He returned to England in
September, 1668, having concluded a commercial
treaty with Spain which Samuel Pepys, who
records his daily gossip, said ** was acknowledged
by the merchants to be the best peace England
ever had with them.” When war was renewed
with the Dutch in 1672 the Earl of Sandwich was
reinstated in command of the Blue Squadron and
during a gallant fight in Southwold Bay, on May
28th, 1672, his ship, the Moyal James, was fired by
the enemy and blew up. His body was found on
June 10th floating on the sea near Harwich and
was buried in Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster
Abbey, on July 3rd, 1672. .

Sandwicll Islands, a group of islands in the
North Pacific, belonging to the United States and
officially known as the Territory of Hawaii. They
were first sighted in 1542 and rediscovered by
Captain Cook in 1778, who named them after the
Earl of Sandwich, the first Lord of the Admiralty.
They comprise eight inhabited islands and several
barren islets, the former being Hawaii (4,210 square
miles), Maui (760), Oahu (600), Kauai (590),
Molokai, the isle of lepers (26 Ih Lanai (135),
Nihau (97) and Kahoolawe (69). Their total area
is estimated at 6,600 square miles (including the
water area). They are of volcanic origin and in
some are the largest extinct and active volcanoes
in the world. Mauna Kea (13,805 feet) and Mauna
Loa (13,676 feet) are situated in Hawaii, Kilauea
(4,400 feet), rising from the eastern flanks of Mauna
Loa, being one of the most active craters in the
globe. On Maui is the crater of Haleakala, about
30 miles in circumference, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet
deep and 10,030 feet above the sea. The flora
includes the pandanus, acacia, palm, fern, banana,
plantain, mango, guava, Malay apple, coffee, col-
ocasia (taro), strawberry and raspberry, the intro-
duced fruits thriving almost as well as the indi-
genous. Bats and rats are the largest fauna. The
minerals comprise sulphur, pyrites, salt, sal ammon-
iac, and hsBmatite. Sugar and rice are the staple
industries, but the exports also include coffee,
bananas, pinee^pples, wool, and hides. Honolulu
(39,306), in Oahu, is the capital. The natives are
Polynesians of high standard and profess Christian-
ity. In former times each isle had its own king,
but undp Kamehameha I. (d. 1819) the group was
formed into one kingdom under a mild despotism,
which endured till 1840 when Kamehameha III.
established constitutional rule. In 1893 the reign-
ing soverign Queen Liliuokalani was deposed and
a republic was proclaimed in the following year.
But in 1898 the islands were annexed by the
United States and, in 1900, constituted a Territory.
There are a Senate and a House of Representatives,
with a governor and Secretary, each appointed for
four years by the President of the United States.


San


Pop. (1800), 154,001 (Oahu, 68,604 ; Hawaii, 46,843 ;
Kauai and NihaU, 20,7^;: Maui, 254ljS; Molokai
and Lanai, 2,504). The natives have diminished
from 400,000 in Captain Cook’s time (1778) to
29,834 in 1900, their probabje fate being thus
only too obvious.

San Fernando, a town of the Isle of Leon, in
the south-west of Spain, 7 miles S.E. of Cadiz.
The public buildings include the town hall, oon-
sistorial palace, hospital, and bull-ring. It has
several schools, at one of which, in the suburb of
San Carlos, boys are prepared for the navy. At
the port of Carraca, 1 mile to the north on Cadiz
Bay, is an arsenal, and the observatory is the most
southerly in Europe. The vicinity has numerous
gardens, vineyards, and stone quarries. The manu-
factures comprise sails, cordage, barrels, salt, flour,
spirits, beer, besides tanneries and iron-foundries.
Pop. (estimated), 80,090.

Sail Francisco, colloquially known as Fbisco,
the chief city and port of California, United States,
and the largest city on the Pacific coast, occupying
the southern horn of the Bay of Francisco and
having an area of 47 square miles. It has a noble
situation and covers an undulating surface, several
of the hills being built over. Its growth has been
remarkable. In 1776 only a Spanish mission for
converting Indians possessed the site. In 1836 a small
village called Yerba Buena sprang up on the Bay,
which took the name of San Francisco in 1847. In
the following year gold was discovered and im-
mediately there ensued a rush of diggers from all
parts of the globe, and in 1860 the place was
incorporated as a city. In 1860 the population was
66,802 and in 1900 it had risen to 342,782. Its
climate is mild, though trying at seasons by reason
of its extraordinary variations of temperature within
the 24 hours, but its death-rate (21.3 per 1,000 in
1903) is amongst the highest in the Union and may
have some bearing on its climatic vagaries as well
as its ominous sobriquet of the Suicide City. The
industries comprise shipbuilding, sugar-refining,
iron-founding, meat-slaughtering and -packing,
fruit-canning, brewing, tanning and the making
of chemicals. The traffic at the port is heavy and
there is steamship communication with Central
and South America, Japan, China, the principal of
the Pacific Islands and Australasia. The city is
almost as cosmopolitan as Paris is, and the Chinese
(i!S|uarter is as interesting as it is notorious. Th^
public spaces comprise several beautifully laid-out'
cemeteries and the magnificent Gk>lden Cate Park,
covering an area of 1,060 acres, extending from the
city to the Pacific shore, and commanding superb
views of the Golden Gate— the mile-wide and five-
miles long waterway that gives admittance to theBay
— and the Seal Rocks. By an appalling calamity
— not, alas 1 unparalleled — many of its’most famous
public buildings were destroyed in 1906. At 6 in
the morning of April 18th, the city was severely
shaken by earthquake, which not only damaged
many structures, but also— what proved in the event
to be greatly worse — dislocated thousands of gas-
pipes. The escaping gas ignited and set up a huge
confiagration which was not subdued until ^he 20th,


(T6)





PAHOEAMIO TIBW OP SAN FBANCISCJO, TAKEN ON THE MOKNINO OF APRIL 18TH, 1906, FROM NOB HILL, A SHORT
TIMK AFTER TBS FIBS 8TABTBO, SBOWINO OOMPABATIVELP 2NB10NIF1GANT DAMAGE DONE BT THE EABTBQUAKE.



PANORAMIC VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO, TAKEN APRIL 22nD, 1906, FROM AN AEROPLANE, SHOWING THE DAMAGE BY
FIRE AND HOW SUBSTANTIAL STRUCTURES WITHSTOOD BOTH EARTHQUAKE AND MEB.


by which time it had wiped out the major portion
of the business quarter and a considerable portion
of the residential districts. Unfortunately the water-
supply went out of gear and the efforts of the fire
hrl^de were immensely hampered. As to the
damage conservative estimates placed the loss of
life at 5,000 and the loss of property at £100,000,000,
while 200,000 persons were rendered homeless. By
the combined energies of railways and shipping
companies and the action of the local authorities,
the wants of the starving people were speedily re-
lieved. Within nine days of the outbreak the
Southern Pacific B^lway had transported about
300,000 people, and by the night of May 3rd no fewer
than 1,409 trucks of all sorts of provisions and other
goods suitable to the necessities of the time had been
brought in by the i^me company. It was demon-
strated that the vast loss and damage were
caused by the fire and not by the shock, and it was
also held as proved that st^l-built edifices with*
stood such catastrophes better than stone-bufit.
With wonted spirit the citizens did not take the
dis»8ter lying down, but at once set about the con-
struction of a new city which should rise from the
ashes of the old more glorious and more beautifoL


Sanhedrim (from a Greek word for Coumil),
the supreme court of the Jews in matters both civil
and ecclesiastical, though in its inception it was
neither more nor less than the jnunicipal council of
Jerusalem. It existed in the time of the Maccabees
and in the days of the New Testament. It was
modelled on the Mosaic Council, and consisted
of a President and 70 members, chosen from
among the chief priests, elders, and scribes.
This, the Great Sanhedrim, had the appointment
of Lesser or Provincial Sanhedrims, consisting of
23 members each, whose duty it was to administer
and regulate the local affairs of villages and small
towns. In the days of Homan ascendency the
Sanhedrim could not infiict sentence of death with-
out the consent of the Governor. The seat of meet-
ing was afterwards removed to Tiberias. In 1806
Napoleon I. summoned a Sanhedrim to regulate
the affairs of the Jews.

Sftaitfitioili the science of health, and tbe art
of maintaining the public health and' keeping off
disease. The principles of sanitation, which are la
many civilised communities enforced by leg^
enactments, have reference generally todwelliagi,





(T7)


MmUmi.


IqqA and dti&ky clothing) aiid With

legard to dwellings, sanitation insists upon good
dtainage, sufficient Tentilation, and the allowance of
a due proportion of air to each inhabitant, the
avoidance of overcrowding, especially in sleeping
apartihentB, the maintenance of a proper degree
oi warmth and the provision of plenty of oben
spaces and parks. As to food, it forbidls the eating
of decaying or improperiy<^Cooked matter, prescribe
the avoidance of eating unripe or over-ripe fruit,
insists on adulteration being oohdned within defi-
nite limits (though often paying, through its officials,
more attention to the milkman than the publican),
exacts and properly exacts the daily inspection of
all food offered for sale and of all materials in-
tended to be utilised for food (as the pork for
sauces and the fruit for jams). Socially it
subjects all workshops and factories to repeated
visits, to see that young operatives are not worked
illegally and that other statutory and local require-
ments are complied with, establishes baths and
wash-houses, and so forth. With regard to clothing,
it recommends the use of woollen materials, and
such as best keep up a uniform degree of animal heat ;
with regard to cleanliness, it advocates a plentiful
use of soap and water and other similar purifiers
and disinfectants both for personal and domestic
purposes. One great means of lessening disease is
the isolation of patients suffering from infectious
complaints. It is not always easy to reconcile the
claims of the public welfare with the rights of indi-
vidual freedom. Vaccination has always been a
cause of heart-burning and discontent, and com-
pulsory registration and treatment of disease
are by no means universally accepted, though
the prompt notification of infectious diseases is
obviously in the interests of the whole community.
In the United Kingdom most matters connected
with public health Come under the jurisdiction of
the Local Government Board and the Home Office,
or of the town and county councils.

Sam jTosif capital of Santa Clara county,
CaUfomia, United States, on the Guadalupe, 48 miles
S.|I. of San Francisco. Its climate is singularly
delightful and exhilarating and it lies amidst beau-
tiful gardens and a semi-tropical vegetation. Its
chief industry is concerned with the growing and
packing of fruit. The earthquake of April 18th,
1906, inftioted serious damage to property. Pop.
(1900), 21,500.

San lotii or Sak Jos£ del Ietebior, the
capital of Costa Rica, Central America, 12 miles
W.N.W. of Cartage. It is situated in a fertile
valley at an elevation of 3,868 feet above the sea,
and being in railway communication with Limon
on the Atlantic and the Pacific is the commeroial
centre. The prominent buildings comprise the
cathedral, nmseum, public library, national
theatre, and several learned, scientifio and charit-
able institutions. Pop. (estimated), 26,000.

Sllll JiiakL, formerly Sak Juan Bautista de
Puerto Bigo, capital of Porto Eico, on a small
island off the north coast connected with the main-
land by means of bridges end a causeway. It was


founded in 1577 by Joan ^cnoe de Leon, the first
Governor, of whooi It ^oentains a statue. It is
strongly fortified by the llbtvo at thli^tranoe of
harbour, the commanding citad^ of St. Ciistobal
and the forts Santa Elena and San German. The
public buildings include the oathedral, the Govern-
ment offices, the episcopal and Captdn General's
palaces, the city ball, the Casa Blanca (said to
have been erected by Ponce de Leon), and the
military hospital. After the Spanish-American
War (1898), during which (July) the fortifications
were bombarded by Admiral Sampson, the island
was occupied by the United States. Owing to the
scarcity of building sites, the houses are two or
three storeys in height-— an undesirable feature in
the earthquake zone. The United States has
raised San Juan to a naval station. The manu-
factures are unimportant. Pop. (1899), 32,048.

SaxiJkara, a Brahminical saint and teacher,
who flourished at a period referred by some
authorities (probably rightly) to the 9th century
after Christ and by others to about 200 B.O., was
apparently a native of Western India and a mem-
ber of the Namburi caste. He led a raving life,
visiting Cashmere, it is said, and dying very early
at Kedarnath in the Hin^aya. Many com-
mentaries on the Sutras, Bhagavadgita, and Up-
anishads are ascribed to him.

San Luis PotosL a state of Mexico, bounded
on the N. and N.E. by Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas,
on the S.E. by Vera Cruz, on the S. Hidalgo,
Queretaro and Guanajuato and on the W. by Zaca-
tecas. It covers an atea of 25,316 square miles.
Most of the state ooouples part of the central
plateau. The soil of the valleys is rich, while the
uplands afford excellent pasturage for the large
herds of cattle. Though the mineral wealth is
great the bulk of it has yet to be developed, but
metallurgical works have been established in the
capital, San Luis Potosi. Pop. (1900), 675,432.

San Luis Potosiy capital of the preceding
state, Mexico, 220 miles N.W. of Mexico City. It
is a well-built town, Spanish in aspect, with con-
stant suggestions of the Oriental. The principal
buildings are the cathedral. Government House,
the city hall, the palace of justice, and the mint.
The Instituto Cientifico does duty as a university.
It hfis smelting- works, cotton factories and railway
workshops, while silver mines occur in the vicinitjjr.
In 1863 it became the headquarters of the national
administration under Juarez, who recovered it font
years later from Marshal Bazaine. Pop. (1900),
61,019.

Sftn BKarinOf the smallest independent re*
public in Europe, situated between the Italian pro-
vinces of Forli and Pesaro-Urbino, oooupying ^ area
of 83 square miles, and forming part of an bastion
spur of the Apennines, of which Monte Titano
reachesa height of 2,660 feet. Agriculture, to raising
of live-stock and wine-making are the leading indus-
tries. The state is governed by a Grand Council of
60 life-members, which elects from its number a
oommittee of twelve which, with the asststanpe of a
legal adviser, superintends particular departments


■<78)


■luiqiiiMatk"'-


and ooQStifcutes the supreme court. Executive
power is entrusted to two captains^reffent, elhct^
ev<»fy islx months, one by the nobles, the other by
the burgesses and farmers. The republic is
named after Marinas, a mason from dalmatia, who
settled here in the 3rd century. It was fortunate
to maintain its integrity throughout the internecine
strife that went on in Italy in the Middle Ages,
having secured the |)rotection of the house of
Urbino. When Urbino was annexed to the States
of the Ohuriib in 1631, the independence of San
Marino was recognised. Napoleon I. regarded it as
a model republic*' and preserved it (1797), as
also did Napoleon III. when (1864) Pio Nono was
supposed to have designs on it. Now the King of
Italy is looked upon as its special friend and
natural protector. The chief town, San Marino
(1,700), perched upon a rock, has narrow streets and
picturesque houses, the chief buildings being the
council hall, law court, museum and library. Pop.
(estimated), 11,500.

Sttnailliar, a town of Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
on the left bank of the Nith, 12 miles N.W. of
Thornhill. It became a burgh of barony in 1484
and was made a royal burgh in 1596. Its place in
history is due to the fact that, in 1680, Richard
Cameron, the Covenanter, issued here a declaration
in which he proclaimed war against the king,
repudiated prelacy and monarchy, and avowed his
intention of setting up some other form of govern-
ment a document . usually styled the Sanquhar
Declaration. The castle, on an eminence over-
looking the Nith, is now in ruins, but was formerly
an important fortress with towers at the angles and
surrounded by a ditch. The chief buildings are
the town hall and public hall. There are manu-
factures of spades and shovels, and bricks and tiles,
but coal mining is the principal industry, the
coalfield being seven miles long and two and a
half miles in breadth. The Admirable Crichton was
born at Eliook, in the neighbourhood, on August
19th, 1560. Pop. (1901), 2,933

San SdUO, a seaside resort in the province of
Porto Maurizio, Italy, beautifully situated on the
Mediterranean, 70 miles S.W. of Genoa and 26 miles
N.E. of Nice. Owing to its sheltered position it is
a favourite winter retreat with those who suffer
from chest complaints, the stay of the German
Emperor Frederick III. in 1887-8 having lent it
increased vogue. Roses, carnations and other
flowers are exported, while oranges, lemons, palms
and semi-tropical trees grow in profusion and en-
hance the attractiveness of the place. It is divided
into an old town, exceedingly picturesque with its
narrow, steep streets and lofty houses, and a new
town handsomely laid out in boulevards, drives and
gardens. The chief buildings include the cathedral
of San Siro, the town hall, and the Charles Albert
Hospital. San Remo is supposed to be a corruption
of San Romolo (Romulus), a bishop of the 6th cen-
tury, whose day, October 13th, is still observed as a
public festival. Pop. (1901), 21,440.

JlOA Salwadori capital of the republic of Sal-
vador, Central America, on a sDaall river that flows




into the Pacific, from which the town Is some 20
miles distant Founded in 1528. at a short distance
from its present site, it was moved hither eleven
years later. It became the capital in 1834, and is
the seat of a bishop. The chief buildings include
the national pala<^ (Casa Blanca), the cathedral,
university, library, museum, observatory, poly-
technic, hospital and other charitable and edu-
cational institutions. The city having suffered
a great deal from earthquakes in thq third quarter
of the 19th century a style of edifice has been
adopted that will minimise the damage to life
and property caused by these shocks. San Salvador
is an important trading centre and has minor manu-
factures. Pop, (1901), 59,540.

Bans Culottes (literally, without breeches *"),
the name conferred in derision in 1789 on the
tag-rag and bobtail portion of the French
revolutionists^ and^ like the similar contemptu-
ous epithet Les Gueux (“The Beggars”^, ap-
plied to the revolted inhabitants oi the
Netherlands at an earlier period, afterwards
adopted as a title of honour by those to whom
it had been given. But though it grew
synonymous with a good patriot and Republi-
can citizen, as the revolutionary ardour cooled
and the derivative meaning of the word
(= residuum) again came in sight, its use
gradually died out, and had been abandoned by
1804 when Napoleon became Emperor.

. San Sebastiani capital of the Basque province
of Guipuzcoa, Spain. It is the summer resi-
dence of the Court and one of the most attrac-
tive watering-places in Europe. It is finely
situated on an isthmus which terminates in the
rock of Monte Urguli, one side being flanked
by the little river XJrumea and the other by
the bay of La Concha, which forms the har-
bour. Though the fortifications have given
way to boulevards, the castle of La Mota on
the summit of Urguli still dominates the town.
The principal buildings are the queen's sum-
mer palace of Miramar, the bull-ring (which
seats 10,000 spectators), the Palacio de la
Diputacion, the casino, the town hall, the
Renaissance church of Santa Maria, and
several educational institutions. The fisheries
are of considerable importance, and the. „ in-
dustries include brewing, paper-making, and
saw and flour mills, besides manufactures of
preserves, soap, candles and glass. The most ,
memorable of the several sieges which tiie
town has sustained was that in August, 1813,
when it was stormed by the British under
Wellington. Pop. (1900), 37,812.

Sanskrit, the mother tongue of the Indio
branch of tho Aryan family, and, on the whole,
the best preserved, though not in every respwt
the most primitive, of all Aryan languages, its
nearest congeners being Old PeTeian, Heliehie,
and Lithuanian. It is the sacred and oldest
literary language of the Hindus, who regard it
as of divine origin, and therefore ^fect,
whence its name samshrita perfect").

has been divided into three distinct periods :



(79)


Sms Jloiidu


SMtS"A&iis.'.


S l ) Tedic (Kliaiidas)^ the language of the
ymns (1600 b,c.?), of the Brahmanas (800?),
and Sutras (500) ; (2) literary language

(Bhasha), as in Panini's grammar (300 b.c.?),
the Inscriptions of KanislOEa and Budradaman
(1st and 2nd centuries after Christ), and the
If-enaissanoe literature (a.d. 400) ; (3) vulgar
language (PraJcrita): Gatha, Pali, Magadhi,
Maharashtri (a.d. 60-600), merging gradually
in the Neo-Sanskritic, for which see Gaueian.


northern shore of the Sea of Marmora. It is
noted as the place Where the preliminary
treaty of peace between Bussia and Turkey
was signed on March 3rd, 1878,

Santa Anai a western department of the
^public of Salvador, Centrnl America, ad-
joining Guatemala. It is ihountainous and
the Lempa is the chief river, while Lake
Guij'ar lies on the Guatemalan boundary. Agri-



SAN SlBiSTlAN.


[For script see Devanaoaei.] Owing to its re-
ligious and literary importance, Sanskrit has
never ceased to be cultivated by the Hindus,
and has been extensively studied in Europe
for its philological interest since the time of
Sir William Jones (1746-94), who first drew
attention to its intimate relations with the
classical languages of the West. Thus were
laid the foundations of comparative philology,
which as a science may be said to date from
the “discovery** of Sanskrit,

Sms BonoL [Potsdam.]

SM BtefMOf a village, 6 miles W. by S.
of C/Onstantihople, Turkey-in-Europe, on the


culture is the leading industry and coffee tho
principal product. The capital is Santa Aha
(48,120). Pop. (estimated), 85,000.

SMta'Annap Aktokio Lopez db, President
of Mexico, was bom at Jalapa, Mexico, on
February 21st, 1795, and, having entered the
army, espoused the cause of Iturbide, whom he
assisted in the capture of Vera Cruz (1821)* but
sub^uently overthrew on account of hie im-
perial pretensions. He proclaimed a republic
(1822), and took an active part in military
operations against the Spaniards. Elected
president in 1833, he was defeated and im-
prisoned three years later by the Texan party.




( 80 )


tbntimm.


'Siiiito ' CNutlUiiriiuba


Hu regained Me iHwition in 1846, bni |raa
forced to reaign next year by bhe Amiran
generals Winneld Scott and Zacbary Taylor,
Ibougli ibo once more held office from 1853 to"^
1855. He resisted Maximilian* and wae after-
wards banidhed by Juarez, but returned on the
death of his opponent, and died in Mexico on
June 20th, 1876. Be was a born intriguer, but,
like the Bourbons, would learn nothing, and so
missed more chances than usually fell to the
same man i# the once sultry politics of his
native country.

SttAta Clltliarilia, a maritime state of Brazil,
bounded on the N. by Parana, on the £. by the
Atlantic, on the S. by Bio Grande do Sul, and
on the W. by the Argentine province of
Misiones. It occupies an area of 28,620 square
miles. Saving the low-lying coastal land, the
surface is mountainous and well-watered. The
hBIs are well clad with forests, and in the ex-
treme west are grassy plains affording good
pasturage. Agriculture is the chief industry,
the principal products being sugar, tobacco,
manioc and maize. The nunercd wealth in-
cludes gold, silver, iron, petroleum and coal,
but only the last-named is mined to any con-
siderable extent. The seaport of Desterro or
Piorianopolis (30,687) is the capital. Pop.
(estimated), 290,000.

Santa Claw. [Nicolas.]

Santa or St. Cboix, an island of the

Le^r Antiilea* forming with St. John and
St. Hiomas in the Virgin Islands, the Danish
West Indies. It lies 65 miles to the south-east
of Porto Bico and has an area of 83 square
miles* It is fertile and well<*watered. The
predominant industry is sugar, but some cattle
are raised, and rum is distilled. The capital
is Christianstadt. The island was purchased
by the Danes in 1733, occupied by Great
Britain in 1807, and restored to Denmark in
1814. Pop. (1901), 18,600.

Santa CrnSr the most easterly demrtment of
Bolivia, South America, adjoining Brazil. It
covers an area of 141,330 ^uare miles. Except-
ing in the west, where it is broken by And^n
spurs, the surface is mostly occupied by pam-
pas, well watered by the Mamor4 and its
numerous tributaries, The chief crops are
sugar, coffee, cacao, rice, cotton, and indigo,
and large quantities of rubber and drugs are
exportea. Honey is a considerable piSduct.
The capital is Santa Cruz de Sierra (18,335) on
the Bio Grande. Pop. (1900), 209,592.

Santa Cms do la JPalniat the capital of
Palma, one of the Canary Islands, belonging to
Spain. It is situated on a capacious bay on
the cast coast and shipbuilding is carried on
^ a considerable scale. The principal exports
include wine, fruit and oochineal. Pop. (1900),
7,383.

Sittta Cnus do TonoriBO, the capital of
Me Canary Islands, on the north-east coast of
Teneriffe, The chief buildings include the* ,


Captain-Generars palace, GovernmOnt house^
the museum and several educational institu-
tiona. There is an excellent harbour and the
exports comprise wine, brandy, sugar, dairy
produce, cattle, oochineal and bananas. Pop.
(1900), 38,419.

Santa 70, a province of the j^gentine Be-

g ublic, ^uth America, bounded on the K. by
haco, on the E. by Corrientes and Entre Bios
(from both of which it is separated by the
Parana), on the S. by Buenos Aires and Cor-
doba, and on the W. by Santiago del Estero.
It covers an area of 50,916 square miles. The
surface is watered by the Balado and well
suited for agriculture and live-stock. A por-
tion of the area has been ^ acquired by the
Jewish Colonisation Association. The chief
towns are Bosario (131,000) and Santa E5,
the capital (33,200), which is the seat of a pro-
vincial university and has some shipbuilding.
Pop. (estimated), 640,755.

Santa 76 (Spanish, ** Holy Faith ”), the capital
of the Territoiy of New Mexico, United States,
situated some 20 miles E. of the Bio Grande, in
about 36^ N. and 106® W. Next to St. Augus-
tine in Florida it is the oldest town in the
Union, having been settled by Spanish colonists
iU; tl^ beginning of the 17th century. It ktill
preserves much of its old-fashioned aspect.
Amongst the principal buildings are the
Governor's palace, the cathedral of ^an
Francisco, the church of San Miguel, Fbtt
Marcy— these belonging to remoter times— the
capitol, museum, federal building, SaU Mig-
uel College and Loretto Ac'ademy— theise being
modern, fetock-raisi^ and mining are the
leading ocenpationa. Pop. (1900), 5,603.

SantaudeVy a Biscayan province of Spain,
8ituale6 in Qld Castile, and occupying an area
of 2,|08 square miles. It is traversed irom east
to west by the Cantabrian Mountains. The
principal cjrops are rye, barley, oats, and maize,
and the uplands carry sheep, cattle, goats, pigs,
and horses. The mineral wealth includes zinc,
iron, lead, lignite, and salt. Fisheries form the
leading industry, but there are manufactures
of glass and beer, and considerable exports of
salted and tinned fish. Pop. (1900), 276,033.

Santander* capital of the preceding pro-
vince, on the Bay of Biscay, Spain, 210 miles
N. of Madrid. It is finely situated on the inner
side of a rocky peninsula, has a capacious har-
bour, and is a favourite summer resort. The
principal buildings are the cathedral and the
castle of San Felice, containing the prison.
The manufactures include chemicals, sail-cloth,
and tobacco, and the sea-borne traffic is of grow-
ing importance. Here Charles V. landed when
he came to assume the Spanish crown. Pop.
(1900), 54,694.

SantaMBlf % district of the province of
Estremadnra, Portugal, occupying an area of
2,555 square miles. It is watered by the
Tagus, and the river valley is extremely fertile.
Pop. (1900)^ 283*164.



(81) flUBilqr.


the capital |he preoeding
districti on the ri^ht banh of the Tagus^ Per-
tngal> about 45 nules N. by E. of Lisbon. It
was named after St. Irene. It is an ancient
town (dating back to Boman times) and is of
considerable historical interest, although there
are few remains of the remote past. It was a
Bpyal residence in the Middle Ages, and the
burial place of Pedro Alvares Cabral, the dis-
coverer of Brazil (1500). Some attempt has
even been made to claim Camoens as a native.
It is famous for its wine, oil, fruits, and vege-
tables. There is a hue bridge across the Tagus.
Pop. (1900), 8,704.

Santarref Antoine Joseph, revolutionary,
was born in Paris on March 16th, 1752, and made
a fortune as a brewer. In 1789 he had command
of a battalion in the National Guard, assisting
in the capture of the Bastille. Joining the
Jacobins, ne played a prominent part in the
events of 1791 and 1792, and was promoted to
the rank of general of division. His utter
failure in the War of La Vendde led to his re-
call and imprisonment. The coup <^Uat of the
9th Thermidor (July 27th, 1794) saved his life,
but Napoleon declined to give him employment,
though he restored him to his nominal rank.
He died at Paris on February 6th, 1809.

SantiagOf the capital of Chile, South America,
on the Mapwho, in a plain at the foot of the
Andes, 65 miles S.E. of Valparaiso. Laid out
with great regularity, the houses being mostly
after Spanish design, the city is one of the most
imposing in South America. It is an arch-
bishopric, and among the principal buildings
are the cathedral (destroyea by earthquake in
1647 and rebuilt in 1748), the Dominican
church with fine columns of marble monoliths,
the old Presidential palace (Las Cajas), the
palais of justice, mint, Congress Hall, the uni-
versity (founded in 1^2), the museum, obser-
vatory, National Library, several hospitals, a
splendid opera house, the National Institute,
tine Pffidagogic Institute, the Conservatory of
Music, and other well-equipped educational es-
tablishments. The city contains several mag-
nificent public squares, avenues, and botanical
and zoological gardens, some of which are
adorned by decorative fountains and statues of
Chilean celebrities. The river has been em-
banked by the Tajamar, a mass of masonry to
hold the Mapocho in check. The view of the
Andes bffers one of the noblest prospects of
mountain scenery in the world. The manufac-
tures are unimportant. Santiago was founded
in February, 1641, by Pedro de Valdivia, one
of Pizarro’s captains. One of the most har-
rowing incidents in its annals was the burning
of the Jesuit Church, on December 8th, 1863,
wh<^mo*re than 2,000 persons perished. It was
visited by the most terrible earthquake in its
history bn August 16th, 1906, when many build-
lUgB, Including some of those mentioned, sus-
tained irreparable damusr** while others were
wreclibd. Pop. (1903), 334,538.

Icia


f rovince of Corunna, 33 miles

. by W. of Corunna. It is the Seat of a uni-
versity, created in 1504 . by bull of Pope
Julius 11., and of an ai^bishop, and claims
the primacy of Spain. The cathedral, a fine
example of Early Komanesque^ was founded in
1078 on the site of the earlier chapels which
were erected to receive the body of James the
Great. By tradition the saint’s bones were dis-
covered in 83$ by Theodomir, Bishop of Iria,
who was guided to this spot by a star-— whence
the town received its name (Compua stdlm),
Santiago meaning ''Saint James.” The posses-
sion of these relics drew vast pilgrimages from
all quarters during several centuries, but the
number of pilgrims has long ceased to be in
any degpree remarkable. The most superb part
of the cathedral is the 12th-century portico de
la Gloria of the west front. The Boyal Hos-
pital was built in 1504 by Ferdinand and Isa-
bella, and coneiste of four court-yards (two in
the Gothic and two in the Classic style) with a
chapel. It has a good gateway and an elegant
fountain. The industries — which comprise brew-
ing, distilling, and the making of paper,
matches, soap, and chocolate — are not of much
account, the prosperity of the town having
mainly depended on the custom of the pilgrims.
Pop., 24,900.

Santiago de Cuba, the most easterly of the
provinces of Cuba, bounded on the west by
Puerto Principe. It covers an area of 12,468
square miles. The Sierra Maestra occupies the
south-eastern extremity, attaining in Hco de
Turquino (which is also the loftiest summit in
the island) a height of 8,328 feet, and the Canto
and Solado are the chief streams. The princi-
pal crops are cereals, sugar, tobacco, coffee,
and cacao, while the mineral wealth comprises
copper, manganese, iron, mercury, marble, and
petroleum. Live-stock are reared and honey
and wax are also produced. The capital is
Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1900), 327,716.

Santiago de Cuba, the capital of the pre-
ceding province, Cuba, situated on an excellent
harbour on the south-eastern coast, 476 miles
S.E.* of Havana. It was founded in 1614 by
Diego Velazquez, and, until superseded 1^
Havana in 1551, was the capital of the island.
During the Spanish- American War Cervera^s
fleet was destroyed on July 3rd, 1898. Since the
American occupation considerable improvements
have been effected in its sanitation and in other
respects. The principal buildings are the cathe-
dral, Government palace, and several charitable
and educational institutions, and the chambers
of commerce, industry, and agriculture. The
immediate neighbourhood is rich in minerals,
and the industries comprise iron-foundries,
machine-shops, and tobacco factories, while
there is a heavy export of the island produce.
Pop. (1900), 46,478.

Sautlw, Chaeles, sieger, was born in Liver-
pool on February 28th» 1834. His lathar, a



(85)


Santo VHxoBxLgo^


journeyman bookbinder^ gubsequently collector
of ratee^ being devote to nlnelc, wao able by
etriot economy to aford his son lessons. He
taitght hie children their notes* and when he
became organist of Myrtle Street Baptist
Chapel hie son made his first appearance as an
alto. In his reminiscences, StuaefU and Singer,
Charles Santley ascribed his first awakening to
the charm and power of music to hearing
Haydn's 'PUh Maes performed. Having de-
termined to adopt a musical career, he studied
both in England and in Italy, where he began
by singing small parts in opera. Befriended
by K. F. Chorley, and advised by him to return
home* he made his dihut in the part of "Adam "
in JTAe Creatimt at St. Martinis Hall, London,
on November 16th, 1857, but it was not until
he sang the title-rd/e in Elijah, at Exeter Hall,
in March, 1858,, that his great gifts were recog-
nised. On April 9th, 1859, he married Gertrude
Kemble, grand-daughter of Charles Kemble,
and in the same year made his first conspicuous
success at Covent Garden, as "Hoel” in the opera
of Dinorah. For several years he sang on the
English and Italian operatic stage. His last
appearance in opera was at the Lyceum, in
1876, as "Venderdecken,” in The Flying Dutch-
man, which part he sang when this, the
earliest of Wagner's operas to be given in
England, was first performed. Santley has
sung at all the important musical festivals.
In 1889 he visited Australia, and in 1893 the
Cape of Good Hope. The fine quality and com-
pass of his voice, his fervour and dramatic ex-
ression in oratorio, and his artistic method,
ave maintained the highest traditions of his
art. In 1907 a testimonial concert was held in
his honour in the Royal Albert Hall, in London.

Santo Domingo. [San Domingo.]

Santonin. This drug— CisHjgOs, the active
principle of santouica, or wormseed — is em-
ployed as an anthelmintic with a view to destroy-
ing the common round worm, and sometimes
the threadworm. It is apt to produce dis-
turbances of vision and should only be
admiuistered under medical advice. The dose
is 1 to 3 grains for a child.

Santorin, the ancient Thera, an island of the
Greek Archipelago, one of the most southerly
of the Cyclaaes, about 60 miles nearly due north
of Canaia or Crete. It is a crescent-shaped
mass, 35 square miles in area, of volcanic origin,
and has several times been active, there having
been an eruption as recently as 1866. Hagios
Bias (Mount St. Elias) is the highest point
(1,916 feet above the sea). Wine is the leading
product, but volcanic cement, lava, and pumice
are also exported. Santonin and Therasia, an
adjoining isle, have yielded, as the result of
excavations, several interesting remains, especi-
ally of the dwellings of prehistoric man. Fop.
(estimated), 15,000.

SSo Fi^oisoOp a river of Brazil, Sqnth
America, rising in the mountainous country in
the extreme south of the state of Minas Geraes.


Pursuing at first a northerly direction, it begins
to bend towards the north-east about 15^ pO'
S., till it reaches Cabrobo in 8^ 30' S., where,
turning to the south-east, it falls into the
Atlantic by two mouths, midway beween Sal-
vador (Bahia) and Pernambuco (Recife), after
a course of 1,200 miles. The falls of Paulo
Afionso, a series of grand cataracts making a
drop of 270 feet, 180 miles from tl^e ocean, im-
pede navigation; but from this point upwards
to the confluence of the Rio das v elhas, a dis-
tance of 900 miles, navigation is practicable, to
take advantage , of which a railw^ has been
constructed to beyond the Paulo Anonso Falls,
and then the waterway is resorted to. The left-
hand affluents include the Abaete, Paracatu,
Carinhanha, and Grande ; the right-hand the
Rio das Velhas, Verde Grande, Santo Onofre,
and Jacare.

SadnOf a river of France, rising in the
Faucilles hills of the Vosges mountains, flows
in a south-westerly direction till it enters the
Rhdne at Lyons. Its affluents are, on the
right, the Amance, Solon, Vingeanne, and
Dneune and, on the left, the Coney, Lanterne,
Burgeon, Ognon, and Doubs. The chief towns
on its banks are Gray, Auxonne, Ch&lon, Tour-
nus, and Macon. It has a total course of 309
miles, and, by means of canals, communicates
with the Rhine, Loire, and Tonne.

Sadne, Haute-, a department of France,
bounded on the N. by the department of Vosges,
on the E. by the territory of Belfort, on the S.
by Doubs and Jura, and oh the W. by Cdte d'Or
and Haute-Marne. It covers an area of 2,074
square miles. It has a general trend from the
mountainous east and north-east, the highest
point being the Ballon de Servance. The lime-
stone plateau of which it largely consists is
pierced by canons and underground caverns.
The chief rivers are the Sa6no and its tribu-
taries the Amance and Salon, on the right,
and the Coney, Lanterne, Burgeon, and Ognon,
on the left. Agriculture is the leading indue*-
try, the principal crops being wheat, oats,
potatoes, vines (yielding a wine of moderate
quality), rye, barley, maize, millet, beetroot,
and pulse. The prevailing trees are fir, beech,
oak, wych elm, and aspen. Live-stock are
raised in considerable numbers, and bees and
dogs are kept on a somewhat extensive scale.
The mineral wealth comprises iron, coal, copper,
silver, manganese, gold, salt, and a rich variety
of building-stone, the green porphyry of Napo-
leon's tomb in the Invalides ana the syenite of
the Grand Opera House in Paris having been
cut at Servance. There are saline and chaly-
beate springs at Luxeuil. Among the indu&h
tries are iron-founding, copper-founding, en-
gineering Vrorks, cotton and other textile mills,
dyeing, and tanning, while the manufactures
comprise glass, pottery, earthenware, bricks
and tiles, agricultural implements, machinery,
ironware, tools, paper, hosieiy, sugar, flour,
starch, oil, and chemicals, ana kirslmwasser is
made at Fougerolles from the native, cherries.



(83)


8ad]to«et*|joir«.


Tesoul is the capital. The department was
formed in 1790 out of the northern part of
Fran(^e Comt4. Top. (1901), 266,605.

Sadne-et-Jjoira^ a department of France,
bounded on the N. by Gdte d'Or, on the E. by
Jura, on the S.Ei by Ain, on the S. by Ehone
and Loire, and on the W. by Allier ana Nievre.
It occupies an area of 3,330 square miles. -The
mountain system, to which, in this department,
the Charolais belongs, constitutes the water-
shed between the Mediterranean and the At-
lantic. Its highest point (2,960 feet) is in the
Morvan hills, near the Nifevre boundary. The
chief rivers are the Saone (bounding the depart-
ment on the south-east), with its affluents the
Dheune, on the right, and the Doubs and Seille,
on the left, and the Loire (the western boun-
dary), with its right-hand tributary the Arroux.
As this is one of the largest departments in
France, its agrricultural interests are consider-
able. The raising of live-stock is an important
pursuit, and the white oxen of the Cnarolais
are among the finest of French breeds. The
leading crops are wheat, rye, barley, maize,
millet, oats, potatoes, pulse, beetroot, and colza.
The vineyards yield an esteemed grape, the red
wines of Macon and the white of Pouilly being
in general repute. The minerals include coal,
iron, manganese, kaolin, and precious stones,
while granite and other varieties of building-
stone are quarried. The coal-field of Creuzot
is extremely rich.^ The manufactures comprise
locomotives, machinery, textiles, pottery, glass,
flour, and su^ar, in addition to iron-founding,
copper-founding, distilleries, tanneries, oil-
refineries, and oil- works. The capital is Macon
(18,928). Pop. (1901), 620,360.

S3iO FaulOf a state of Brazil, South America,
bounded bn the N. and N.E. by Minas Geraes
and Rio de Janeiro, on the E. by the Atlantic,
on the S. by Parana, and on the W. by Matto
Grosso. It covers an area of 112,280 square
miles, and has a coast line of more than 400
miles. The hinterland of the coast is rugged,
the ranges of the Serra do Mar, Serra de Para-
napiacaba, and Serra da Mantiqueira bounding
the grassy campos, or plains, of the interior.
The state is watered by the numerous left-hand
affluents of the Parana. The soil is extremely
fertile, making the state one of the richest in
Brazil. Coffey is the conspicuous product, but
fine crops are yielded of sugar, tobacco, rice,
maize, cotton, and beans ; while great attention
is also paid to the raising of live-stock. The
mineral wealth comprises gold, silver, iron, and
coal. The industries include iron-founding,
cotton mills, breweries, distilleries, tanneries,
and tobacco factories. The capital is SSo Paulo
and the chief port Santos. Pop. (estimated),
1,700,000.

Sib f flitilOy capital of the preceding state,
Brazil, 25 miles N.W. of Santos, its port on the
Atlantic. The principal buildings are the
cathedral, Governor’s palace, episcopal palace,
law abademy, polytechnic, museum, several




educational and charitable institullcns, and the
Ypiranga Palace, a superb stfuctiiiFe, dedicated
to the declaration of the independence of Brazil
in 1822. Though founded in 1560 it has largely
the aspect and conveniences of a modern city,
and is a bishopric. Pop. (estimated), 110,000.

Sap, a term of popular, rather than of scientific,
vegetable physiology, applying to the various
juices of plants. Firstly, the drops of water
containing some soluble matter that form in
the vacuoles of the protoplasm of young cells
are known as the watery cell-sap. Secondly,
the liquid food taken in by the roots, and par-
ticularly by the fine root-hairs, from the soil,
consisting of water with dissolved mineral
matters, is known as the unelaborated sap. It
is forced upwards in early spring by root-
pressure, this being known as the rise or ascent
of the sap. Its upward course, under the in-
fluence of root-pressure and, at a later stage, of
transpiration, is by the vessels or tracheids in
the young wood. Thirdly, the milky latex and
other liquids, such as the contents of the sieve-
tubes, which form part of the elaborated sap,
and contain sugar, starch, albuminoid and
other matters, the results of assimilation and
metabolism, are also termed sap. Their course
is towards all growing parts. This, together
with the course of the unelaborated sap which
is mainly upwards, is mistakenly known as the
circulation of the sap. As there is no heart or
central pumping-station, and no return of
liquid to its starting point, there is no true
circulation in plants.

SapindacesBf a large order of Dicotyledons,
mostly trees and shrubs, and chiefly tropical,
though the maples and some others extend into
temperate regions in the northern hemisphere,
but none are indigenous to Europe. The
leaves vary, being either scattered or opposite,
and simple, pinnate, or palmate. There are
four or five sepals; as many petals; twice as
many, or seven or eight, stamens ; a prominent
hypogynous disc ; and an ovary of several one-
or two-seeded chambers. The fruit is various,
including the fleshy dehiscent capsule of the
horse-chestnut and buck-eyes, and the double
samaras of the maples. The seeds may
exalbuminous or albuminous, and the soap-nut
(Sapindus), from which the order takes its
name, is specially rem^arkable for its sapo-
naceous character. Even the seeds of the horse-
chestnut produce a slight lather with water.
Some genera contain a poisonous principle,
such as Supple Jack or Timboe (Seryania ter-
nata), used to stupefy fish by the Indians of
tropical South America, and Paullinia, from
the seeds of one species of which, however
(P. Borhitis), Brazilian cocoa or Guarana, a
bitter astringent variety, is made.

Saponifieatio]i. Soa|» consist of compounds
of certain organic acids with the alkaline bases.
The process by which the fats are broken up
into the alcohol and acids of which they are
formed during ihe tsoap-lormation is known as


fepplUi Wood.




SluriklMuiid*


sapOQiication. It is, howeyer^ also ezteniM io
all ottier similar reactions ia wliioli an ethereal
salt is broken up into its constituent acid and
alcohol. Saponification may be induced by the
action of acids or alkalies, and the rate at
wbicb it proceeds in different conditions has
been the subject of much investigation, and
assisted greatly in the building up of the fabric
of chemical dynamics.

Samaa '%ood, a dyewood of commerce,
yielded by Csesalpmia Sappan, a species of a
genus of the order Leguminosm. It is a native
of tropical Asia and the islands of the Indian
Archipelago, but has been introduced into Bra-
zil add the West Indies, where its cultivation
has been encouraged in consequence of its
valuable properties. But though it produces
an excellent red colour, this is not readily fixed.

Sapper, a military engineer whose duty it is to
erect field-works, usually for temporary pur-
poses, dig trenches, and carry out similar
operations. Literally he is one who saps; hence
his name. A sap is a trench or ditch by means
of which cover is provided for a force attacking
a fort or besieged place. As the trench is exca-
vated, the earth dug out is disposed in gabions,
or large wicker baskets, along the side of the
ditch, which form a bulwark for the protection
of the occupants. The gabions having been
filled, the earth is next thrown beyond them
towards the fortress, with the intention of
forming a parapet. A sap is generally made
by four men worTking coniointly. Their work is
arduous, responsible, and dangerous, and must
be accomplished promptly and as thoroughly as
possible, the men being covered meanwhile by
the artillery of the assailants.

Sapphire, the crystalline mineral form of the
sesquioxide of aluminium (AljO,). It crystal-
lises in the Hexagonal system, but its crystals,
as usually found in alluvial deposits, are water-
worn. It varies in colour, being black and
opaque in the impure ferruginous variety
known as emery, reddish-brown or white and
^aque in corundum, red and transparent in the
Oriental ruby, violet in Oriental amethyst,
colourless in Inx sapphire, and blue in the
variety to which the name sapphire is popu-
larly restricted. This blue variety is dichroic,
the velvety cornflower blue of a fine stone being
resolved by the dichroiscope into ultramarine-
blue and yellowish^green. Its colour may be
due to cobalt-oxide, which is always used in
imitating it. Its epecific gravity is 3*9 to
4T, and its hardness is 9 in the scale of Fried-
rich von Mohs (1773-1839), the German mineral-
ogist, but blue sapphire is harder than emery,
corundum, or ruby. Jt is unaffected by acids*
hut is fusible with difficulty in borax or micro-
ooemio salt, forming a clear bead. Sapphires
occur in the baealtg of the Bhine Valley; rarely
in North Carolina, where coarse corundum is
abundant; in Victoria and New South Wales,
associated with gold ; in Siam ; wi& the ruby in
Burma; but the finest quality in Csylom in


river sand. Some of these Cingalese stones a?®
cloudy, and when ciit en cahochm, ».e., hemi-
^herically, exhibit a six-rayed star or asterias.
These are termed star-sapphires. The sapphire
has been formed artificial^* the most success-
ful process being that of m!m. Edme Fremy and
Charles Feil in 1878.

SappliOf or PsAPHO, the famous Greek
etess, was born in the iEolian inland of Les-
8 probably towards the end of the 7th century
B.c. She was certainly a contemporary of
Alcmns, for fragments of an ode of his addressed
to her and of her reply are still extant. Little
is known for certain of her personal history, and
the legend of her leap from the Leucadian
promontory owing to her hopeless love for
Phaon may be dismissed as untrustworthy. Her
character has been the subject of controversy,
but if she were no better than she should be,
file probability is that she was no worse than
the bulk of her sex was in the remote age in
which she flourished. In the absence of details
of her life it seems monstrous to regard her
name as a synonym for a strumpet. Her pro-
ductions, all lyrical, were arranged in nine
books, and they ranked in the estimation of an-
tiquity next to the works of Homer. The dis-
jointed scraps that have come down to us seem
to justify this praise. She has given her name
to the Sapphic metre.

Saprophytes (named from the Greek sapros,
rotten "5 are plants which grow and feed upon
decaying organic matter, often upon dead or
decaying leaves. Tbougli most green plants
are probably in part saprophytic, and there are
transition cases of plants partly saprophytic,
typical saprophytes contain no chlorophyll.
Among fungi many moulds, agarics, and other
forms are saprophytic, whilst others are para-
sitic or either saprophytic or parasitic. Among
Monocotyledons the bird's-nest and coral-root
orchids are marked examples of saprophytism,

g arasitism being unknown in this class. Among
licotyledons the toothwort (Lathrma squamaria)
is partly saprophytic and partly parasitic, and
the insectivorous Sarraceniace© and Utricularia,
since they have apparently no digestive process,
must also be classed as saprophytes. It is note-
worthy that in their case, as in that of the
toothwort, the absorbent organs are gland-
studded leaf-structures. In both the saprophy-
tic orchids and in Lathrma the leaves are re-
duced to brownish scales.

Saraband, a slow, stately dance, formerly
popular in Spain, France, and the United
Kingdom. It appears to have been invented
early in the 16th centuij, but obsotrrity sur-
rounds its origin and its name. The more
generally-held theory is that it was devised by
Zarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in Spain, who
called it after himself, but others incline to
the opinion of Sir William OusSley (176748#)
that it is Oriental in character and probably
orij^ated in Persia. was primariy a
seul, and there seem little doubt but that it




( 86 )




ii^aa at first of an immodast natnie^ for it was
attacked by Cerrantes and stitiptressed by
Philip n. It was revived later with all the
objectionable features eliminated^ and was
popular throughout the 17th century. As a
solo the dancer carried castanets and wore bells
on his feet. In England it was generally treated
as a country dance. The music was in triple
time, usually with a distinct emphasis upon the
second beat of the measure. In the old suite
it was the slow movement and was commonly
placed before the gigue. There are fine
examples of it in the suites of J. S. Bach and
Hanael, but the most majestic is that which
Handel composed for his overture to Almira »
and afterwards introduced into his Binaldo to
the words "Lascia ch'io pianga."

Samoans, a name applied by the Romans and
Greeks to the nomadic tribes of the deserts of
Syria and Arabia, who were notorious for their
depredations and the ease with which they
disappeared from view and eluded capture.
After the spread of Mohammedanism the epi-
thet was given to Turks and Moslems and then
to all non-Christian peoples against whom, in
the name of the Cross, warfare was waged. In
all likelihood, whatever its derivation, the word
was used gonerically to describe a number of
barbarian tribes, just as Scythians was em-
ployed to denote barbarians of the North and
Tatars (Tartars of erroneous usage) those of the
East.

Samgoaaa, or Zabagoza, a province of Spain,
bounded on the N. and N.W. by Navarra, on
the N.E. and E. by Huesca, Lerida and Tarra-
gona,! on the S. by Teruel, on the S.W. by
Gua^lajara, and on the W. by Soria. It
covers an area of 6,726 square miles. The sur-
face is mainly mountainous (the highest point
being 7,700 feet above the sea), and is watered
by the Ebro and its tributaries. The principal
crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, vines
and olives. Sheep and goats are the chief live-
stock. The mineral resources await develop-
ment, and the manufactures comprise paper,
leather, soap, machinery, glass, textiles,
chocolate and preserves, and there are dis-
tilleries and iron-foundries. Wine, fruit, oil,
and flour are largely exported. Pop. (1900),
421,843,

SamgOfliav capital of the preceding
province, Spain, 170 miles N.B. of Madrid, at
the junction of the Huerva with the Ebro. The
principal public buildings include the 14th-
century cathedral of La Seo ("The See") and
the cathedral del Pilar, of the 17th century,
which owes its name to the jasper pillar on
which the Virgin alighted when she manifested
herself to St. James the Great (Santiago) as
he passed through the city; the municipal
buildings; the exchange; the Aljaferia or
citadel, built by the Moors for a palace, after-
wards used by the Inquisition, then as a
barracks and prisoni And now unoccupied;
the palace; the tlnivereity.


founded in 1474 ; and seTeral cltil and military
ho^itals. The ifianufactures |ai^lude silo
and textiles, machinery, leathbr^ seap, candles,
saltpetre, cliooolate, glaes, porcelain, wine and
brandy, Saragossa was colonised by the
Romans, Augustus naming it after himself
Caesaraugusta. After the expulsion of the
Moors, who had held it for fully four cen-
turies, in 1118, it became the capital of Aragon,
it is noted in modern times for its two heroic
defence against the French, whose first siege
was raised on August 15th, 1808, but who com-
pelled a surrender after a second siege, when
the townsfolk were on the brink of starvation,
on February 20th, 1809, the losses of the in-
habitants amounting to 60,000 persons in all.
Pop. (1900), 99,118.

S^asate, Pablo Mabtin Melitok de,
violinist and composer, was born at Pampel-
una, in Spain, on March 10th, 1844. At the
age of twelve he entered the Paris Conser-
vatoire, where he studied the violin under
Alard and harmony under Reber. Preferring
the professional career of an executant, he
made brilliant appearances in Paris and the
chief towns of France and Spain, making his
(Wmt in London at the Crystal Palace Con-
certs in 1861. He has a passion for touring,
and has travelled in every country of the
world, excepting Australasia. As a player he
is noted alike for the purity of his style, his
passion, tendresse, and extreme facility. His
compositions — Spanish airs and dances,
romances, fantaisies, and the like — illustrate
his skill and science as a virtuoso. He has
received many honours, notably the Grand
Cross of Isabel la Catolica, which carries the
title of Excellency, the Legion of Honour, the
Red Eagle of Prussia, and the Dannebrog of
Denmark, His full-length portrait by J. M,
Whistler is considered one of the painter's
most characteristic achievements.

Saratoff, ^ government of Russia-in-EuJ*ope,
bounded on the N. by Penza and Simbirsk,
on the E. by Samara, on the S.E. by Aetra-
khan, on the S.W. by the territory of the
Don, Cossacks, and on the W. by Voronezh and
Tamboff. It covers an area of 32,624 square
miles. The surface is mostly a plateih,
watered by the tributaries of the Volga, which
flows along its eastern boundary, and some
affluents of the Don. Agriculture is the dhief
occupation of the people. The principal crops
are rye, wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, melons,
sunflowers and oil-seeds. The herds and flocks
are very large, though cattle-breeding is al-
leged to be on the decline. Droughts and the
inroads of marmots, mice and predatory in-
sects are the farmer's too constant foes.
Poultry-keeping is on the increase. The in-
dustries include flour-mills, oil- works, distil-
leries, saw-mills, tanneries, pottery, machinery
and engineering works, tobacco factoii^s and
boot-m^ing. Saratoff, the capital (143,431),
contains one of the best provincial theatres in



( 86 )


SaratfiSHk ipsSaga.




Bnssia, aad in Badiachefl’s Mineuni ihas 4k le-

markablj fine collection of paintings/
tvre ana antiquities. Pop. (l.o97)» 2,423485.

Sttraloga ISIpritigaf a town of Kew York
State, United States, near the Hudson, 38
miles N. <>f Albany. It is the most, fashionable
of the inland health resorts of the Union,
being noted for its carbonated mineral waters
fchalVbeate, sulphur and iodine) recommended
for rheuma^, liter and digestive complaints.
There are horse races, a flower festival in
the autumn, and the other concomitants of a
popular watering-place. About 14 miles to the
south-east, > at S^tiUwater, is the field of the
two> battles of Saratoga in the Independence
War between the Americans under General
Horatio Gates, and the British under General
John Burgoyne (September 19th and October
^th, 1777), as a result of which the latter sur-
jrandeied on the 17th of October. Pop. (1900),
18,634.

\ SOMwaJCf a district in the north-west of
Borneo, constituting a rajahship, which was
placed under Briti^ protection in 1688. It
occupies an area of 41,000 square miles. The
eastern region is mountainous, Mount Mulu
attaining a height of 9,000 feet above the sea,
but there is much rich alluvial soil along the
seaboard. The control of the county was ob-
tained in 1842 from the Sultan of Brunei by
the famous Sir James Brooke (*VEajah
Brooke *’), through whose efforts piracy was ex-
tirpated and the disaffection of the natives
was quelled. The inhabitants are Malays,
Byaks, Kayans, Kenyahs, and Muruts, with
Chinese and other settlers. The streams are
numerous but short, and include the Sarawak,
Bejang, Baram and Limbang. The principal
products are sago, arrowroot, pepper, rattans,
rubber and gutta-percha. The mineral resources
are valuable and comprise gold, antimony, cin-
nabar, mercury, coal, diamonds, sapphires and
other precious stones. The country is governed
by a British Eajah, who is absolute, assisted
by a council of three European residents and
four natives nominated by himself. The capital
is Kuching or Sarawak (30,000), about 23 miles
from the mouth of the Sarawak. Pop. (esti-
mated), 600,000.

Sarcinay a schizomycetous fungus occurring in
the human stomach, especially in cases of can-
cer, when it is brought up in the vomit. It
also occurs in similar cases in the urine of men
and of animals. Its cells divide in three planes
at right angles, and thus remain in minute
quadrilateral groups.

SarcopliagUS (“flesh devourer”), a stone
coffin, especially one richly ornamented with
sculptures and other decorative ornament.
ProWbly the name was first given to coffins
made of a kind of limestone found at Assoe in
Asia Minor, which had the reputation of bnm-
ifig up a body put within it in the space of 40
days, its action apparently being like that of
quicklime. Sarcophagi wefe us^ by Eastern'


and Egyptian peoples down to the fall of the
Eoman Empire, and many of the examples
found in Greece and Borne have historical or
aesthetic value, because of the light which
their adornment throws upon the artiistio prac-
tices (such as painting in colours) in vogue in
these countries. Owing to their cOstliness, lor
some of them were hewn out of syenite, por-
phyry, granite and other stones difficult to
*^‘work,** and several were ornamented by the
best sculptors of the time, they never came
into general use. They are still occasionally
employed in the sepulture of distinguished
perwns, as in the case of Napoleon I., whose re-
mains were deposited in a sarcophagus in the
crypt of the church of the Hdtel des Invalides,
in Paris, in 1840.


Sard, a brown variety of chalcedony passing
into carnelian. Its name is possibly connected
with the Persian scree?, a yellowish-red, though
more probably it was derived from Sardis, the
cs^ital of Lydia in Asia Minor, being thus the
“Sardian stone.*’

Sardine (the “Sardinian fish,** French =
“pilchard,” common off the island of Sardinia), "
a trade name for young pilchil^, prepared A
chiefly in France and Portugal by drying and
salting and immersion in bouing oil. Th,|; fish : ;
are then put up in oil in tin cases for the malketr ‘
They form a toothsome, appetising and whoMil/
some food, and the readiness with which th#{|il
can be made available for the table has giv^n iH
them a widespread popularity. Tomatoes and
lemon are sometimes added. Sardines cured in* S
red wine are sold as anchovied sardines. Sprats '
cured in oil are also Placed on the iparW as
sardines. In fact, thoname eeefc to ' have be-.
come almost as applicable tO '^^ method ■?'Of*||
curing and packiry as to any jpfitrticular fish,®
since the youttg of several different kinds
now treated d la mode de sardine* * * '2

Sardinia, an island in the Mediterranean, 149 *
miles from the nearest point of the west coast %
of Italy, of which it forms a portion. It lies A
immediately to the south of Corsica, f||>m
which it is separated by the Strait of ,Boni- 1
facia, about 8 miles wide. It occupies ai area I
of 9,187 square miles, or 9,306 ^uare miles !;
including the adjacent islands (Antioco and ;
San Pietro, on the south-west ; Asinara, on the
north-west; Maddalena and Caprera, on the
north-east, besides several smaller ones). From
north-east to south-west the length is 1,760
miles and the extreme width is 80 miles. The
principal bays are, in the south, the Gulfs of
Cagliari and Palmas; in the east, the Gulfs of
Orosci, Terranova and Congianus; in the
north, the Gulf of Asinara, and, in the west,
the Gulf of Oristano. The chief oapee ^te
Longo Sardo, in the north; Comino, in the
east; Spartivento and Teulada, in the south,
and Mannu and Cacoio, in the west. The bulk
of the surface is mountainous, Monte Gennarr
gentu (6,883 feet) on. the parallel of 40® If.
being the highest point, out fheve extendd


( 87 )


Ifordii^


fjJtyin soutE-easfc to north-west the great plain
df the Oampidano. The streams ate numerous,
aaaengat them being the Tirso, the longest,
jiowihg south-westwards to the Gulf of Oris-
tatw>» the Porto Torres, Coghinas, Liscia,
Flumendosa and Samassi. The southern half
of the island is rich in minerals, which com-



f SKSTGH MAP OF 8ABD1SIA.


teflse argentiferous lead, silver, zinc, iron.
Pepper, antimony, arsenic^ cobalt, nickel, coal,
Pigrauite, marble, alabaster and salt. During
i'iuie Carthaginian and Homan occupation the
'|i4ines were diligently worked, but tliey were
f Ueglepted, during the Daik Ages and it is only
||ix^ mMerh t||H||tjthat have revived. The
PWliter , '.i»: ■ thlMliny season, but the maquis, or
■drought, of ihmmer is exceptionally severe
pini brings n^rly’ all vegetation to a stand-
pelill.f The malaria is a double curse, since it
i prevents immigration and, owing to the scarcity
iM labour, is likely to establish itself, cul-
f tivation of the soil being the most effectual
f renzy for it. The leading crops are wheat,

‘ bailey, beans, olives, oranges, citrons, mul-
berxj^ tobacco, madder and hemp. The forests
largely consist of oak, cork-oak, fir and pine.
Cattle^ sheep, goats, asses and, particularly,
horses are the principal live-stock. The fauna
includes the mountain sheep, tarantula and
scorpion, while mullet, eels, mussels, crabs,
an^iovies, sardines and coral occur off the
coasts. The natives .are hardv, of middle
height, dark in complexion, lively, hospitable,
fond of music, ana strong in their family
affections, but the horrible custom of the ven-
detta, or blood feud, is not yet extinct. Edu-
catiou, though compulsory, is backward. The
antiquities aye interesting, especially the round
houses called nurhagsj in the shape of a trun-
* cat^d cottO (or a round tower cut in two), pro-
bably fihe dwellings of the original settlers,
and the burial-places called tombs of the

f ianta^ T^ suppCsed to have been

ret qploahicd l>y Phoauicians and, after them,




by Egyptians and Garthagimans, The Homans
annexed it in 238 B.c. and, in tke 5th cen-
tu^ after Christ, it was overruii by Vandals
and Goths. Although the Empire recovered
it, the natives expdled the Homans finally
in A.n. 665. The Saracehs harried it periodi-
cally till they were defeated in the Hay of
Cagliari (1050) by the combined fleets of the
Genoese and Pisans. The latter ultimately
held the island till 1326, when it was given
by the Pope to Aragon. It remained Spanish
till 1713 when, under the Treaty of Utrecht,
it passed to Austria which, in 1720, exchanged
it with Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy,
for Sicily. The Duke of Savoy then called
himself King of Sardinia, and in 1869 the
island became part of Italy. It forms a com-
artimento, or department, of that kingdom,
eing divided into the provinces of Sassari
(northern, 6,184 square miles) and Cagliari
(southern, 4,122 square miles), which again
are divided into districts, towns and villages.;’
The principal towns are the capital Cagliari
(63,747), Sassari (38,268), Iglesias, the mining
centre, Orietano, Alghero, Tempio, and Mura-
vedra. Pop. (1901), 791,754.

Sardis, or Sardes, the capital of the ancient
kingdom of Lydia, Asia Minor, near the base
of the northern face of Mount Tmolus
(Kisika Mousa Dagh), 2^ miles S. of the Her^
mus, 50 miles N.E. of Smyrna. There is no
reason to suppose that the tradition that the
Pactolus, which is an affluent of the Hermus
and ran through its market-place, rolled over
golden sands is a figure of speech (in allusion
to the prosperity, commercial and ^litical, of
the city) rather than the statement of a literal
fact. It was famous as the principal centre of
the manufacture and dyeing of woollen stuffs
and carpets. In the later Soman and Byzan-
tine period Sardis was magnificent and power-
ful, although in its earlier history it was at-
tacked by Greeks, Persians and the outer bar-
barians. After its capture by Cyrus it was the
seat of a Persian satrapy. The Greeks burnt
it in 500 b.c. Then an earthquake destroyed
it in the time of Tiberius, but he ^stored it.
After Byzantium became the capital of the
East, Sardis declined in importance and ulti-
mately in population, and finally was taken
and destroyed by Tamerlane in 1402. Save for
an insignificant village, named Sart, only
mounds, mostly unexplored, now indicate the
site of the great and opulent metropolis of
Lydia.

Sardonic, applied to a laugh or smile resulting
from assumed gaiety, hence derisive, malig-
nant, sneering, which is the current sense
in which the word is used. Possibly there
is a subconscious association with sarcastic.
Laughter of the description indicated was for^
merfy believed to be so named because it re-
sembled the effect produced by a bitter herb,
indigenous to Sardinia (Serba sardonica), which
distorted the features of the partaker of it.
Properly, however, the derivation of the word




( 88 ) ./'tbrngmit,'




li from th© Latin sar4<ii>mm, meaning "Mfctex:,'*
«^,eoornltiL"'. ■ ■;

a variety of onyx, or banded
cliaicedoiijr, oonsiating of white or blue-grey
lay^ a&ernating with red (carneiia^ or
brotm (sard)> or of all three superpoeed. when
well and sharply coloured it i© termed
Oriental sardoiwjt; but the colours are often
heightened artificially, or the sardonyx in built
up of cammed layers of various chalcedonies.
Xt ha© alwa^ been a favourite material for
cameo*engraving> the finest, such as the
“'Triumph of l3acchu« and Ceres “ ih the
Vatican Ifuseum, in Borne, which measures
16 inches by 12 inches, being cut in stone of
five different layers.

Swdoilf VloroBiEN, dramatist, was bom in
Paris on ©eptember 7th, 1831. Educated for
the medical profession, he was compelled by
poverty to take to writing and teaching for a
livelihood. Ijrl864 he produced a comedy. La
Taveme des Mudiants, which failed utterly.
In 18S9 appeared Les Premieres Armea de
Figaro, ana its success was followed up later
in the year by Les Gena Nerveux, at the Palais
Boyal. Among his best-known Pieces are Lea
Pattea de Mouche (I860), Noa IfUimea (1861),
Oandide (1862), La Famille BenoUon (1866),
Divor^ona (1880), Fidora (1882), TModora (1884),
La Tosca (1887), OUopdtre (1^9), Belle Maman
(1889), Thermidor (1891), which, in consequence
of its attack on the Great Bevolution, provoked
hostile manifestations and was ultimately for-
bidden to be acted in France, Madame Sana^
Gene (1893), Pamela (1898), Robespierre (1902),
produced at the Lyceum Theatre, London, by
Sir Henry Irving, and Dante (1903), produced at
Drury Lane, with Sir Henry Irving in the title-
part. Sardou was elected a member Of the
Academy on June 7th, 1877, in succession to the
poet Joseph Autran. He is a master of stage-
craft, and provided Sarah Bernhardt with some
of her most celebrated rdlea.

Sar^sso Seat a vast area of the tropical
Atlantic, possibly covering as great a surface
as 260,000 square miles, but the bounds of which
are more or less imaginary, and the extent is
indeterminate, sdnce me so-called sea shifts ita
mass. Its chief characteristic is the immense
quantity of sea- or Gulf-weed floating in the
water, the principal compcnent being Sargae-
pm bacciferum, from which the tract derives
its name. When Columbus struck this region
the amount of weed was so immense that he
could not understand how his ship still made
way, though the former idea that the drift was
so widely spread and dense as to hinder navi-
gation has been disproved over and over again.
'The weeds were called Gulf , because it was one©
thought that they were wrenched from the
coasts of Florida and the Bahamas and borne

f tp inid-ocean by means of the Gulf Stream. Dr.
obert Brown, however, in Our Barth and lU
toru, broa^es another theory. The chances.,
lire, he writes, " that at one time it grew on a


land surface now submerged, and that in cdui#
of time the alg«) have adapted themselves lb
their surroundings, since they no# Mve and
propagate freely on
the surface of the
ocean, sheltering in
their thick masses
great quantities of
marine animals,
which afford
instances, as »ir
Wyville Thomson
tells us, of protec-
tive resemblances,
the B pe ci e 8, in
colour, looking so
like the Gulf- weed
that they do not
readily attract the
keen-eyed sea-
birds, to which
they would other-
wise fall an easy
prey.‘’ In point of
fact the weed of
the Sargasso Sea
reproduces on a colossal scale the sudd which used
to occur on the upper waters of the Nile, and which,
until it was cut, did constitute a serious im-
pediment to the navigation of the river.

Sargent j John Singer, the famous portrait-?
painter, was born in Florence, Italy, in 1856,
of American parents. Educated in Italy and
Germany, he proceeded ' to Paris, at the
age of nineteen, to enter the studio of
Carolus-Duran. After some years of study,
during which he conscientiously follow^
the precepts of his professor, making no effort
prematurely to assert his individuality, he
emerged complete master of his material. The
year 1879 marked the first public exhibition of
Ms work. This was a portrait of Carolus-Duran,
shown at the Salon, its fine painter-like quali-
ties gave promise of artistic achievement, which
was afterwards amply fulfilled. From this date
he continued to exhibit regularly at the Salon,
chief among his early pictures being a “Por-
trait of a Young Lady,“ shown in 1881, the
striking technical triumph, “El Jaleso,” and
“Madame Gautreau,” which attracted much
attention by reason of its audacious originality.
In 1882 he began to exhibit at the Boyal Aca-
demy, and during the next five years showed
many works, among them being portraits of
"Lady Playfair,” “Mrs. W. Playfair,” “Mrs.
Vickers,” and that graceful group, “ 'The Three
Misses Vickers.” In 1887 his picture, “Car-
nation, Lily, Lily, Bose,” a daring arrangement
of children, Chinese lanterns, carnations, lilies,
and roses, was purchased by the trustees of thb
Chantrey Bequest, and is now ohe of the trear
sures of the Tate Gallery. The next thiree
years saw the exhibition of many portraits, one
of them heihg that bf ”Beni^ Irving.” In
1891 he enhihited that astonishingly clever
painting, ** La Carmencita,” #hioh wSs sfter-



SABQABSUM BACCIFEECM.

A, Under-surface of magnified ft’ond.



Safrgfut.


( S9)


fiwk*


wards aednired by tiie Frendi i?t,atioii« and is
dooasionaUy bung in tbe linxembourg Gallery.
In 1894 be was elected an associate of tbe Boyal
Academy. Ibe same year be sbowed a part of
bis mural decoration for tbe Public Library at
Boston, I^ssacbusetts, tbe subject of it being



OARMSKOITA/’ by 3. S. SAROEKT, R.A.


{Photo ; N, D,)

taken from the Psalms, cvi. 21, et seq. In 1895
be exhibited several remarkable portraits,
among them those of “Coventry Patmore” —
now in tbe National Portrait Gallery — “W.
Graham Eobertson,” and “ Mrs. Bussell Cooke.”
The following year produced portraits of many
notable people, namely, “The Et. Hon. Jos^n
Chamberlain,” “Mrs, [afterwards Lady] Ian
Hamilton,” and “ Sir George Lewis.” In 1897
he was elected a Eoyal Academician, and in that
year exhibited portraits of “ Mrs. Carl Meyer ”
and “The Hon. Laura Lister.” Tbe following
year was productive of many fine portraits,
among them “Francis Cranmer Penrose, Presi-
dent of the B.I.B. A.,” “Johannes Wolff,” the
violinist, “Sir Thomas Sutberland, G.C.M.G.,
Chairihan of the Peuinsular and Oriental
Steam i Havigation Company and “The Et,


Hon.’ Lord ■, W:#tsoni^iv/ which:,' wat .vpa’inted for
the members of the legtil prol^^n of Scot-
land. This year, 1898, also s^Vtb© first of
the famous Wertheimer portraits, those of
“Asher Wertheimer ” and “Mrs. Wertheimer ”
— the portraits of their two daughters being
afterwards exhibited in 1901. The two follow-
ing years produced a number of portraits of
celebrities, among them being those of “ Miss
Octavia Hill,” “I*ady Faudel-Phillips,” “The
Earl of Dalhousie,” and “ Lord Bussell of Kil-
lowen, the Lord Chief Justice of England.” A
fine portrait group of “Lady Eloho, Mrs.
Adeane, and Mrs. Tennant” was exhibited in
1900, and in the same year he exhibited his
Diploma picture, “An Interior: Venice.” In
1901 he snowed portraits of “The Hon. Mrs.
Charles Bussell,*^ “Ingram By water, Begius
Professor of Greek at Oxford University,” “Sir
Charles Tennant* ’ and a large group representing
“Sir Charles Sitwell, Lady Sitwell, and Family.”
The year 1902 saw the completion of another of
his beautiful groups of three, this time of the
“Ladies Acheson.*^ The remarkably fine por-
trait of “Lord Eibblesdale *’ was also exhibited
in this year, as were those of “The Dpehess of
Portland ** and “ Mrs. Leopold Hirsch.” During
the following years his display of portraits
was undiminished, and included “ Lady Er^n
Cavendish,” “Mrs. Joseph Chamberlain,** “Ine
Earl of Cromer,” “ The Countess of Lathom,**
“ Her Grace the Duchess of Sutherland,*'
“ Major-General Leonard Wood, of the U.S.
Army,” “Charles Stewart, sixth Marquess of
Londonderry, K.G., carrying the great Sword
of State at the Coronation, August, 1902, and
his Page.** In 1906 he showed portraits of
“Sefior Manuel Garcia,** “The Countess of
Warwick,** and “The Marlborough Family,” and
in 1906 he exhibited portraits of “Field-Marshal
Earl Boberts, K.G., V.C.,” “The Hon. Mrs.
Frederick Guest,** and a large and striking
group of “Four Professors of the Johns Hop-
kins University at Baltimore, U.S.A.” Besides
portraits Sargent hae painted many landscapes
and other pictures of much originality and
power, notably “Fishing for Oysters at Can-
cale,** “En route pour le pSche,^* “ Neapolitan
ChiMten Bathing,” as well as many water-colour
sketches of Spanish and Italian subjects. In
1905 he visited the Holy Land to obtain land-,
scape studies for his decorations of the Public
Library at Boston. A painter of great versa-
tility and strength, Sargent’s work is remark-
able for its profound if sometimes merciless
insight into character and for the vigour and
esprit of its execution.

Sarkf or Seecq, the gem of the Channel
Islands, in the English Channel, 7 miles E, of
Guernsey, from which it is usually approached*
and 12 miles N.N.W. of Jersey, It has an area
of 2 square miles. It consists of a nor them
portion. Great Sark, and a soutbern, little
Sark, united by a rugged istbinus of rockn
called La Coupee. Tbe tiny harbour at Cyeux
was constructed in 1823, and is protected by a


( 90 )




bfcaltwatwr exteadiag nearly acroasl^e enty^co.
A<iom& to the intanor ie had by lueania w a
tiimiel throligh the rock. The rock fonnatioti
is extremely pioturesq^ue, now fantastic* now
grand* hnd always yaned* and the colouring is
exquisite. The scanty population is engaged
in agriculture and the fisheries. Sark was at


BmvL


From 1.579 to he was in Borne on the hiiei*
ness of his order. Until 1605 his life was passed
in the tranquillity of study and research, mathe-
matics, metaphysics, and physiology fascinating
him equally with divinity. His scientific trea-
tises have been lost. The claim that he dis-
covered the circulation of the blood is untenable.



SABK : LA coupiB. [Photo: Chester Vaughan.


various times a stronghold of pirates, and was
occ^ied successively by French and English.
In Elizabeth's reign Philip de Carteret, of St.
Ouen, founded a colony and held the island as
tenant of the British Crown. Since then it has
eeveral times changed hands, but remains a
curious survival of a mediaeval Norman manor
under its Seigneur, the representative of the
British sovereign. The Seigneurie stands in
beautiful grounds, extending to the cliffs on the
north side of the Port-du Moulin. The old
Seigneurie, built in 1565, is now the rectory
house. Pop. (1901), Great Sark, with 1,035
acres, 463 ; Little Sark, with 239 acres, 41—
total pop., 504.

Sarpii Pietro, theologian, historian and patriot,
was born at Venice on August 14th, 1652, and
entered at an early age the Servite order of
Augustinians, and was known as Fra Paolo.
He Soon made a name, not only as a theologian,
but also as a mathematician and orientalist, ob-
taining a professorship at a convent in Venicei


but we owe to him the discovery of the con-
tractility of the iris. This illustrious philoso-
pher and statesman was a friend of freedom of
thought, and incurred the enmity of Borne by
his toleration of Protestantism. When Pope
Paul V. attempted to interfere in the temporal
affairs of Venice (1606) Sarpi did not hesitate
to throw in his lot with the Eepublic, and his
brilliant tracts largely led to the virtual over-
throw ^of the papal pretensions in 1607. The
reply of his enemies was characteristic, for a
band of bravos attempted to assassinate him
in the same year, " Agnosco stylum Ouriro Bo-
manse” ("I recognise the style [with alterna-
tive sense of stake, a subtle word-play] of the
Roman Court ”), was Sarpi's pungent and witty
comment when the surgeon remarked on the
ragged and clumsy wounds that had been in-
flicted. With broken health he retired to his
cloister, and composed the powerful works on
which his fame now rests, though he never
avowed their authorsh^, namely, The MistfJff
of EctlmiastieM Bene fees (1610), the treatise



( 91 )






Q<>iicerniiig The Inmisition (1615) and The
Mietory of the Coumil of TreoJt (pumislied first
in London in 1619). He died in Venice on
Jannarj 16th, 1623. His last words were lor his
country, ‘*Esto perpetua'* ("Live for ever”).

Sorrftoeniaii a small genus of North American
insectivorous plants known as side-saddle
flowers, the type of the order Sarraceniaceaa, a
dicotyledonous family allied to the water-lilies.
There are six or seven species and various hy-
brids, inhabiting the swamps of the Mississippi
Valley and extending into
Canada. They have a ro-
sette of pitcher - shaped
radical leaves and solitary
flowers. The pitchers have
a honey - secreting exter-
nal flange, and secrete
water in which many in-
sects are drowned from
time to time. There
are downward - pointing
hairs which detain these
insects, and the glands
on the lower part of the
inner surface absorb the
prodncts of their decay.

There is no true digestion
in the proper sense of
the term. Moths lay
eggs in the putrefying
mass, the stench from which, where these plants
cover acres of swamp, is unbearable; and birds
slit the rotting pitchers for the sake of the
maggots, so that probably a large portion of the
organic matter is absorbed as a manure by the
roots* The flowers have five imbricate sepals, five
etals, numerous hypogyuous stamens, and a
ve-chambered ova^, umbrella-like expan-
sion of its style giving the plant its popular
name. 8. purpurea is half-hardy, and the other
species are greenhouse plants. The allied
monotypic genera Darlingtonia and Heliam-
phora inhabit California and British Guiana
respectively.

Sariapaxilla, the long fibrous rhizomes and
roots of several species of the genus Smilax, a
group of prickly climbing shrubs, with cor-
date, net-veined leaves and stipular tendrils,
natives of the tropics, the type of a sub-order
of Liliaoe®. The flower® are aioecious, and the
plants grow in swampy forest-regions little
visited by Europeans, so that there is some
doubt ubout the species ; but Mexican sar-
saparilla is bclieteei to be produced by 8.
medica^ and the “Jamaica sarsaparilla from
Guatemala and Colombia, formerly shipped
from Jamaica, by 8, oficinalis. The former is
known as “mealy** from an abundance of
starchy matter under the rind ; the latter, the
most esteemed, as “red-bearded,** from the
colour of the rbotlets. Other commercial varie-
ties are Lima, Honduras, Guatemala, and
G^uayaquil sarsaparillas. When boiled, the
^ots . yield an extract, the quantity and


acridity of which is the test of the quality
of the sample. In addition to starch, resin,
and oxalate of lime, there is at crystalHsable
neutral substance known as parillin. There
are three preparations of this drug in the
British Pharmacopoeia. The compound decoc-
tion of sarsaparilla was at one time a very
favourite remedy in cases of syphilis and rheu-
matism, but it is not now often used, though
in popular favour as a blood-purifier.

Sarsenstone. [Sandstone.]

Sarsfieldf Patbick, titular Eabl of Lucan,
soldier, was born at Lucan, near Dublin, in what
year is unknown, and educated at a military col-
lege in France. He entered the army in 1678
and seems to have been something of a fire-
eater. He actively supported James 11., whom
he followed into exile. He returned with him
to Ireland in 1689 and organised the defences
for the former king, taking part in the engage-
ment at Newtown Butler and the capture of
Sligo. At the battle of the Boyne (July 1st,
1690) his cavalry was so badly posted he could
not do anything and accompanied James in his
flight to Dublin. He especially distinguished
himself by the rapidity of his movements on
the Shannon and his defence of Limerick, the
“city of the violated treatv.*’ The soldi^s
were devoted to him and their affection
thwarted the designs of the politicians who de-
tested the sincerity by which he was animated.
He was created Earl of Lucan in 1691 (the title
of course, carrying no weight). After the re-
verse at Aughrim (July 12th), which was not
due to any fault of Sarsfield*s, but to the
jealousy of his senior in command, he retired
again upon Limerick, and was the heart and
soul of its second defence. Some English
officers having said they had seen no great im-
provement in Irish valour, Sarsfield retorted,
“As low as we now are, change kings with us,
and we will fight it over again with you.”
When the battle of La Hogue (1692) dissipated
for good all dream of an invasion of England
from France, which vas to have been en-
trusted to Sarsfield, he became a French
marshal, fought at Steenkirk on August 3rd,
and* was mortally wounded in the battle of
Landen on August 19th, 1693, in the attack
on the village of Neerwinden, and died two or
three days afterwards.

Sartas (Turki, Sart = “trader ), a term of
wide application, but of no ethnical value, in
Central Asia, being applied to peoples of
Aryan and Mongol stoex indifferently, and
simply meaning, in the first instance artisans,
townsfolk, traders, peasants, and then the
settled populations generally, as opposed to
the nomad element, ^e Iranian Tapis, being
always settled, were the first to be known as
Sartes, hence tffie erroneous impression that the
word had a racial meaning, impWng an
Iranian, in oontradistinction to a Turanian
people. There are TJsbeg and other Tatar
»artes as well as Iranian Sartes in Bokhara,




( m)


/Mrtlil.'


KMta* and titraugihoiit Turkestan gei^^Ey;
but tke Tague use of tbe word and ignorince of
ite true meikning’ baTe oaueed great oonfusion
in ethnological works treating of these regions.

Stur^i/a department of Trance, bounded on
the N. W Orne/ oi^ the N.JJ. by Eure-et-Loir,
on the E. by Eoil^TChen toe S. by Indre-
et-Iioire, on the S,W. by MaiUe-et-Loire, and
oh the W, by Jdayehne. It occupies an area
of 2,410 sqflire miles. The chief rivers are the
Sarthe, Huisne and Loir, and the highest
point of the surface is 1,115 feet above th©
sea. Thf department is noted for its horses
(in which speed and strength are united) and
poultry, and the raising of live-stock generally
10 vigorously pursued. The principal crops are
udieat, rye, barley, oats, maize, hemp, man-
golds, apples, potatoes, beans and beetroot,
and a large quantity of wine is produced. The
prevailing trefes are oak, wych elm, chestnut,
pine, beech and hazel. The minerals include
coal, iron, marble and magnesia. The manu-
factures comprise linen, cotton, woollens,
paper, glafis, pottery, tiles and flour, and
there are iron foundries, copper and bell
foundries, engineering works and distilleries.
Sarthe was created in 1790 out of part of
Maine, Anjou and Perche. Le Mans (63,272)
is the capital. Pop. (1901), 422,699.




singer, but nervousness marked the sffeei of
her earliest appearances on the conoett plat^
form in 1835. She went abroad to cottploto
her musical education, and while in Italy %e
great dramatic soprano. Pasta, gave her daily
lessons. Eer first appearance in Opera, ^as
" Norma ” in Venice, 1839, was brilliantly ffio-
cessful, and her reputation was inoreaiM in
other Italian cities auring 1840* Betuming to
England in 1841 she appeared at’ Oovent har-
den with equal success, her acting and singing
helping to revive the fortunes of that theatre.
She sang frequently in London aand thb pj^
vinoes, but retired from ''the'^atagO an 'Eeca|i|:
ber 23rd, 1842, on her with Edwam

John Sartoris, of Titchfiald, pampahire, bariy
in the following year. Penceforth she sang
“as if inspired *^only in private society ,||j^yot-
ing her abilities to literature and arl Her
best-known work, A Weeh in a French Country
House t published in 1867, is distinguished by its
humour and delightful freshness. Mm. SsBr-
toris died on August 4th, 1879. Her intellec*
tual gifts were of a high order. Chorley con-
sidered her the greatest, though not the be|p
English singer of the century, while x Mr
sister, Fanny Kemble, thought her drai|Mp
powers overshadowed and hampered her ilfib' i
ing and regretted die had not devoted herseli
to the drama. ♦


SortOi Andrea, del (Andrea Vannucchi),
painter, eo called because his father was a
tailor, was born in Florence, Italy, in 1488 or
1487. In 1609 the Servite brothers employed
him to paint the three frescoes in the porch
of the Annunziata, and were so pleased with
the result that they ordered four others.
About 1617 he executed for the church of San
Francesco, in his native city, a Madonna
with the Harpies’* (now in the tJifizi Gallery),
esteemed by some his chef d'wuvre in oil, and,
while still young, painted a very vigorous ren-
dering of ‘*The Fathers Disputing on the
Doctrine of the Trinity ” for the monastery of
St. Gall. Francis I. invited him to Paris*
1618, paid him well, and sent him home with
money to buy for him examples of Italian art,
but Andrea is said to have appropriated the
amount. After his return he pr^uced the
ilgures of "Faith” and "Charity” in the
Scalzo, the "Dance of Herodias’ Daughter,"
"The Beheading of John the Baptist,’^ "The
Vieitktion," and "The Birth of the Baptist "
in the same cloister. His most celebrated fresco
is the "Madonha del Sacco," painted for the
Servites in 1626, which was preceded (1523) by
a copy of E^iphaeFs "Leo X.,” which was so
fmthful that it was alipofirt/ impossible to dis-
tinguish it from the oriisrinal. His last great
achievement, "The Last Supper," at Sap
Salvi, was finished in 1627, and he died in
Florence, on January 22nd, 1531.

MrtofiSf Adelaide, younger daughter of
Charles Kemble, niece ol Mm. 3lddona, was born
in London about 1814. Gifted with a fipe I
voice, ^e was trained to become a professional I


Sanun. [Salisbury.] *

Saskatchewail, a river of Canada* rising
two headwiaters, the North Saskatchewan frojU
the eastern spurs of the" Rocky MeUntapis iw
520 8' N. and 117<^ 5' W. and the South Sas-
katchewan, also issuing from the Eastern
Rockies (Devil’s Head Lake) in about 61° N.
and known in its upper stream aS Bow River.
Both branches pursue winding courses, the
northern through Alberta, the southern
through Alberta and Assiniboia till they joi||
in the province of Saskatchewan in abou"
106^ W. Thence the river flows in a mainly
easterly direction to Cedar Lake and its final ^
discharge in Lake Winnipeg. The total leng “
is estimated at 1,200 miles. Thi' N#th
katchewan is open to steamem as fax up l
Edmonton, a distance of 850 miles.


Saskatchewazi, a province of Oatiada*
bounded on the N. by Athabasca, on the E.
by Keewatin, on the S. by Manitoba and
Aisiniboia, and on the W. by Alberta. It
occupies an area of 250,650 square miles.
The Saskatchewan and its northern head and
their tributaries constitute the stream# and
the Pasquia Hills are the chief heights. The#
climate is cold, but healthy and exhilarating.
Agriculture is the outstanding industry, wHeat,
oato and barley being grown over wide trhets,
Battleford (about 400), on the North Sa«*
katchewan, is the capital. Pop. (IPOl), 91,^.

k l^orth

American tree* belonging to the Laurel
'the essential oil contained""' in 'the toot*'


(93)


bark of wMob is ammatio^ atimiilant, and
sadoriic. Tbougb little more tban a busb in
northern latitudes, it attains to a height
o-f ^ feet in the south. It is used in the
United States in rheumatism and ildn-
dilfeases, but chiefly by perfumers and soap-
makers, and to scent tobacco and flavour various
articles. An infusion of the bark or wood is
said to make a pleasant beverage and was once
purveyed in the streets of London under the
name of Saloop. It was apparently mu^ ap-
preciated by topers (and even regarded as a
|||iro for inebriety), and its sale was most
pheral between midnight and the early hours
of the mprning. Charles Lamb averred that
it “hfl'th to some tastes a delicacy beyond the
Chii^ luxury.” The wood and bark yield a
yellc^dye ; the tree is often grown in England
for ornament.

SassanidsB. [Peesia

Bassari, a province and its capital in the north
of the island of Sardinia, Italy. The area of

« former is 4,122 square miles, but it is more
^ed and less populous than the southern
dnce. The town of Sassarl is situated in
north-western angle, about 12 miles S.W.

^ ot the coast town of Porto Torres, with whidh
0'it in connected by railway. It has an elevation
of some 650 feet above sea-level, and was for-
l^erly mrrqjinded by a wall and towers, built
J|k the Rth century, which is the date also of
^ TOC castle. It has a 15th-century cathedral, and
the seat of a university. Pop. (1901), 38,268.

[Demonologv.]

Satara* a district of the Deccan division of
Bombay Presidency, British India, bounded
on the N, by Bhor and Phaltan and the Nira,
on the E. by Sholapur and Jat, on the S. by
^ the Tama and Kolhapur, and on the W. by the
^ Sahyadri hills. It covers an, area of 4,988
I square miles. There are two principal hill sys-
* tjems, the Sahyadri, on the western boundary,
running north and south, and the Mahadeo,

t Ktendftg Ijiwards the eastern boundary. The
istrict IS the head valley of the Kistna, but
tie Bhima, with its affluent the Nira, cross
the north-east and the Tarna flows along the
south. A.inong the fauna tigers, bears, hyaenas,
bison, wild boar, sambur, jackals and hares
occur. Agriculture is the leading occupation,
the chief crops being sorghum, bajra, rice,
cottop, millet, oil-seeds, sugar and potatoes and
other European vegetables. Iron and copper
are plentiful in mahabaleshwar, but are not
worked so much as they once were. Cotton,
blankets and brassware are the principal manu-
factures, Satara formed the centre of the Mali-
ratta poiver founded by Sivaji about 1644, but,
after several conflicts with the British, the terri-
tory was annexed by Oreat Britain in 1818. A
generous experiineut of allowing the Eaj^ to
we ultimately had t© be given up and Oreat
1 ^ full control in 1848. Satara
(39iflCX)), 58 milea eouth of Poona, is the capital


Ssitemimff.


and, lying 2,3^ feet above the sea, has a de-
lightfully invigorating climate^ though it is
not otherwise a notable town. Pop, (1901),
1,146,621. ^ '

Satellites are small celestial bodies attend-
ant on the planets. They rotate round the
planet, which is Often called the primary, and
which controls their motion. The inferior
planets. Mercury and Tenus, are unaccom-
panied by any satellites, while the Earth's at-
tendant, the Moon, is naturally by far the
l^t known of all. Venus was formerly be-
lieved to possess a satellite, first pointed out
by Francesco Fontana in 1645, and many
astronomers in the 16th and 17th centuries
testified to its existence. Later work has, how-
ever, proved that some of the astronomers mis-
took certain stars for the satellite, while the
others must be ooneidered as the victims
of illusion, since Venus has no obvious moon.
Since the Middle Ages Mars has been credited
with two satellites, which, however, do not
appear to have been actually seen till 1877,
since when they have been repeatedly ob^
served. They are called Deimos and Pnobos,
and their diameters have been estimated as
six and seven miles; they are therefom the
smallest known satellites. Jupiter has five
satellites, four of which were discovered by
Galileo, while the fifth was first noted in Sep-
tember, 1892, by Professor Bernard at the Lick
Observatory. All lie very nearly in the plane
of Jupiter’s equator. The first four are visible
even with the feeblest telescope, but the fifth
is so small, being only about 100 miles across,
and moves so rapidly, that it is nearly always
invisible, for it fades away in the presence
of the slightest amount of fight from Jupiter.
All Jupiter’s satellites revolve more rapidly
than does our Moon, the last discovered taking
rather less than twelve hours, only two hours
longer than Jupiter’s own period of rotation.
Between the first three satellites there are
curious relationships. The mean motion of the
first, together with twice that of the third,
is equal to three times that of the second,
and also the mean longitude of the first,
togetjier with twice that of the third, is
equal to three times that of the second,
increased by 180^; hence they cannot be all
three eclipsed at one time, although each is
eclipsed at every revolution. The times of the
eclipses of these satellites have been recorded
over a very long period, and their recurrences
predicted. Careful observation led to the dis-
covery that a certain difference was obtained
between the observed time of an ecH]^ and the
predicted time ; the eclipse occurred before it
was expected when Jupiter was near^ tq the
Earth, whereas it hai^ned later when Jupiter
was farthest away. Ibis led to the ^idea that
light took a definite time to travel, and, since
the distance of Jupiter from the Earth in the
two cases was known, this gave a means fdr
measuring the velocity of light. The satellites
4tre not only renderel invisible tons beoafee



ifttiin.


( W)


Sfttuvti.


they pase into the darh shadow of J^npiter cast
by the sun, but they may actually pass behind
the planet hiiUself, in wbicn case they are occulted.
The moments when an occultation begins or
ends are hot nearly so sharply defined as the
time of ah eclipse, since it is difficult to see the
satellite when it is at the very edge of Jupiter’s
disc. It is similarly difficult to see the satellite
when it is pursuing a transit in front of the
planet, but It generally casts a shadow, which is
seen as a small dark moving spot on the planet’s
face. The detection of Saturn’s satellites has
extended pver many years, from the discovery of
the first Jiy Huygens in 1656, followed by the
finding of four more by Cassini later in the same
century, and another two by Sir William Her-
schel, to the simultaneous observations made
^ William Lassell (1799-1880) at Liverpool and
Cfeorge Phillips Bond (1825-65^ in the United
States on September 19th, 1848, of a small moon
far away from the planet, and the further dis-
covery of a ninth in 1899. Huygens’ satellite is
the largest one known, its diameter being about
3,300 miles. The four moons of Uranus have
their orbits in the same plane, and this plane
is nearly perpendicular to the plane oi the
planet’s orbit. This fact is curious and unique,
while it is also remarkable that the orbits of the
satellites appear to be perfectly spherical. Nep-
tune, like the Earth, possesses only one satellite,
which revolves rouna its master in about six
days.

Satin, a soft and closely-woven kind of silk
to which a brilliant gloss is imparted by
making the warp appear above the weft. It is
manufactured largely at Lyons, Florence, and
Genoa, and India and China produce plain,
damasked, or embroidered satin®, which are
less bright than those of Lyons, but retain
their brilliancy longer.

Satin-Bird {PtUonorhynohus holoserioeus).

[Bo WEE-BIBB.]

Satinwoodi a handsome light-coloured hard
wood, with satin-like lustre, generally with a
curled mottling of the grain. It is used in
veneering and Inlaying, and especially for the
backs of hair-brushes. In the 18th century it
was frequently employed in furniture orna-
mented with paintings. That from the East
Indies is the product of Chlon^xylon Swietenia,
an ebenaceous tree, and is imported in round
logs: the better quality, from Nassau in the
Bahamas, in square logs, is the product of
another tree of the same order, probably
Mabm guianemis,

Satir^ a pungent ridicule much employed by
poets and prose-writers to ladh the follies and
vices of the age or society in wMcffi they live.
The Greeks did not make much use of satire
proper, but it flourished ameng the Bomaus,
EUd was used with effect W its inventor
Lucilius and the later poets Horace, Juvenal,
Fersius, and others. Among English satirical
mentioned Alexander Popb
end Bean Swift while Eob^ Burns’s - Holy


Willie’s Prayer,” though not ostensibly »
satire, is the most scathing expoeuz^ of cant
and hypocrisy ever written.

Satrap, the governor of a province in ancient
Persia. In power he was well-nigh absolute,
and in the general decay that befell the
country after the time of Cyrus (d. 629 B.e.)
many of the satraps transformed themselves
into independent kings. The word also came
to mean any official acting despotically under
an autocrat or tyrant.

Saturn, in Homan mythology one of the molt
ancient of the gods, and associated in primi-
tive times with agriculture (serere, satus, **to
sow”), his wife being Ops, whose name signi-
fies “plenty.” He was usually represented as
an old man bearing a sickle; the substitution
in later ages of a scythe and the addition of
wings and an hour-glass were due to his con-
fusion with the Greek Kronos, connected by
an etymological error with chronos, “time.”
Kronos was the youngest son of Uranus and
Gaea, the brother and husband of Ehea, and
the father of Zeus. Owing to a prophecy that
he would be deposed by one of his children,
he devoured them all save this last, for whom
Rhea substituted a stone. Zeus fulfilled
destiny by thrusting his father and the Titans
into Tartarus, ana putting an end to the
Golden Age. The Saturnalia, the greatest fes-
tival of the Roman year, was latterly cele^
brated from the 17th to the 21et of December.
It was a season of extraordinary rejoicing,
when slaves sat at a table with their masters
and were even waited upon by tjiem, when
schools were closed and the children had a
good time, when punishments ceased to be im-
posed, and hilarity and enjoyment prevailed.
Latterly the festival degenerated into a dis-
play of general licence and riotousness, and so
came to be synonymous with an exhibition of
wanton and disgusting conduct under the
guise of a holiday. So long established was
the worship of Saturn that the most archaic
metre in use among the Romans was named
Saturnian in his honour. In later days, as wl^
learn from Aristotle, Cicero and othersr a
planet was called after him, and his name was
also bestowed upon one of the days in the
week, Saturday being Saturn’s day.

Saturn was recognised as a planet by the
ancients, and was the outside member of the
eolar system as known by them. So far from
the sun is he that 29} years are spent by him
in going once round his celestial path. His
orbit is about 2}® from the elliptic, and is an
ellipse differing considerably from a circle,
his greatest distance from the sun being about
921,000,000 and his smallest a^ut 823,000,000
miles. His diameters at the equator and poles
differ considerably, the protuberance at the
equator giving him there a diameter of 74,000
mile 9 , while at the poles it is only 68,000* His
rotation about his own axis is very rapid,
taking about ten liowm and a half, a number




flatnam.


(95)


faul.


sligihtly exceeding tihat of Jupiter, wliile the
plane of hia equator makes an angle of about
27^ with the plane of his orbit. In size Saturn
is the largest of the planets except Jupiter,
being in fact 700 times larger than the earth,
but his density is so small that he would be
able to boat on water far more easily than
an iceberg. From this it follows that ne can-
not consist of solid or liquid matter, and in
fact we can only view a mass of clouds in-
tensely heated within, the whole being pro-
bably a planet in tho early stage of develop-
ment — younger even than Jupiter. The most
remarkable characteristic of Saturn, which
makes him an object of such interest in the
sky, is his possession of a luminous ring. This
was originally discovered by Galileo, who first
thought that the planet was merely attended
by two other bodies, one on each side of it,
these two objects gradually fading away till
the planet appears alone, but reappearing
later. Their true nature was afterwards ex-
plained by Huygens, who showed that these
changes could be accounted for by a thin
opaque circular ring surrounding the planet’s
equator, though at some distance away, and
accompanying the planet on his travels. The
ring is only luminous on account of its reflec-
tion of the sun’s light; hence it will be in-
visible to us when, for instance, we are en-
deavouring to look at the ring from below
while the sun is shining above. It also some-
times happen® that the plane of the rings
passes through the sun or through the centre
of the earth, in which case only the thin edge
of the rings can be seen at all; unless then a
powerful telescope is beii^ used, nothing will
be visible. Cassini, in 1^5, showed that the
ring was divided into two parts, the inner
being the wider, and later another faint divi-
sion appeared to divide the outer part into two
smaller rings. In 1850 another ring was dis-
covered by Professor George Phillips Bond in
the United States and William Butter Dawes
(1799-1868) in England ; this is quite differ-
ent from the outer rings, being dark, and
generally known as the dusky ring of Saturn.
The outer ones, though far from solid, can re-
ceive a shadow of Saturn, and themselves cast
on© on his disc. The dusky ring can do no-
thing of the kind, and its tilmy nature doubt-
less prevented its earlier discovery. That the
ring® must rotate about the planet is neces-
sary for their existence, and Sir William
Herschel demonstrated that they actually
did fio, by obeeirving the motion of tiny spots
of light upon them. James .Clerk Maxwell
demonstrated that the rings are not continu-
ous masses of matter, but ocnsiet of countless
myriads of tiny satellites, so close together
that to us they appear as on© body. F^m
observations made over a considerable period,
it seems that the inner edge of the bri^t ring
is gradually appi»achihg me planet, wle the
oater edge of all is getting farther away, thus
incTOisiiig the breadth of the bright rings.
The planet has nipe satellites, which seldom


pass behind Or iii front of tl^ planet’s disc,
and therefore are not objects of ^eat interest.
The ninth satellite was not discovered till 1899.

Satyr, a class of beings of Greek mythology,
connected generally with the worship of
Dionysus, and represented as the offspring
of Hermes and the Naiads, and figuratively
taken as illustrating the vital powers of
Nature. They are first mentioned by Hesiod.
In art thejr are divided into full-grown Satyrs,
of whom Silenu® may be taken as a typical ex-
ample, and the little imp-like Satyrisci, a kind
of rustic Cupids. They were much given to
wine, and to sensual delights generally. At a
later period they were confounded with the
Fauns, and also served as a model for the
modern vulgar conc^tion of the Devil’s per-
sonal appearance. Edmund Spenser has em-
bodied them in his Faerie Queene,

Sauerkraxit, a popular German dish thus pre-
pared : White cabbaw is shred, and placed in
layers in a cask with salt, juniper, cloves or
caraway or other condiments. These layers are
allowed to ferment under pressure until they
become eour, the resulting liquor is poured
off, and salt water added till scum ceases to
rise. The mixture is then kept in a cool place,
and under pressure, till needed for consump-
tion.

Saul, the first King of Israel, was the son of Kish,
a noble and opulent member of the warlike
tribe of Benjamin, whose home was in the little
city of Gibeah. Distinguished by his great
stature and virile beauty, at the time he was
anointed the first King of Israel, Saul was in
the full vigour of manhood, being about forty
years old, a giant king called to contend with
a race of giant invaders. At his election we
first hear the familiar cry “God save the King' ’ ;
but some malcontents, probably leaders of the
greater tribes of Jud^ and Ephraim, refused
him the usual tokens of homage. Opposition
was soon silenced by his victory over Nahash,
King of Ammon, who had besieged Jabesh*
gilead. Bousing his nation by a strange war-
signal, powerful as the fiery cross of the
Gaelic chiefs, whose effect was instantaneous,
he overcame the Ammonites. He was now
universally acknowledged as sovereign and
constrained to assume the royal state. He
gathered an army of 3,000 chosen men and
set to work to free his country from fihe
IPhilistines. His eon Jonathan hastened
struggle by the slaughter of a Philistine
officer (or garrison) and the Philistines
answered the challenge by gathering a large
army. The Israelites, terrified, ned into
hiding. Saul, with 600 men, retired to Gilgal,
where he waited for Samuel seven days a®
the prophet appointed. Full of impatience,
he offered up sacrifice, and as the offering was
ended Samuel came. Saul pleaded his fear of
attack, but the prophet renroted his dis-
obedience, and the first rejecwn of the king
I was pronounced. The impetuous courage of



Baiat Saiato Xazto.


( 96 )




at Micliinaflit, w!bera lia ; orer*
v&ainiedi the outpoet whieli 'iratolied Mtn, led
to the utter rout of the Philistines. Hiie uras
followed by SauFs victory over the Amalekites»
whom he wa# commanoed to root out. But
Agag, thbir king, was spared with the best of
the spoil, and Samuel, at hia coming again,
reproved Saul for dieobedience, and once more
the sentence of Ms rejection was declared.
Ihe old piiif»|)het mourned for the unhappy
king, who was now visited by deep melanchiny
and fits of madness. A skilful musician was
sought to soothe him, and thus was David,
the young shepherd minstrel, introduced into
Saul*e presence. As he played, “the evil spirit
departed.*’ He became the king’s armour-
bearer. For hie slaughter of the Philistine
ohan^ion, when the Philistines again attacked
the Israelites, he obtained Saul’s daughter in
marriage. But when he won the love of
Jonathan and the applause of the people,
Saul’s suspicious fears led him to eeek David’s
life. Yet again the Philistines came up against
the Israelitee. In despair, Samuel being dead,
Saul, disguised, went to consult the mtch of
Bndor, Sirough whom he learned that his
kingdom was given to David, and that on the
morrow he should suffer defeat and death.
The Israelites fled, Jonathan and his two
brothers were slain, and when, sorely wounded,
Saul entreated hia armour-bearer to kill him,
the attendant was reluctant to do his bidding,
and Saul foil upon liis heavy sword ; the faith-
ful follower dia not hesitate to share his fate,
likewise slaying himself. So Saul died upon
Mount Gilboa, and it was left to his successor
to complete hia work of ridding the kingdom
of the enemy.

Sanlt Salute Marie (*‘the Falls of St.
Mary ”), capital of Chippewa county, Michigan,
Unitod States, on St. Mary’s River, at its
offlux from Lake Superior, 150 miles B. of
Marquette. It is connected by bridge with
Sault Sainte Marie, Ontario, on the opposite
side of the river. Owing to the obstruction
of navigation caused by flie river, which hero
drops feet in the course of a mile, ^ip
canals were built to connect the navigable
portions of the stream. On the American side
the old Soo Ship Canal was opened in 1855 T
It is more than a mile long, is 100 feet wide,
12 feet deep, and has two locks each 350 feet
long. The Michigan Canal was opened in
1896. It is 2,380 feet long, 108 feet wide, and
has an immense lock capable of accommodat-
ing vessels of 21 feet draught. On the Canadian
side a canal was opened in 1895. It is two-
thirde of m mile long and has a lock 900 feet
in length. These canals cope with an enormous
traffic every year. The manufactures of the
town comprise paper, flour, woollens, engines
boats, in addition to flsh-paoking and the
lumber trade. Pop. (1900), 10,638.

H t tUa i y tlt JxMBB, Babon db, admiral, was
Port, Guernsey, on Mardh
llthp 1767, and entered the navy as a midship-


man at the age of thirteen. He flrst distin-
guished himself in the attack on Charleston
[1776), and was twice promoted for bravery.
His capture of the French frigate Riunim
(1793) brought him knighthood. He was
second in command at the battle, of the Nile
(1798), gained a great victory off Cadiz in 1801,
m year he was created a baronet, and

commanded the Baltic fleet in 1809. In 1814
he was promoted admiral, in 1819 rear-admiral,
and in 1821 vice-admiral. Ten years later he
was raised to the peerage and dim in Guemeey
on October 9th, 1836.

Sanmiiry a town in the department of Maine-
et-Loire, France, on the left bank of the Loire,
38 miles W. by S. of Tours, It contains in-
teresting churches, a castle (11th century),
almshouses, quaint specimens of domestic
architecture, and many Celtic and Roman
antiquities. It is also the seat of a large
cavalry school. Sparkling white wine is the
most important product, but linen, enamels,

f lass wares and leather are manufactured.

here are numerous caves along the Loire and
the Thouet, its lefthand affluent, probably the
dwellings of prehistoric folk. Saumur became
distinguished as the headquarters of liberal
French Protestantism, but its prosperity was
seriously endangered by the revocation of the
Edict of Nant^, when three-quarters of its
population sought the hospitality of more
tolerant countries. Pop. (1901), 14,260.

Savria, or Lacebtilia, an order of the class
Reptilia, presenting remarkable diversity of
shape and habits. Some resemble the croco-
diles in appearance, though (save exceptionally)
not in size, but are without the bony-plato



MOLOCH LTZiRD.’


armour and teeth implanted in sockets. Others
follow the lizard type, while others are more
or less limbless, and a few suggest the form
of the serpent. The order is usuaj^ divided
into the following sub-orders The Fissi-
lingues, or Split-tongued Lizards, including
the Common Lizard, the Teguexin, the Nile
Monitor, and the Heloderina of Mexico ; the
Crassilingnes, or Thiok-tongued Lizards, in-
cluding tne iguana, Basilii^, Amblyihynchus,
Flying Lizard, Moloch, and Gecko; the Rhyn^
chocephala, or Beaked Lizards, created appar^
ently for the Tuatera or S|ihenodon of New




( 97 )


8«wmura,




Zealand; the TermilingueSf or Lizards with
wonofshaped tonguea, to which the Chameeleon
belongs; the Amphiabaenoida, or Annelata» in-
cluding the Amphisbaana of Brazil, a creature
that looks like a worm, 20 inches long and
over an inch in diameter ; the Breyilingues, or
l&ort-tongued Lizards, including the Skink,
Blind-worm, dayelin Snake and the Zonurus.
Btuxlej emphasised the relationship of birds
and reptiles by placing them in a group which
he called Sauropsida.

SauriailS, a general term applied to more or
less lizard-liko fossils, some of which are
Amphibia, though the majority are reptiles,
and some of which attained enormous di-
mensions. The Labyrinthodont Archegosaurus,
from the Carboniferous system, and the Meso-
zoic Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria, Pterosauria,
Binosauria, and Mosasauria are among the
chief ty;^. Many of these were marine in
habitat, oeing equipped with paddles. In ad-
dition there were flying reptiles such as
the Pterodactyles, which were fnrniehed with
flying membranes, and, judging from the
enormons expanse of wing possessed by some
(varying from 10 to 25 feet), must have been
capable of sustained flight.

8atirin» Jacques, Protestant pastor, was born
at Nimes, in France, on January 6th, 1677, and
studied theology at Geneva under Turretin.
In 1701 he accepted a call to the Walloon com-
munion in London, but, the climate disagree-
ing w^th him, removed to The Hague in 1705,
where a church was formed for his services.
Though known to be a Calvinist and despite
his fervid pulpit eloquence, he was made the
butt of heresy-hunters, to whom he replied in
eermons, pamphlets and books from time to
time. He died at The Hague on December
30th, 1730. His chief works were Sermons sur
divers textef< de VEcriture Sainte 9

vols. in 8) and Discours sur les Evinements
Its plus considirables de VAncien et du
Nouveau Testament (1720-8). Formerly famili-
arly known as "Saurin's Bible,” the latter was
the work upon which were based the chief
charges of heterodoxy.

Sauropsida. [Sauria.]

SaartxrfiB, or Lizard-tailed Birds, the third
division of the class birds, was created for the
xeception of u single representative, Archae-
opteryx lithographica, so named because the
fossil remains were found in the lithogp:aphic
stone, of Jurassic age, from Solenhofen in
Bavaria. The first discovery was made in 1861
by Herman von Mayer, who found the im-
pression of a single feather, while later in the
same year thb greater part of a skeleton was
excavated in the same quarries. This second
example was secured for the British Museum,
and from Sir Bichard Owen’s memoir it ap-
peared that impressions of the feathers of tail
and wings were singularly well preserved,
the head, neck and doraal vertebrse are
imating, head being placed in the Berlin
199— ».B,


Museum. The feature of exceptioual interest
was the tail, which ooniista of narrow,

elongated vertebrae, the sizO of which regu-
larly diminishes, the last being the smallest.
In the majority of recent birds the tail is short
and powerful, composed of not more thau nine
vertebra, the last almost always being the
largest. The lizard-like tail of Archaeopteryx,
therefore, suggested that its owner might be
regarded as the type of animal intermediate
between the reptiles and birds, a poasible
missing link, since birds are supposeci to bo
reptiles in which the function of flight has
become specialised. Archaooptcryx, thus re-
garded, would bo a flying feathered animal
with a long reptilian tail. Owen, however,
considered it to be neither a reptile nor a
transition form but a true bird. The size of
its body was conjectured to be that of a rook.

Sanry, Saury Pike or Skipper, a fish belonging
to the Tliysostomous genus Scombresox, with
five species widely distributed in the open sea.
As in the Garpikes, both jaws are prolonged
into a kind of beak, and set with small teeth ;
behind the anal and the dorsal fins are a num-
ber of detached finlets. The Common Saury
(Scombresox saurus) is about 18 inches long,
dark above and silvery-white below. It is
abundant on both sides of tho ^tlautic, and in
Great Britain is often called the Skipper, from
its habit of rushing along the surface of the
water to escape from the porpoises and car-
nivorous fishes. It is able to maintain this
movement — ^which has been likened to that
made by a flat stone in the amusement called
^Mucks and drakes” — for more than a hundred
feet, seemingly by repeated contact on the
water with the pectoral, ventral and other fins
and finlets on the lower part of the body.
Several thousands have occasionally been cap-
tured in a single cast of the seine net.

SausBiire, Horace Benedict de, phyBicist,
was born at Geneva, Switzerland, on PeDruary
17th, 1740. His father, Nicolas de Saussure
(1709-90), was a farmer at Conches, on the
Arve, of decided ability and enterprise. Horace
speait his youth on the farm and thus acquired
his love of Nature, which became the paseion
of his life. He took early to science, ana at the
age of twenty-two was appointed professor of
philosophy in Geneva, resigning his chair to
Marc Auguste Pictet-Turretini (1762-1825) in
1786. He ascended Mont Blanc in 1787, ana his
work. Voyages dans les AlpeSt served as a text-
book for future investigators. His Essai sur
VHygromitrie was one of the first attempts
to apply scientific methods to atmospheric
phenomena, and he besto'wed much attention
on the geological formation of Switzerland. He
died at Geneva on January 22nd, 1799. His
son, Nicolas TH^fiODon® pk (1767-1845), born
at Geneva, achieved considerable reputation as
a chemist. He fixed the composition of ethylio
alcKihol and ether, and studied especially fer-
mentation and the conversion of ’starch into




(» 8 )


Sairt.


sugar. His umaerous pa|>ers were publiplied
in book form as lleckerclma Chimiquu mr la
VigUatim.

Sairagti Kichard, poet» claimed to be the
natural and neglected son of Lord BiTers and
the Countess of Macclesfield, and was born in
1607. Eecent inyestigations lead to the almost
irresistible conclusion that this story has no
foundation (Notu and Queries, 1858) and that
it was iuTent^d by Saya^ for the purpose of
levying blackmail on nis alleged mother.
Nothing certain is known of him until 1717,
when he published 7^ he Convocation, an attack
in yerse on Bishop Hoadly. His comedy. Love
in a Veil, was prcKluced at Drury Lane in 1718,
and in 1723 his tragedy of Sir Thomas Over»
bury was brought out at the same theatre.
For some years as an actor and playwright he
led a reckless, disorderly, and wretched exist-
ence, being in 1727 condemned to death for
killing a man in a duel ; he was pardoned,
and shortly afterwards wrote The Bastard, a
sayage poetical onslaught on his mother, whose
nephew, Lord Tyrconnel, gaye him a pension
of ^200 to refrain from further attacks. In a
brief period of tranquillity he composed The
Wanderer (1729), his best performance. On
Lawrence Eusden's death (1730) Sayam worked
hard to obtain the succession to the Laureate-
ship, but though George II. agreed to the
nomination, the nost was giyen to Colley Cib-
ber, Howeyer, Sayage complied with official
duties so far as to write a birthday poem (1732)
in honour of Queen Caroline, who was so
highly gratified that she bestowed on him a
ension of <£60 a year, and, notwithstanding
ibber’s protests, Sayage dubbed himself
Tolunteer Laureate. He supplied Alexander
Pope with some materials for The Dunciad,
but, quarrelling with Tyrconnel, the latter
withdrew hie protection and Sayage was again
an outcast. Still, he eyidently produced a
fayourable impression on Dr. Johnson, who
came to London in 1737. By the efforts of hie
friends a small annuity was raised for Sayage
on condition that he uyed in Wales. Thither
ho went in 1739, but soon tired of his exile,
and started on his return to London, when
death oyertook him on August 1st, 1743, at
Bristol, where he had been imprisoned for debt.

8aWftimai]|| a seaport and city of Georgia,
United States, on the right bank of the Sayan-
nah, 18 miles from its mouth on the Atlantic.
A yery large trade is done in the harbour —
cotton, rice, timber, resin, and turpentine
being the chief expo^, whilst manufactured
goods are importea in great quantities. Its
principal industries oompriee the making of
fertilieers, fiour, looomotiyes and railway
stock, and cottonseed oil. Owing to the many
parks (of whicSh Forsyth Park with its yarie-
gated and luxuriant sub-tropical yegetation
18 exceptionally beautiful) ana shaded squares
and streets within its boundaries, the town is
popularly known as the Forest City. Amongst
itn' public monuments are the Confederate


War Memorial <>n the Parade Ground, the
Liberty Statue raised on the spot (now
Monterey Square) where Count Casimir
Pulaski fell in 1779 in the War of Independ-
ence, and those in memory of General
Nathaniel Greene and Sargeant Jasper. The
prominent public buildings include &e court-
house, city hall, Telfair Acadei^ of Arts and
Sciences, Telfair Hospital, Hodgson Hall
(housing the archiyes and library of the
Georgia Historical Society), and tne Eoman
Catholic cathedral, besides seyeral educational
and charitable institutions. Georgia (named
after George II.) was settled in 1733 by
General James Oglethorpe and captured by the
British in December, 1778. In the following
year a combined force of Americans and French
sustained a severe repulse, but the town was
evacuated by the British in 1782. During the
Civil War it sided with the Confederates, but
General Sherman occupied it on December 2l8t,
1864. Pop. (1900), 64,244.

Sawannah Blackbird iCrotophagm mi), a
bird allied to the Cuckoo, from Southern and
Central America. The total length is about 14
inches, the plumage bluish-black, glossed witk ^
violet. This bira, like other species of the
genus, feeds on insects parasitic on cattle, i
They are said to nest in common, and to rear
their young together.

Sawaryi Anne Jean Marie RfiN£, Duo dn
Rovigo, soldier and diplomatist, was born at ,
Marcq, in the department of Ardennes, France,
on April 26th, 1774. BLe joined the F|enohLg
cavalry in 1790, and at the age of throi^and-
twenty became a major. He next served under
Desaix in Egypt and at Marengo (1800). Napo-
leon entrusted to him the execution (if murder **
be too strong a term) of the Due d'Enghien,
and employed him in nis negotiations with the
Tsar (1805). In the Jena campaign of 1806 he#
showed great military ability, but his defeat of
the Russians at Ostrolenka in Poland (1807)
was his most splendid achievement. He was
created Duke of Rovigo, and his diplomatic
success at Madrid in 1807 was no less marked.
In 1810 he succeeded Jos^h Fouch6, Duke* of
Otranto, as Minister of Police. After Napo^
Icon’s fall he wished to accompany him to St.
Helena, but was imprisoned at Malta. He
escaped and wandered for some years, reach-
ing England in 1819. Making peace at last
with the Bourbons, he was restored to his rank
and dignities and resided in Rome till 1831,
when he was entrusted with the chief command
in Algeria. Though he performed his task
creditably, his health gave way and he re-
turned to Paris, where ho died on June 2nd,
1833.

8aW0 (Hungarian, Szma ; Latin, Sams), a river
of Austria-Hungary, and one of the chief
tributaries of the Danube. It rises * in the
mountainous country in the extreme north-
west of Carniola, flows south-eastwards through
Croatia, gradually pursues a more easterly


(99)


Savols.


Sttvignj.


direotion,. while it serves as the boundary
between Bosnia and Slavonia and between
Servia and Slavonia, ultimately falling into the
Danube at Belgrade, after a course of 500 miles.
On the left it receives the Lonja and numerous
small streams, but on the right its affluents
are more important and include the Laibach,
Kulpa, Unna, Vrbas, Bosna, and Drina. The
chief town on its banks is Ajgram (or Zagrab).
It is navigable by steamers fiom its mouth to
the confluence of the Kulpa.

Sawigny, Fbibdrich Kabl von, jurist,
was born at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, on
February 21st, 1779, and was educated for the
law at Marburg and Gottingen. In 1803 he
brought out his treatise on the Right of Pos-
session {Das Recht des Besitzss), After a brief
sojourn as professor at Landshut he was called
in 1810 to the chair of Roman Law in the
newly-established university of Berlin, and was
also employed practically in the administra-
tion of Justice, in 1842 attaining the position
of Grosskanzler. Among his great works are
Geschichfe des Romischen RecJUs im MUtelalter
(“A History of Roman Law in the Middle
Ages *’), The Modern System of Homan Law, A
Treatise on Obligations, and several volumes of
miscellaneous essays. He died at Berlin on
October 25th, 1861.

Savile. [Halifax, Mabquis of.]

8avil6, Sir Henry, scholar, second son of
Henry Savile, was born at Over Bradley, near
Halifax, on November 30th, 1549. Educated
at gl^senose College, Oxford, and at Merton
College, of which he was elected Fellow in
1565, he graduated M.A. in 1670. After lectur-
ing voluntarily in mathematics and being
junior proctor in 1676 and 1576, he travelled on
the Continent in 1578, collecting manuscripts
and becoming acquainted with the most
eminent men of tho time. On his return he
was made tutor in Greek to Queen Elizabeth,
and in 1586 was elected warden of Merton Col-
lege, which he ruled autocratically and pros-
perously until his death. In May, 1596, he be-
came also provost of Eton College, where he
likewise proved a severe disciplinarian, ever
preferring the plodding student to the wit.
His 8ch-5arship recommended him to King
James VI., by whom he was knighted in
1604. On the dfeath of his only son in the same
year, Savile devoted the bulk of his fortune to
the advancement of learning and, in 1619,
founded the chairs of geometry and astronomy
which bear his name, as well as bestowing
other benefactions on his university. He died
at Eton on February 19th, 1622, ana was buried
in the College Chapel there “by torchlight to
save expense, though he left £200 — for his
funeral.*^ Spoken of as “the magasine of all
learning,” Savile was one of the greatest
scholars of his day* He was one of the trans-
lators of the Authorised Version of the Bible;
he was appointed to translate King James's
Apology for the Oath of Allegiance, and, in


addition to mahy other works, |iis long con-
templated edition of St\ Chrysmkm (8 vols.,
1610-13), the printing of wnich he himself
superintended, was tho first learned work on a
great scale published in England.

Savin {Juniperus Sabim), a tree or shrub,
native to Soudiem Europe, the young green
shoots of which yield an oil resembling tur-
pentine. The preparations of this drug are
sometimes employed to produce counter-irrita-
tion, and in the treatment of diseases of the
pelvic organs.

Savings BankSf which were intended to do
for the poor what ordinary banks do for
the rich, were proposed by Daniel Defoe in tho
17th century ; but, though France and other
European countries adopted them in the middle
of the 18th century, it was left for the Rev.
Joseph Smith, rector of Wendover, in Buck-
irghamshire, to initiate the movement in Eng-
land in 1799. This example was followed in
Scotland by the Rev. John Mackay, of West
Calder, in 1807, and the Rev. Dr. Henry Dun-
can, of Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire. The orig-
inal savings banks were voluntary, and have
been the subject of different Acts of Parlia-
ment, which have been consolidated and deal
chiefly with the points of attendance of
trust^s, tho comparison of pass-books with
the bank-books, and the establishment of a
good system of audit. Savings banks have been
in a great degree superseded by tho establish-
ment of Post Office Savings Banks, first sug-
gested by the Archdeacon of Northumberland
in 1852, this suggestion havii^ been carried
into effect in 1861. The Post Office system of
banking has been adopted in India, tho
Colonies, and many European countries. The
Post Office opens accounts with Friendly,
Charitable, Provident and Trade Societies, and
also receives accounts opened by Registrars of
County Courts under the provisions of Uie
Workmen’s Compensation Acts and the County
Courts Acts. It offers facilities to the man-
agers of elementary schools for the encourage-
ment of thrift amongst boys and girls by Qie
eavipg of small sumo on the stamp deposit
system. Tho purchase of Government stock is
another branch of its activity, while it grants
immediate and deferred annuities and trans-
acts life insurance business.

SavoiOf a department of South-Eastern France,
bounded on the N. by Hauto-Savoie, on the E.
and S.E. by Piedmont (Italy), on tho S. by
Hautes-Alpes, and on the W. by Isere and
Ain. It occupies an area of 2,388 square miles.
The surface is almost wholly composed of
mountain masses and intervening valleys, the
highest point being in the Massif de Vanoise,
12,668 feet above the sea. The principal rivers
are the Isfere and its affluent tho Arc, the
Rhdne being a natural boundary on the west.
The Lac de Bourget dischargee into the Rhdno
by a canal. Agriculture is the leading indus-
try, the chief crops being wheat, rye, barley.




0inrOi«.


( 100 )




mnhe, potatoes, pulse, ohestuuta, beet-
Toot, tobacco, bomp aud grapea. Bair^riug
fiouriflbee, butter, mnk, cbeeso and boney being
esteneively produced, while some olaasea of live*
stock are raised on a large ecale. Tbougb
disafforestation bas been carried out to a culp-
able extent, forests of cbeetnut, walnut, elm,
oak, asb and pine yet occur in many parts.
Tbe minerals comprise iron, lead, copper, coal,
zinc, antimony^ arsenic, manganese, sulphur
and asbestos, besides slate, limestone and
“uarble quarries. There are several famous
mineral springs, such as those at Aix-les-Bains,
»l£arlioz, CbaTm, Balins-Moutiers and Bride-
les*Bains, which ar© sulphurous, alkaline, or
ealino. The silk manufacture is of first-rate
importance, and there are, in addition, manu-
factures of woollens, linens, paper, leather,
bricks and flour, besides iron-foundries and
engineering works. The department was con-
stituted in 1860 out of the districts of Upper
Bavoy, Savoy proper, Tarentaise and Mdurienne,
which then formed the southern region of the
province of Bavoy in the kingdom of Sardinia.
Chamb^ry (22,000) is the capital. Pop. (1901),
264,781.

SEWOidi Haute, a department of Boutb-
Eostern France, bounded on the N. by the
Lake of Geneva, on the E. by the Swiss canton
of Valais, on the S.E. by Aosta (Italy), on the
S. by Savoie, and on the W. by Ain. It covers
an area of 1,774 square miles. It is almost
exclusively mountainous and, on its south-
eastern frontier, contains the summit of Mont
Blanc (16,780 feet high). The chief rivers are
the Arve, running zrom Mont Blanc to
Geneva ; the Drance, rising near the centre of
the eastern boundary and flowing northwards to
the Lake of Geneva ; the Usses and Fier, tribu-
taries of the Bhdne, and the Arly, an afSiuent
of the Isbre. The Lake of Annecy is the largest
sheet of water. The principal crops are wheat,
rye, maize, barley, oats, potatoes, pulse, ches^
nuts, tobacco and grapes. Live-stock is raised
on the hill pastures, and exports of dairy pro-
ducts include cheese, butter and honey,
forests comprise chestnut, walnut, pine, fir,
iarch, beech, elm, ash and hazel, but clear-
ances have been ruthlessly effected in many
•districts. The mineral wealth includes lead,
•copper, iron, manganese and coal, and jasper,
marble, slate, freestone and limestone are
ouarric^. The best-known mineral springs are
tnose of Evian-les^Bains, Amphion, St. Gervais,
Menthon and La Oaille, mostly sulphurous and
chalybeate. There are manufactures of cotton,
silk, woollens, iron, leather, paper, tiles and
flour. The department was creabsd in 1860 out
of the old provinces of Genevois, Chablais and
Faucigny, which then composed the northern
half of the duchy of Savoy in the kingdom of
Sardinia. Annecy (13,611) is the capital. Pop.
(1901), 263,803. "

(classical 8aw\ a olty and port In
the province of Genoa, Italy, on the Biviera,
26 miles S.W. of Genoa. Possessed of a good


modern harbour, it does an mcreasing trade.
Coal is imported extensively, the expoirts being
chiefly fruits and local proauoe. Earthenware
is the principal industry, but there are large
ironworks, engineering shops and glassworKs,
and shipbuilding employs many hands. Among
the public buildings may be noticed the com-
manaing castle of Bt. George, the late Benais-
sance cathedral, the Della Bovere palaoe, now
accommodating the prefecture ahd other
Government offices, the town-house, episcopal

alace and Teatro Ohiabrera, founded in

onour of the lyric poet Gabriele Chiabrera,
who was born and died in Savona (1562-1637).
The ancestors of Christoijher Columbus were
Bavonese. Pop. (estimated), 29,0CX).

Savonarola, Gieolamo, reformer, was born
at Ferrara, Italy, on September 2l6t, 1452,
and in 1474 entered a Dominican monastery at
Bologna, where his fervent zeal won him pro-
found respect. In 1842 he was sent to Florence,
then under the brilliant but licentious sway of
Lorenzo the Magnificent. His preaching at
first attracted liUle notice, but at Brescia in
1486 his eloquent denunciations of prevailing
vice and threats of wrath to come struck terror
into his hearers. In 1490 he returned to Flor-
ence, and his first “terrible sermon, “ as he
called it, in St. Mark’s gave him such a hold
over the population that Lorenzo began to feel
uneasy. Savonarola rejected his overtures with
scorn, predicting his speedy death and also
that of the Pope (Innocent VIII.) and the
King of Naples. As regards the first two his
proj^ecies were fulfilled next year, and in 1494
Charles VIII. of France entered Florence, and
swept away the Medicean dynasty. For three
years the Dominican prior was virtually dicta-
tor, and a strange puritanic reaction came
over the city of pleasure, culminating, in 1497,
in the famous ‘Mbonfire of the vanities but
Alexander Borgia, the new Pope, combined
with the Franciscans and the Arrabbiati and
Medicean parties to overthrow the reformer,
and the Biagnoni faction, which supported
Savonarola, lost their supremacy. After end-
less intrigues Savonarola was ejected from his
church and imprisoned with two of his faith«'
ful companions. Fra Domenico and Fra Silves-
tro, the three martyrs being at last hanged and
then burned in Florence on May 23rd, 1498.
He left many writings, but The Triumph of
the Cro9i is the only work of h%h importance.
He never abjured the Catholic Church.

Savoryi two species of the labiate genus
Satureja, S. hortmeis (summer savory) and S.
montana ^nter savory), both natives of
Southern Europe. They have been cultivated
from ancient times as sweet herbs, and were
introduced into England in 1662. Virgil re-
commends them for planting near bee-hives,
and they were used in vine^r, serving a simi-
lar purpose to mint sauce. The summer species
is annual, the winter evergreen and shrubby,
and both are closely allied to thyme.



HkkWfm


( 101 )


Sarny* or Bavoih, a district in the south-east of
France, formerly a prorince of Sardinia, now
comprised in the departments of Haute-Savoie
and Savoie, bounded on the N. by the Lake
of Genova, on the E. by the Valais, on the
S.E. by Piedmont, on the S. by the Hautea-
Alpes and Isere, and on the W. by the Rhdne.
Forming* *in Roman times the provinces of the
Graian and Pennine Alps, this tract of country
acquired in the 4th century after Christ the
name of Sapaudia, whence its present deeigna-
tion. Conquered by Charlemagne, it passed to
the Emmror Conrad, who gave it as a county
to Humbert the Whitehanded, founder of the
House of Savoy. It was erected with Piedmont
into a duchy in 1416 under Amadeus VIII.,
whose dominions extended to Nice on the sea
and to the Sesia in Italy. In 1720 Victor
Amadeus II., obtaining the throne of Sicily,
exchanged it for that of Sardinia, and thus
became the first king. His successors headed
the Italians in their resistance to Napoleon,
and in 1848 Charles Albert took up the cause
of the nation against Austria, was defeated at
Cuatozza and Novara, and resigned in favour
of his son Victor Emmanuel IL, under whom
Italy was united, but at the cost of Savoy,
which was ceded to France as the price of her
aid in 1860, remaining, however, exempt from
French taxation. It occupies an area of 4,162
square miles. Pop. (1901), 518,584.

Savoy Pracinctf a parish in Westminster,
1 mile W. by S. of St. Paul’s Cathedral. Here



savoy: chapel royal.


stood the Savoy Palace, a great battlemented
edifice abutting on the Thames, built by
Simon de Montfort, in 1245, and afterwards
given to Peter, Earl of Savoy and Richmond,
uncle of Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry
HI. It took its name from the latter owner.
John, King of France, was confined in it after
the battle of Poitiers in 1356, and then it be-
came the town house of John of Gaunt and
was almost wholly demolished during the
rising led by Wat lyier in 1381. After it had
been rebuilt Henry* VII. transformed it into


Sawfitli.


a Hospital of St. John the flnptiet in 1506.
Ten years later the Chapel Royili in the Late
Perpendicular style, was erected. Though the
hospital was suppre^ed in 1653, it was revived
by Mary and retained Its royal endowment
till it was abolished in 1702. Within its walls
was held the Savoy Conference for the revision
of the Litany in 1661. During the construe*
tion of the northern extremity of Waterloo
Bridge and its approach the last vestige of
the Palace were removed. 'Ihe Chapel Royal
suffered serious damage from fire in 1864, but
was restored at the cost of Queen Victoria, the
Cha^l belonging to the Crown as an appanage
of the Duchy of Lancaster. Gavin Douglas,
Bishop of Dunkeld and translator of the
and George Wither, the poet, were
buried in the Chapel, the former in 1522, the
latter in 1667. A small part of the Thames
Embankment and Gardens, and the Savoy
Theatre and Hotel occupy the site of the Savoy
Palace.

Sawdust is composed of the small particles of
matter which are produced in the act of saw-
ing, but the word is used in a narrower sense*
generally to denote the dust produced by saw-
ing wood. This dust is used in many in-
dustries, as, for example, for the manufacture
of oxalic acid, for polishing by jewellers, for
the making of bois-durci (or tough wood, the
dust of ebony, rosewood and other hard woods
made into a paste and pressed into moulds and
employed for the making of higli-class orna-
ments), for packing by furriers and perfumers ;
and the coarser kind, such as comes from the
old-fashioned handsaw, is of great use for
packing ice. Grapes and other fruit are also
packed in sawdust, and its use on a wet wicket
in the cricket field, to afiord a firmer footing
for the bowler, is familiar to every follower or
that noble game, while “brandy” has been
made from grape-sugar derived from sawdust.

Sawfish, a fish belonging to the genus Fristis,
with five species from tropical and sub-tropi-
cal seas. They belong to the same group as
the Rays, and have the snout produced into a
flat blade-like form (sometimes six feet long
and a foot broad at the base), and armed at



SAWFISH AND SAW (tt.).


the side with projeefiug teeth. The true teeth
are small; but with its “saw” the fish tears
off flesh from its prey (pften large cetaceans),
or rips open the abdomen and devours the soft
parts. The skin is used for polishing.



■mr Tly.


( 102 )




Saw ny an insect belonging to the Ten-
thredinidsD family of the Fhytophaga^ or
leaf-eating tribe, of the order Hymenoptera.
Their popular name refers to the peculiar
flhape of the ovipositor. Instead of being a
boring instrument consisting of an upper chan-
nelled niece and two slender pieces closing the
channel below, this is a saw-uke blade occupy-
ing the apical cleft of the abdomen and com-
posed of two lat^al pieces only. By means of
their ovipositors the females cut elite in the
leaves or tender shoots of trees and plants;
the two plates are then separated a little, so
a-* to widen the hole already pierced, and an
eeg passes down, the irritation causing a flow
oi sap to the wound. When fully grown the
larvfis hatched from the eggs spin a cocoon,
attached to leaves or twigs on which the larv»
liat'e fed, or placed underground. As the time
for the emergence of the perfect insect ap-
proaches, the change to the pupa state is soon
effected and from this the iihago is speedily
produced. The species exceed a thousand in
number, some being found in Great Britain.
Lyda pratonsia, black with yellow markings,
and Lyda campestris, blue-black, affect pines
and firs; Lyda betulse, reddish-yellow, feeds
on the birch ; Lophyrus pini, the male black
with yellow legs, and the female yellow with
black head, occur on conifers; Nematus ventri-
cosus, reddish-yellow, haunts gooseberry and
currant bushes; Athalium spinarum, reddish-
yellow, plays havoc with turnips; Hylotoma
rosarum attacks rose trees; Tentiiredo aethiops,
black, favours fruit trees, with a preference
for the clierry; and Nematus saliceti is met
with on willows, on which, like others of the
family, it produces galls. They are mostly
small— from a quarter to half an inch long—
and are frequently veritable pests both in
field and forest.

Saxe, Hermann Maurice, Comte de, marshal
of France, natural son of Augustus II. of
Saxony and Poland by the Countess von
Kdnigsmarck, was born at Goslar in Hanover,
on October 28th, 1696. Soldiering was in his
blood and at the age of twelve ho escaped
from tliG tutelagje of his mother and was
wounded at the siege of Tournai in 1708. In
1717 he raised the siege of Belgrade. Going
to France after tho Peace of Utrecht, he ac-
oeptod in 1726 tho duchy of Courland. In
spit© of a valiant struggle he had to resign
Ills acquisition and return to Paris. In 1734,
his father being dead, he entered the French
service under Marshal Berwick, and covered
himself with glory at Philippsburg. Obtain-
ing command of a division in the War of the
Austrian Succession, h© took Prague (1741) and
Eger (1742), was made a marshal of France,
and entruetM with the charge of the army of
Flanders. He won tho battles of Fontenoy
(1745), Baucoux (1746), and Lanfeldt (1747),
and took Brussels, Antwerp, Namur, Mae-
stricht, and other fortresses. He died in the
chfiteau of Chambord on November 30th, 1750.


a duchy of Thuringia, Ger-
many, comprising two nearly ©qual territories
separated by Eeuse the Younger. It covers an
area of 611 square miles. The eastern or Alten-
burg portion contains some of the offshoots of
the Erzgebirge and is watered by the Pleisse
and other streams. Th© surface oi th# western
or Eisenberg section is also hilly, and the
Saale and are th© chief streams. Agri-

culture is well developed, the principal crops
being rye, oats, barley, wheat and potato^.
Live-stock is raised in considerable numbers.
The manufactures are varied, though none is
of first-rate importance. Th© farmers and
peasants of the eastern division have the
name of being avaricious and purse-proud and
are wealthier than in any other part of the
Fatherland, and th© custom amongst them is
that the youngest eon inherits the father's
landed property. The duchy sends one member
to the Bundesrat and one to the Reichstag.
Altenburg (37,110) is the capital. Pop. (1900),
194,914, nearly all Protestant.

8axe-Cobiu:|g-0otlia, a duchy of Thuringia,
Germany, consisting of the duchy of Coburg
(bounded on tho N.N.E. and N.W. by Saxe-
Meiningen and on the other sides by Bavaria)
and the duchy of Gotha (bounded on the N.
and N.E. by Prussian Saxony, on the W. by
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, on the S.W. by Saxe-
Meiningen, on the S. by Hesse-Nassau and
Prussian Saxony, and S.E. by Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen)." It covers an area of 765 square
miles. Coburg is traversed by the southern
heights of the Thuringian Forest (highest
point 1,716 feet), and watered by affluents of
the Main. The highest point in Gotha, which
is more than twice as large as Coburg and
extends along the northern slopes of the
Thuringian Forest, is the Gross© Beerberg
(3,225 feet), and th© streams include the Gera,
Neiss© and Horzel. Agriculture is the pre-
dominant industry, the leading crops being
oats, barley, rye, wheat and potatoes. Live-
stock raising is important, but th© mineral
resources are poor. Th© manufactures include
textiles, iron goods, machinery, glass, earthen-
ware, chemicals, meerschaum pipes and toys.
Th© productions of th© Geographical Institute
of Perthes in Gotha are of world-wide fame.
The duchy sends one member to the Bundesrat
and two members to th© Reichstag. On th©
death of Duke Ernest II., childless, in 1893,
tho succession passed to the Duke of Edin-
burgh, and, at his death in 1900, to his
nephew, the Duke of Albany (b. 1884). Gotha
(34,651) and Coburg (20,460) are the capitals.
Pop. (1900), 229,5^, almost entirely Protes-
tant.

Saxe-Keiningen. a duchy of Thuringia, Ger-
many, bounded on th© N.W. by Saxe-Weimar-
Eisenach, on the N. by Gotha, Hesse-Naasau,
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarzburg-Ru-
dolstadt, and on the E. by Saxe-Eisen^rg,
Neustadt, Prtiaeian Saxony, and Sdiwarzbui^-
Rudolstadt, and on th© S. by Bavaria. It


Saace-Wei]|uu^^£i8emacll.


( 103 )


Saxifragti


covers an area of 953 square
miles. The highest point of
its surface, which is mainly
hilly, is Gebaberg (2,464
feet) of the Thuringian
Forest highlands, and the
rivers are the Werra and
afi^uents of the Saale. The
chief crops are rye, oats,
wheat, barley, potatoes,
tobacco, hops and flax.
Fruit is somewhat exten-
sively cultivated in certain
valleys, and live-stock is
raised on a minor scale.
Iron, coal, salt and slate
are the principal minerals,
while the waters of Fried-
richshall are in high repute.
The manufactures comprise
iron goods, glass, pottery,
school-slates, toys and tex-
tiles. The duchy sends one
member to the Bundesrat and
two mombors to the lleichs-



tag. Meiningen (14,518) is

the capital. The duchy is

noted for the company of actors of surpassing excel- |

lonce which it maintains. Pop. (1900), 250,731,

predominantly Protestant.

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenacli, a duchv of Thu-
ringia, Germany, comprising — in addition to
24 small detached portions — three principal
divisions, the central (containing the towns
of Weimar, Jena and Apolda), separated from
the western (containing Eisenach) by Prussian
Saxony and Gotha, and from the eastern
(containing Neustadt) by Saxe-Eisenberg. It
covers an area of 1,388 square miles. The
highest point of Weimar is the Kickelhahn
(2,825 feet) in Ilmenau, and among its streams
are the Saale and Ilm. In Eisenach, the most
beautiful of the divisions, the highest point is
Elnbogen (2,677 feet), a peak of the Rhon system,
while the Werra, Horsel and Ulster are the
chief rivers. The highest point of Neustadt is
the Eeseelberg (1,310 feet), and the main
streams are the White Elster, Weida and Orla.
The chief crops are oats, rye, wheat, barley,
potatoes, beetroot, flax and oil-seeds. Live-
stock raising is a flourishing branch of agri-
culture. Fruit is grown largely in certain
districts. Iron, copper, cobalt, lignite and
salt are the minerals, which are of compara-
tively small importance. Apolda has been
called the “Manchester of Weimar,” Jena is
famous for its university, Eisenach is in-
separably connected with the life-history of
Martin Luther, and Weimar has acquired im-
mortality through its associations with the
illustrious Goethe, Schiller, Herder and other
brilliant intellects. The manufactures com-
prise all kinds of textiles, earthenware, |
crockery, microscopes, scientific instruments, ;
pip(&8, leather, paper, glass and beer. The 1
duchy Sends one meml^r to the Bundesrat


QOTZXA..

and three members to the Reichstag. Weimar
(28,489) is the capital. Pop. (1900), 362,873,
the vast majority being Protestant.

SaxhorUi a brass wind-instrument, invented by
Antoine Joseph Sax, who is commonly desig-
nated Adolphe (1814-94), at
Paris about the year 1845. The
instrument has a bell mouth
turned upward and a cupped
mouthpiece, and is fitted with
valves for modifying^ the
tones. The saxhorn exists in
several voices, the tenor being
that which is most in use.
Though very little used for
orchestral music, the saxhorn
is generally employed in mili-
tary bands.

Saxifrage {Saxifraga\ a
genus of calycifloral Dico-
tyledons, the type of the
order Saxifragaceaa, comprising
SAXHORN. nearly 200 species, belonging
to the temperate and arctic-
alpine floras of the northern hemisphere. They
are mostly dwarf perennial herbs, with tufted
simple exstipulate leave®, and white, yellow,
or pink flowers, with five petals, ten stamens,
and two half-superior and half-united carpels.
Certain kinds, like the gooseberry and currant,
are universally esteemed for their fruit®. Of
some twelve British specie®, S. umhrom, Lon-
don Pride, None So Pretty, or St. Patrick's
Cabbage, has fleshy leaves with notched
margins, S. granulata bears numerous small
tubers, S. tridactylitea is viscid with glandu-
lar hairs and reddish tri-lobed leaves, and
S, hypnoidu, the mossy saxifrage, with much-
divided foliage, forms tufts on the . higher





■8fUio ff I


(104)


fitaxony.


mountaini. Many others are in cultivatloii,
especially in rock-ffardens. One section {Mega^
$€a) has large fleshy leaves and large clusters
of rose-pink flowers. The name refers to many
of the species growing in crevices of bare rock,
as if breaking it,

Saxo ItommatioiMI belonged to a warrior
family of Denmark, and was ^rn in Zealand
about the latter half of the 12th century. He
became secre#iM?y to Archbiehop Absalon about
1180, and at his instigation began to compile
a chronicle of Danish kings. This, the Geata
DatwruMt "wm completed in 1208, and ^as
held in high eeteem during the Middle Agra.
He wrote a brilliant but affected style. His
work wae the outcome of his patriotism, as he
did not like to e4e Denmark continuing infer-
tile in letters, whilst other nations contributed
to the sum total of human knowledge. His
history it therefore of exceptional value to
Danifit innalists, since but for Saxo’s laud-
4ble ambition ail manner of traditions, folk-
lore and sagas would probably have perished.
The legendary, however, must be sifted from
the authentic and ho naturally becomes more
trustworthy the nearer he approaches to his
own day.

Saxon AroMtOOtlire is a rude variety of the
Bomanesque. From the fact that the Saxons
employed chiefly wood for building purposes,
not much of their architecture has come down
to us; but the churches of Bradford-on- A von,
in Wiltshire, and Barnackand Earls Barton, in



8AX0S ARCUITf cruaE : BBAUrOBD-ON-AVOM CHURCH.


(PhoUt : Williamsotit Trowbridge.)

Northamptonshire, afford excellent examples of
it, the first-named particularly. It was rough
and massive, characterised by the alternate
vertical and horizontal position of the quoins,
and sometimes ornamented on the outside by
fillets . The windows were splayed both from
within and without.

Hfucony (Latin, Samania! German, SaeJamy
The kingdom of Saxony, Germany* has an area
cl 6*787 square miles, forming an irregular
triangle with its baee along the Erzgebirge


range, which separates it from Bohemia, and
its apex at Leipzig. It is bounded on the
N.W., N. and N.E. by Pruesia, on the S.E. and
S. by Bohemia, on the S.W. by Bavaria, and
on the W. by the states of 'Ihuringia. Ex-
cept in the south, where there are elevations
of 4,000 feet, the surface is hilly, merging
towards the north into the great central
plateau of Europe. In the south-east, on both
sides of the Elbe and extending info Bohemia,
is the tract known ae Saxon Switzerland, so
named from the picturesque appearance pre-
sented by the fantastic peaks of weathered
sandstone, rising sometimes to a height of
1,800 feet. The soil is exceedingly fertile,
yielding heavy crops of rye, oats, and other
cereals, beetroot, potatoes, flax, and fruit. A
small quantity of wine is produced. CJoal is
found in some abundance near Dresden and at
Zwickau (64,349). Silver, silver-lead, tin, iron,
cobalt, copper, zinc, and bismuth are profit-
ably worked, and there is a good supply of
building-stone, porcelain-clay, and brick-earth.
Textile industries of cotton, wool, and flax
flourish. Dresden (480,658) and Meissen
(31,434) are the seats of large china and pot-
tery works, ^rhe iron-smelting and machine-
making at Freiberg (30,175) and Chemnitz
^214,030) employ many hands, and Leipzig
^56,124) is the centre of the printing trade c3
Germany. Lace-making and straw-plaiting
are carried on in the rural districto. The Elbe
is the chief river and, with its affluents, drains
the whole country, except the sihall portion
which sends its waters Ihrough the Neisse
into the Oder. Drceden is the capital. Saxony
is represented in the Bundosrat by four mem-
bers, and in the Reichst^ by twenty-three.
It was not till 1423 that ftederick. Margrave
of Meissen and Landgrave of ITiuringia, was
recognised as Elector of Saxony. His grand-
sons, Ernest and Albert, divided their terri-
tories, the former taking Thuringia as well as
Wittenberg, whilst Meissen and East Saxony
fell to Albert. The Albertin© line ultimately
secured most of the land and the Electoral
dignity on the defeat of John Frederick, the
last Ernestine Elector, at Muhlberg by
Charles V. (1547). At the Peace of Westphalia
(1648) the Elector, John George, deserted his
principles, and the prestige of the duchy de-
clined, whilst portions were alienated in favour
of younger sons. Frederick Augustus I. and
his eon added the kingfdom of Poland to their
ducal titles, but their reigms were disastrous
to their subjects. Under rVederick Augustus
^1763-1827) the duchy became a kingdom, but
in 1815 more than half the territory was handed
over to Pruesia. A long struggle for constitu-
tional liberty now ensued, marked by conces-
sions in 1831 and reactionary measures after
1848. In 1866 Saxony aided Austria against
Prussia, and was compelled to pay an in-
demnity, join the Northern Confederation, and
«ibandon its independent political relations
with other Powers. In 1870 Saxony fought on
the side of Prussia against France under the




Saxoiij,


(106)




leadership of King Johann (d. 1873)> and is now j valves, modulating the tone hf means of
regarded as a loyal member of the Empire. twenty holes. Like its relative tM saxhorn, it
Pop. <[1900), 4,202,216, of whom the enormous ‘ is of very considerable importance in military
majority are j^otestant. music, but is not much used in the orchestra*



LANDINO-PLACE, DEE8DBS, SAXONY.


Saxony, Pbussian, a province of Prussia, Ger-
many, bounded on the N.E. and E. by Bran-
denburg, on the S. by Saxony and the ‘Tliurin-
gian States, on the W. by Heese-Nassau and
Brunswick, and on the N.W. by Hanover.
It covers an area of 9,751 square miles. Tlie
surface is very varied. In the west are the
Harz Mountains and in the south the hills of
the great foreet of Thuringia. It is drained
by the Elbe and its affluents the Black Elster,
Mulde and Saale. It is one of the most fertile



BAXoraoirK,


reffions in Germany. The princi-
psu crops are cereals, potatoes,
oeotroot, fruit, grapes, hops and
vegetables, and the raising of live-
stock flourishes in almost every
quarter. Jhe coal-field is the most
extensive in the Fatherland, but
in other respects the minerals
are restricted, the chief being
iron, salt and kainite. Magde-
burg (229,663) is the capital. Pop.
{19(S), 2,832,616.

SaxopllOM, another of the
horns invented by Adolphe Sax.

It conisists of a conical brass tube, I
having a, single reed as mouth- j
piece, and fitted with finger- |


Say, Jean Baptiste, political economist, was
born at Lyons, France, on January 5th, 1767,
of Protestant parents. He was educated in
England for a business career, but returned
to France as secretary to Olavifere, afterwards
minister of finance, who directed his mind to
the study of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations,
and so introduced him to political economy.
During the Revolutionary period he was an
active journalist and politician. In 1800 h©
published G/6ic, an essay on reform, and in
1803 his Traiti d* Economic Politique. Under
the Empire he devoted his energies to the
cotton trade, but after the peace became pro-
fessor, first at the Conservatoire des Arts et
Metiers (1819) and later at the College d©
France (1831). His Lettres d Malthus and
Cours Oomplct d* Economic Politique jpratiqm
appeared in his later years. He died m Baris
on November 16th, 1832. His g^randson, the
well-known French politician, M. L^on Say,
wag born in 1826 and died in 1896.

Sayoe, Archibald Henry, Assyriologist, was
born at Shirehampton, GlbucestershiTe, Eng-
land, on September 25th, 1846, and educated
at Grosvenor College, Bath, and Queen^e C3ol-
lege, Oxford. For several years he was a tutor
in Oxford, and from 1876 to 1890 officiated





( 106 )


BctMil.


as depii^<*profe88or to Mai Miller in the
chair of Conjparatm Fhilolory, From 1874 to
1884 he was a member of the Old Testament
lloTision Company, on which his knowledge of
Oriental archajology was of eiceptional value,
and since 1891 has filled the chair of Aesyrio-
logy at Oxford. Among his numerous works, tes-
tii^ing alike to hie erudition and industry^ may
be mentioned The Principles of Comparative
Philology (1874), Babylonian Literature (1877b
Introduction ^ the Science of Language (1879),
The Ancient Empires of the East (1884), and
The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the
Monuments (1894), in addition to commentaries
on several books of the Bible, Assyrian gram-
mars, and editions of various secular authors
from Herodotus downwards, besides Murray’s
Mandhooh to Eaypt, He delivered the Hibbert
Lectures {Bahyloman lieJigion) in 1887, and the
Gifford Lectures in 1900-2, and is LL.D. of
Dublin (1881) and D.D. of Edinburgh (1889).

Sayers^ Tom, prize-fighter, was born at
Brighton, Sussex, England, on May 25th, 1826.
His father was a shoemaker, but Tom became a
bricklayer on the Brighton and Lewes, and,
in 1848, on the Lon£>n and North-Western
Eailway. His pugilistic career opened with
the defeat of CTrouch at Greenhithe in 1849,
but four years later he suffered his only de-
feat, at the hands of Nat Langham at Laken-
heath. He won the champion’s belt in 1867 by
beating Bill Perry at the Isle of Grain. His
last and most celebrated contest was that with
John C. Heenan (“the Benicia Boy”) at Farn-
borough on April 17th, 1860, which lasted 37
rounds and occupied two hours and six minutes.
The finish was declared a draw, but the opinion
was freely expressed at the time that had
the referee been competent and Heenan fought
fairly the result would have been a win for the
Englishman. Sayers retired from the cham-
pionship in 1860, and a testimonial, amounting
to j£3,000, was raised by public subscription,
the interest being paid on condition that he
gave up fighting. He died in London on
November 8th, 1866.

Softbf the name applied to a parasitic disease
in sheep. It is caused by insects of the
Acaridse family, of the order Acarina, of the
class Arachnida, certain genera of which,
such as Sarcoleptes, are veritable pests. They
burrow in the sxin and give rise to intolerabfe
irritation. To relieve the nuisance the sheep
rub themselves against posts, hurdles, and
walls, and in this way sound sheep are readily
infected. Some of the solutions used for sheep-
4ipping are efficacious, and one of the simplest
and best is a poisonous “brew” of common
salt and Irish twist tobacco (to 1 lb. of each,
boiled in ^-gallon of water, add 2 drachms of
ooitosive sublimate and dilute the whole to a
capacity of 3 gallons). One pint should be
fhorotighly applied to the scabby parts of
every sheep and the dressing repeated in a
week. This should suffice.


fieabias. [Itoh.]

SoaMons {Scahma), a considerable genus of
perennial herbs belonging to the Teasel
family (Dipsaceaj), and named from their
former use in skin disease. There are three
British species, the blue-purple and lilac capi-
tula of which, distinguished from all Com-
posite by the four free anthers of each floret,
are familiar on every heath and in every corn-
field. The abruptly “premorse” rhizome gives
one species (S. succisa) the popular name of
Devil 's-bit, the legend being that the tip of
the root was a cure for all diseases, and was
therefore bitten off by the Evil One out of
envy of the human race. A species (8,
atropurjmrea) common in gardens, with dark
chocolate-black flowers with white stamens, is
known as “mournful widow.”

Scad {Caranx traclmrus), the Horse Mackerel

ScSBTOla (“ left-handed,” so called in honour-
able allusion to the loss of his right), the sur-
name given to Mucius Coelius Codrus, a Eoi^n
warrior who, when Porsena invaded Eome in j
507 B.C., entered the Tuscan camp in order to
stab the king. He was seized and dragged be-
fore his intended victim, whereupon he thrust
his right hand, which had failed of its aim,
into the altar fire, land held it there till
was consumed, telling the invader that thrfe^ ^
hundred comrades as resolute as himself ha®' ^
sworn to take his life. Porsena released him
and made peace with Eome. "

Scafellv or Sc AW Fell, the highest moimtain f
in England, stands at the head of Eskdale ini
Cumberland, close to the borfer of Westmore-^'
land, and 11 miles south-west of Keswick. ^

!



SCAFELl..

There are two peaks, Scafell Pike (3,210 feet)
and Scafell (3,162 feet), which are divided by
Mickledore Chasm. Like the rest of the system,
they are composed geologically of a granite
base capped by crystalline schists and quartz-
itic grits. Scafell Pike is usually ascended
from Wasdale (the easiest and shortest route),
Dungeon Gill, Kosthiyaite, or Boot in Eskdale,


SmfUola.


(107)


and oammands fine riewB not only d the sur-
rounding lakeSj but also of Scotland, tbe Sol-
way, and the Isle of Man. Scafell is most
easily ascended from Wasdale Head, either
directly or by Esk House. There is, there-
fore, no occasion for climbers to be foolhardy
and select routes like the Chimney and others,
which may lead to serious difficulty and dan-
ger and have even involved fatal accidents.

Sca|fliola, a composition, originally of Italian
inventmn (as suggested by the name), em-
ployed in ornamental art for the purpose of
imitating stone, being a cheap means of secur-
ing the effect of costlier substances. The
material is composed of plaster of Paris and
glue, receives bits of stucco or stone, accord-
ing to the imitation desired, and may be
coloured by metallic oxides. Granite can be
imitated by employing small crystals. Some-
times as many as twenty coats are put on be-
fore the surface is finally polished. It is only
adapted for interior decoration, since it is
reactey affected by weather.


iHSlcala Santa. Under the portico ont he north
side of the celebrated basilica of St. John



L|i||ran Palace was destroyed by fire. The
s^Bfease, which is constructed of marble and
cJpTists of 28 steps, is traditionally believed
t^ave formed the approach to Pontius Pilate's
[lOUse in Jerusalem and was therefore the
actual stairs which Jesus descended when He
left the prsptorium. Tlie Seal a must only be
^mbe^ by penitents on their knees, and such
W& bi^n the rescitt of the devotees that the
itairs are stated to have been protected by
lobden planks alrea^ thrice renewed. The
icenes in Holy Week sometimes testify to an
mormons degree of excitement and enthusiasm
hat beggars description. At the head of the
taircasc, the Saheta Sanctorum (“The Holy
f Holies”), a small Gothic chapel, once the
private chapel of the Popes and the sole rem-
lant of their ancient palace, contains a por-
rait of Jesus at the age of 12, attributed to
It. Luke, and asserted by tradition to be a
aithful likeness. On each side of the Scala
anta is a wooden flight of stairs by which the
enitents descend.

Scalds. [Burns.]

Scale in music denotes the gradation of sounds
aseed through between a note and its octave.
1 some parte of the world a pentatonic scale
revails — c.g., in Chinese and ancient Celtic
usic — while the tetrachord and hexachord
ive had their admirers; but the modern
uropean scales are octave, and are divided
to diatonic, of which there are 12 major and
I minor, and chromatic, in which the sub-
vision is much more minute. Some races
ske shades of tone too minute to be distin-
lished by a European ear.

Beales, homy modifications of the skin in
|»til0i, on the legs of birds, and in some


mammals. The sckles of fishes are ^yeloped in
grooves or pockets of the skin, m ai^e tJio hair
and feathers of higher animals. In the Sharks
and Rays scales are replaced by “skin-teeth,”
consisting of a horny base covered with
enamel. In the perfect state, a butterfly or



SCALES OF DIFFERENT GENERA OF LEPIDOPTERA.

1, Papillo machaon. 8, 4.— Morpho rnenelas. (t.—Pampbilia araoan.
tbua. d.--8e»ia apiforml*. ' 7.— Zyirwim llllp®ndal». 8, 8, lO.-'Spblux
Uguatri. ll.->Ptato^oruB peutadaotylna.

moth has four wings covered with scales.
These scales resemble a fine dust, which rubs
off easily, but if the wing be placed under the
microscope it will be seen to be covered with
a great number of elegantly-formed scales, im-
mensely varied in shape. They are laid over
each other like the tiles on a roof (imbricated)
and are fastened to the wing by an infinitesi-
mal stalk which, in some species, such as
Morphinee, appears to be fixed on a princmle
analogous to the ball and socket joint. The
scales consist of a double membrane, finely
striated. Between the striae, and parallel with
them, are arrax^ed pigment cells, though ac-
cording to W. F. Kir%, this is not sole
cause of their beautiful colours, for the edges
of the. scales frequently refract the light and
thus produce the most brilliant metallic lustre.
If the scales be rubbed off a colourless mem-
brane will remain with branching nervures, or
air-tubes, running through it. In this condi-
tion it does not differ materially from the
transparent wings of other insects, excepting
for the sockets from which the scales have been
removed.

Scales, Mathematical. It is obviously im-
possible to draw a map upon paper which ^all
be the same size as the country indicated, and
the same holds with regard to architectural
plans, and the like. It is therefore usual to
settle upon a convenient size for the map, and
then reduce all the actual linear measure-
ments in the same ratio, that ratio being so
chosen that the whole can be fitted into the
size of the map. The drawing is then said to
be made to scale, and this is indicated by



Bealm iti MatiMm.


( 108 )


fttatingf the repr^seatatm fraction** ratio
wl^kli tlio acale bears to tbe origittal, for ex-
ample, 1 : 63360, Or by noting tne equivalent
fact ibat' it is a eoale of 1 inoli to tne mile,
lahis scale would only need a foot-rule divided
in tbe usual way into inohee and convenient
fractions, but a scale of, say, X inch to 26
miles could be constructed in the following
way to flhow a distance of 60 miles. Since 26
miles is indicated by 1 inch, 60 miles will
need 2 inchdi; draw, therefore, a line 2 inches
long and divide it
f 9 « no $0 4.0 o l^ito five parts, the

points of division

being numbered from
0 to 60, and each
division representing 10 miles. One division
is subdivided into ten parts representing single
miles ; this may be either the first division (from
0 to 10), or another 10-mile division drawn on the
left of zero as shown in the accompanying diagram
(Fig. 1).

A diagonal scale is an elegant method for
obtaining small subdivisions. Suppose, for
example, it were desired to measure to

hundredths of
an inch, the
simple scale
would show di-
visioDstolOths,
and above
this would be
rio. 2. drawn 10 equi-

distant parallel

horizontal lines, perpendicular lines crossing them
at every inch. The line a d (Fig. 2) is divided into
iOths similarly to c n, a line is drawn from d
to a jpolnt ^ inch from B, otiier lines parallel
to this being drawn through each division on
c I), The distance x 7, therefore, is equal to
1*37 inches, for x 6 = 1 inch, and p 7 = *3
inch, while 6p :bp = c6 :bc = 7 :10.\6p
*« *7 B B =3 *07 inch. It is to this principle of
nroportionality that the scale owes its value.
A. comparative scale is one connecting two
different kinds of measurements. For in-
stance^ 30 Greek stadia might be represented
by 6 indto, and a comparative scale of Eng-
lish miles wquld be thus found : 20 Engliwi
#iles would be a convenient length to take.
Take 1 atadidu =« 1,094 yards .*, 30 stadia *
3^,820 yards and 20 English miles » 36,200.
'Bien, ae 32,620 yards are represented by 6
inchee, 35,200 wiu be shown by 5*36 inches,
and this latter line can be divided in the usual
way. So, by measuring with compaseee any
length on the first, we get a number of stadia,
ana transferring oompasaes to the second
gives the equivwent number of miles.

Sealof of Hotllitloiu We are accustomed to
express any number in terms of multiples of
ten and its powers; for instance—

T2M sa 4 4- (3 X 10) 4- (2 X 10*) 4- (7 x 10»).
Here 10 is said to be the radix of Ihe scale,
jhich is known as the decimal scale or system.*
The radix might, however, be any other num-


floalifor.


ber, e.g., the number 7234 might be expressed
as 30042, the radix being 7 ; for 1 -f 3 x 10 + 2 x
10*-^ 7 X 10»«24-4 x f4-0x 7*4‘0 x 7*4-35c 7*.
The use of the decimal system is very general,
the choice of ten as the radix being probably
suggested by the number of fingers^ but other
systems have been in vogue. [hToTATioK.] The
duodecimal oystem (radix 12) leaves some signs
of its existence in the foot (12 inches), the
shilling (12 pence), etc.

- ScaligOTt Joseph Justus, scholar, third son of
Julius Cffisar Scaliger, was bom at Agen, in
the detriment of Lot-et-Garonne, France, in
1540. Me was educated at the College of
Guienne at Bordeaux, but, as his father's
amanuensis, acquired a sound knowledge of
Latin and habits of observation. In 1558 he
went to Paris University, where he mastered
Greek and made some progress in Hebrew and
Arabic. He afterwards spent several years in
teaching (for which his qualifications were ex-
ceptional and his scholarship consummate) and
afterwards travelled in dift'erent countries of
Europe. At Valence, whither he went in 1670,
he studied jurisprudence under Oujas, the
celebrated jurist. Being a Protestant convert,
he fled after the massacre of St. Bartholomew
to Geneva, where he lectured for a while; but
lecturing was not to his taste, and, returning
to Poitou in 1574, he spent twenty years in
broken but fruitful study. His Conjectama in
Varronem (1564), and his editions of Festus
(1576), Catullus, Propertius, and Tibullus (1577)
marked a new era in historical criticism,
and the De Emendatione Temporum (1583)
established a new and sound system of chrono-
logy. His reputation now brought him an
invitation from the university of Leyden, and
in 1591 he succeeded to the chair of Lipsius on
the understanding that he should not lecture.
During the earlier period of his stay in Hol-
land his reputation stood at its highest, but
his declining years were poisoned by an at-
tack, not ^olly unprovoked, by the Jesuit
Gaspar Scioppius. Scaliger had been brought
up In the belief that his family was of noble
birth and that his father (and therefore him-
self) was a prince of Verona. His pride in hie
ancestry was so inordinate that, in 1594, he
was betrayed into publishing an account of
this in his Epistola. Upon this Scioppius seized
with avidity and in his Scaliger Hgpobolimaeua
(“The Supposititious Scaliger") exposed the
falsity of the claim. The blow was crushing,
and the humiliation is believed to have
shortened his days. His last work was the
Confutatio Fahulce Burdonum, in reply to hie
critic, successful in almost every respect ex-
cepting the main point of the family tree. He
died at Leyden on January 21st, 1609.

ScaligeVf Julius Cabsae, philosopher and
man of science, was born at La Bocca, on the
Lake of Garda, Italy, in 1484, became page to
the Emperor Maximilian, and until 1614 fol-
lowed mth much distinction the profession of
arms. He then entered the university of





(109)


Seiillop.


and for aome few years oombined
£|rliuiig with tbe study of medicine, until in
1625 illness compelled bim finally to abandon
the sword. He spent tbe remaining years of
bis life at Agen. He attacked Erasmus in a
Tiolent and overbearing style, wrote a Latin

f rammar, and began a treatise on Poetics,
ut bis really important work was the ex-
position, in a series of commentaries, of the
IPkysics and Mtiaphyeics of Aristotle. Scarcely
anything was publisbed by him until juet be-
fore bis death, when bis Ezercitationts on
Girolamo Cardano's treatise De Suhtilitatc
Btmm (1561) appeared, and for many years re-
mained a popular text-book of Aristotelianism.
He died at Agen on October 2l8t, 1568. The
enemies of his illustrious son derided the claim
of noble birth and asserted vhat Julius Caesar
Scaliger was born at Verona, the son of
Benedetto Bordone, a schoolmaster or illumin-
ator, that be was educated at Padua, where be
took the degree of M.D., and that the rest of
his story till his arrival in Agen was hen
trovoito. There seems to have been some
foundation for these counter-statements,

Scallopr a shell-bearing mollusc of tbe family
Pectinidae. It is wholly marine iu habit, rang-
ing from three to forty fathoms. It lies on its
right side and fattens at its ease. Its body is
bright orange or scarlet, the shell being char-
acterised by its brilliant red and yellow colour-
ing, its elegance of shape and ornamentation.
The shell is often employed for scalloped
oysters " (oysters baked with bread-crumbs,
cream, butter and condiments. Though the
shell has been generally replaced by a dish,
this is called a ^‘scallop’). Pecten maximus,
th^ “Scallop*' of London, the “Queen** of
Brighton, and the “Frill’’ of Dorsetshire and
Devonshire, is a favourite article of diet, but,
unlike .the oyster, requires to be cooked. Pecten
JaoobflBUs was known as “St. James's Shell,*’
uecause pilgrims from the Holy Land adopts
t ^ a bodge. Fossil Pectens found in the sub-
ipennine formation of Italy were fondly sup-
posed by early writers to be relics dropped
ly the way by those devout wanderers. Old
?ectens are mostly sedentary, mooring them-
selves by their byssus to stones and other ob-
ects, but the young swim freely by rapidly
pening and closing their valves. Henry
Voodward sayO that while dredging on
lorunna, he has seen Pecten opercularis, two
aches in diameter, swim rapidly out of the
redge as it was being hauled up. A French-
}an, who had undertaken to establish a Soal-
>p farm on a New England beach, ignorant of
kie mollusc’s skill in swimming, deposited
sveral thousand Scallops in shallow water,
rpecting them to breed, but when he looked
>r them next day found that they had all taken
^ndi leave. The baby Scallop, however, at-
iches itself by a thread to eelgrass, or other
mweed, at the bottom and remains stationary
ntil it is well grown, when it outs the painter
Did sots out on its travels. This shell-fikh is a


liftiiiiiiTi'filiy III


particnlar lavonxite in the tjnited States, and
its threatened disappeamhoe Eng-

land watera-^ue to reckless Ashing and par-
ticularly to the indiscriminate appropriation of
seed Scallops for the market — induced the
Massachusetts Fisheries Oontmission to experi-
ment in the prop^ation of the mollusc by
artificial means. Ihe problem was to ascer-
tain how far it was practicable to remove the
eggs from the spawning Scallops and fertilise
them by hand, rearing the young in what was
styled a kind of “Marine BTindergarten.** The
Scallop seldom lives for more than twenty or
twenty-two months, practically never surviv-
ing its second year. Moreover* since it does
not spawn until it is a year old, all taken be-
fore they have attained this age — the “seed
Scallops’^’ of the fisherman's vocabulary — ^have
no chance whatever of breeding. The mollusc
spawns in early summer, and as the young
develop at a surprising rate they are big
enough for the market oy the early autumn
and consequently fall an easy prey to heed-
less fishermen, who have no thought of the
future. There is no reason why Scallop
farms should not answer, provided means aro
taken to avoid such an experience as
befell the enterprising Frenchman aforesaid.
Of course it is always possible to close com-
pulsorily certain areas for a given period, until,
that is, the mollusc has had time to re-stock
the waters. An even more useful policy would
be to include simple classes on marine biology
in the technical curriculum of the schools in
fishing towns and villages.

Soalpi the term applied to tbe tissues covering
the bony cranial vault. Beneath the skin of
the scalp there is a layer of subcutaneous fat,
and below this lies the occipito-frontalis muscle
with its aponeurosis; deeper still is a layer of
connective tissue covering the pericranium.
The skin of the scalp is very thick, and is
intimately adherent to the underlying apo-
neurosis. Scalp injuries are said to be particu-
larly apt to be followed by inflammatory
troubles and by erysipelas. The North Ameri-
can Indians removed the scalps of their cap-
tives as trophies of victory. The scalp being
seized by the scalp-lock (the red man always
wore one lock or tuft of hair long by way of
taunting challenge), a circular cut was made
with a scalping-knife and the skin (with the
hair growing on it) then torn off. One feature
of this cruel operation, which an adept per-
formed in a few seconds, was that it did not
necessarily involve the death of the victim.
Apparently the hairier the scalp the greater
was the delight of the triumphant brute.

ScamitLOiiyi a valuable purgative resin ob-
tained from the milky latex in the long tap-
root of Convolvulus Scammonia, a native of the
Levant from Syria to the Crimea. The drug
has been used since the 3rd century b.o., and
is now chiefly collected in Asia Minor and near
Aleppo, the best, which is unadulterated with
earth find grey in colour, being shipped from


SoaiiAtrlMg.


( no)


Soapliopoda.


Smyrna. It contains the reein jalapin or icam-
monin (C3,H,«0,*). This drug and its pre-
parations are employed in medicine for Imeir
purgative propertiee. The compound scam-
mony pill and powder are administered in doees
of from 5 to 12 ^ains, and the ecammony mix-
ture is employed in doses of half an ounce in
children.

0oander1}«g (that is, Iskandbb or Alezakdeb
Bkt), the name given to Oeobox Castbiota^
the patriot, who was born in Albania about
1404, and sent when a boy to the Ottoman
CouH as a hostage to Amurath II. and brought
up in the Mohammedan creed. In 1443, being
in command of a force against the Magyars,
he conspired with John Hunyadi to free Al-
bania, and, having obtained possession of
Oroia, the capital, he embraced Christianity
and independence. In 1461 Mohammed II. was
Gompellea to recognise him, but three years
later he again plunged into war with Turkey,
and died at Aleasio, in Albania, in 1467.

Soanderoon (Turkish, IsKANDERUN), or Alex-
ANDRBTTA, a seaport of Asia Minor, or Syria,
picturesquelv situated on the Gulf of Iskan-
derun, at the very extremity of the coast of
Syria, where it forms an angle with Asia
Minor, As the Mediterranean port of Aleppo
(70 miles to the south-east) and the outlet
Westwards of the trade of the Euphrates
valley, its commercial importance is very con-
siderable. It was founded by Alexander the
Great to commemorate his defeat of the
Persians under Darius III. in 333 b.c. at lasus,
the field of which is believed to have been in
the proximity. Pop. variously estimated at
from 1,600 to 7,000.

ScandillEiria, a collective name for the
northern territory in Europe embracing Den-
mark, Norway and Sweden and the adjoining
islands, including, however, Iceland, which is
an appanage of the Danish Crown. Norway and
Sweden together are often spoken of as the
Scandinavian Peninsula. Ancient writers de-
signated as Scandia a large island in the
Baltic, conjectured to have ^en Zealand, the
mainland farther north being scarcely known
to them.

ScehIAi an old province of Sweden, occupying
the southern extremity of the kingdom and
now represented by the Ihns, or governments,
of Christianstad and Malmohus, with a com-
bined area of 4,362 square miles.

ScaiiBoreB. [Olimbbrs.]

SCEpOy an inflorescence rising directly from an
underground stem. It may be one-flowered, as
in the tulip^ and crocus, or many-flowered, as
in the hyacinth or cowslip. The inflorescence
of anemone is termed a scape, and the three
leaves below the flower are considered as bracts
b^aiise there are other radical leaves, whilst
the four leaves below the flower of Herb Paris
ara considered as foliage-leaves because there,
are no others. The term scape is not strictly


applicable to such cases as this last and that
of the lily-of-the-valley, where the branch from
the underground stem bears one or two foliage-
leaves below the inflorescence. Whilst me
hyacinth is a racemose scape, the cowslip is an
umbellate and the daisy a capitulate one.

SeEpeffOEty the goat on the head of which the
Jewish high-priest, on the Day of Atonement,
placed both hands the while he confessed over
it all the sins of the Israelites, laying them
on its head and then sendingv it out into the
wilderness. William Holman Hunt, the famous



THE SCAPEGOAT. {By Ilolrmn Hunt.)

(From the original in. the possession qf
Sir CtUhhert Quitter.)


pre-Kaphaelite artist, painted in 1854 a very
impressive picture of “The Scapegoat,” the
local colour and accessories of vmich were
painted in Palestine. “While the hills of
the Crimea were white with tents of war,' ’ wrote
John Buskin, “and the fiercest passions of
Europe burned in high funereal flames over
their innumerable dead, one peaceful English
tent was pitched beside a shipless sea; and
the whole strength of an English heart spent
in painting a weary goat, dying upon its salt
sand. . . The View talcen by the Jews of
the appointed sending forth of the scapegoat
into tne wilderness was that it represented the
carrying away of their sins into a place un-
inhabited and forgotten, and that the animal
on whose head the sin was laid, became ac-
cursed ; so that though not commanded
by the law, they used to maltreat the goit,
Azazel, to spit upon him and to pluck off his
hair. “The goat, thus tormented, and with a
scarlet fillet bound about its brow, was driven
by the multitude wildly out of the camp : and
pursued into the wilderness. The painter sup-
poses it to have fled towards the Dead Sea, and
to be just about to fall exhausted at eunset —
its hoofs entangled in the crust of salt upon the
shore. The opposite mountains, seen in the
fading light, are that chain of Abarim bn which
Moses died,” [Azazel.]

SoEpjhoidly the name applied to two bones
of the human skeleton, one in the vmet and
one in the foot.

ScEJpllopodEt n class of Mollusca, the members
of which have a univalve shell shaped like a
tusk, and composed of white ivory-like material.



Soapulfu


( ni )


Bimihovcvigh.,


The animal has a head, and thus belongs to the
gioup Gloflsophora. The head is, however, some-
what imperfectly developed, is cylindrical in
form, has the mouth at the anterior end, and is
surrounded by a circle of tentacles. The class
is further characterised by the absence in its
members of a heart or gills. Ihe shell is open
at both ends. The animal lives in the sand
along the coast. There are three living genera.
JDentaiium entale, the common Elephant-tooth
Shell, is the best known species. The class
dates from the Carboniferous.


Scapnlay or Shouldbb-Blade, the triangular-
shapea bone which lies upon the upper and
posterior part of the thorax, connected with the
sternum through the mediation of the clavicle,
and articulating with the humeYue. From the
upper part of the posterior surface of the
scapula there projects a bony ridge, which is
called the spine oi the scapula ; above this lies
what is called the supra-spinous fossa, and be-
low it is the infra-spinous fossa. From the ex-
ternal extremity of the spine two processes pro-
ject, one called the coracoid process, and the
other the acromion process. The clavicle arti-
culates with the latter process. Several of the
important muscles of the back and shoulder arc
attached to the scapula.


ScarabCBTlSi u genus of beetles, belonging to
the ScarabeeidfiB, of the Lamellicornia. There
are about seventy species found in Africa and
the south of Europe and Asia. They are con-
fined to the Old World and none is found in
the north temperate zone. They live on dung,
laying their eggs in balls which they roll up.
%"■



BCA^RAB^US.


be sacred beetle of Egypt (S, sacer) is found
n the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The
lypeus, or front part of the head ^extended
s a semicircular shield over the mouth, is
ivided by sharp notches into a series of


triangular teatli. In repose the tooth-like
projections of the anterior shattlii flank the
forepart of the body, owing fio the fore legs
being then retracted. It is conjectured
that either the resemblance to sun-rays thus
produced or the singular instincts of this
insect led to its being regarded by the
Egyptians as sacred. It is common in Lower
Egypt and is considered to be that most fre-
quently represented on monuments. Latreille,
however, believed that Scarabseus Egyptiorum*
a brilliant golden-green kind found on the
Upper Nile, was the species originally wor-
shipped.

Scarborough (“ tbe town on the scar or
rock’’), the Queen of watering-places. North
Riding of Yorkshire, England, finely situated
on the North Sea, 40 miles N.E. of York, about
midway between Whitby and Flamborough
Head. The bold promontory jutting out to sea
forms two bays (of unequal size) and divides
the town practically into two. The North Town
commands a less fashionable clientUe than the
South, but both are equipped with good sands
and are alike in possessing a bracing, healthy
climate. The older quarter of the wwn runs
inland from the castle rock, the fortress in
earlier days affording the inhabitants necessary
protection. The castle, now in ruins, appears
to have been built in the beginning of the 12th
century, and was employed for a period alter-
nately as a royal residence and a royal prison.
King John and Edward II. both visited it. It
was besieged in 1312 by the Earl of Pembroke
and in 1356 by Sir Robert Aske, one of the
leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace. Held for
Charles I. during the Civil War, it was be-
sieged twice and captured, being partially de-
stroyed on the second occasion (1648). George
Fox, the Quaker, was confined in it in 1655.
Oil the north and east it was defended by the
sea and on the south and west by the keep and
curtained wall. The discovery of mineral waters
in 1620 gave the place a vogue as a spa, but
though it has enjoyed increasing reputation as
a health resort the springs (chalybeate) are
not now the primary attraction. St. Mary’s
Church on the hilly promontory on w^ich the
old town was laid out is a venerable structure
whose fabric illustrates the various styles from
the Norman of Stephen’s reign to the Perpendi-
cular of the time of Richard II. The choir was
almost entirely destroyed in the Civil War,
but the church otherwise was restored in 1850,
In the churchyard Anne Bronte (“Acton Bell”)
was buried in 1849. Among more prominent
buildings are the handsome Spa (1880) in the
Italian style, the People’s Palace and Amiarium
in an Oriental style, the Museum in the Roman-
Doric, the Marxet Hall in the Tuscan, the
New Town Hall, the Public Hall (formerly the
town hall), and several literary, scientific, edu-
cational and charitable institutions, euch as
the Royal Northern Sea Bathing Infirmary,
the Seamen’s Hospital and Trinity House. The
old and new harbours both seek the shelter




( ns )


Sofurlot TaiPiv.


of the castle hill. There is a handsome esplan*
ade or drive round each hay and a promenade
pier on the North Sands, the ravine between
the northern and southern areas has been laid


both instruments was arranged between the
two executants. The performances on the
harpsichord were of equal merit, but on the
organ Handel was /aci/e princeps. Afterwards



out very picturesquely and is spanned by i
bridges. The industries are confined mostly to
the fisheries and jet manufacture, and some }
trade is carried on at the harbour, the only
port of any consequence between the Humber
and the Tees. Ijora Leighton, President of the
Boyal Academy, was born here in 1830. Pop.
(I061), 38,161.

Alessandro, composer, was born
at lYapani, in Sicily, in 1659, and, after a
musical training by Carissimi, became in suc-
cession maeiiro di cappella to Queen Christina
of Sweden, the Viceroy of Naples, and Car-
dinal Ottoboni. He was a most prolific yet
careful writer, a master of counterpoint, the
inventor of recitative, and the founder of the
Neapolitan school. His first opera VOnesta
nslf Amore was performed in Home in 16^ and
his first oratorio, I Dohri di Maria sempre
Virffine, was produced in 1693, but very few of
his works hate been published. He died at
Naples ou October 24th, 1726. Domiwico Scar-
latti, his sou, was born at Naples in 1683. His
fame rests mainly on his skill as player both of
harpsichord and the organ. During Han-
aeTs visit to Italy in 1708-9 a trial of skill ou *


whenever Scarlatti's organ-play ipg was prailhd. '
his rejoinder was, “Yob should h^ar HandIP!"#
In 1715 he was entrusted with the mueical ,
arrangements at St. Peter's, Rohie. He coJP ,
ducted a performance of his Narcim at the
King's Theatre, London, in 1719. It is of
distinct interest to record that one of his.,
earliest operas, ArnlHo (produced at Home in *
1715), was the first attempt to render Shake-
speare’s tragedy as a musical drama. He died
at Naples in 1757.

Scarlet Fcycr, or Scarlatina, an infections
malady characterised by a peculiar punctife^m
eruption attended by sore throat and febrile
disturbance. The incubation period of the
disease varies from about 24 hours to 6 or 8
days. The invasion is usually marked by shiver-
ing, headache, often vomiting, and soreness of
throat. On the second day of the illness the
rash appears, usually upon the chest first, but
soon becoming generally diffused. The rash is
‘‘fully out** on the third or fourth day, and
then begins to fade ; when if has disappeared,
the skin commences to desquamate, the cuticle
separating in ecaly flakes, which are most pro-
minently developed on the palms of the hands


( 118 )




SoiXittI,


fiokd <»! the feet. Tb» temperature is
ueuellj markedly raised on the first day of the
disease, and the patient remains in a feverish
eondition during the development of the rash;
the pulse Is much acoeleratM also during this
pett^^ In some instances the disease assumes
quite a mild form (scarlatina simplex); in others
the throat is particularly involved (scarlatina
anginosa), when a condition of diphtheritic in-
fiamruation may be present. The severest form
of floarlatina is the malignant variety > in
which death sometimes occurs before the rash
has had time to develop. There are several
sequelm of scarlet fever, to which reference
must be made. Conjunctivitis, otitis, and
rhinitja m^ be present. There is sometimes
rheumatic mischief, and infiammation of the
sefoua membranes may occur. The most im-
portant sequela of the disease is albuminuria,
,asBciiit&d with involvement of the kidneys.
If* organs are seriously affected, there is
dropsy, and a uraemic condition may
^jypervene. Scarlet fever usually affects young
"Vldren, and second attacks of the disease are
Ep. It is generally produced by the trans-
ttis^n of the poison from some infected per-
object. It is not uncommonly conveyed
by infected milk. Treatment consists in isola-
te of the patient, who should be kept at rest
i| bed and fed upon light diet. Exposure to
Idjiaughts should be avoided, and the possible
»e||De^entioii of oomplioations carefully watched
# l^at approprliite treatment may be
|mU|do;;^d without delay. If the patient be
■|lot hospital, the most ricdd

Ijpreoi^onsll^t be taken to guard against me
spieiP of ii^tiott. In England an outbreak
JbiWarJet fepr, even in a single case, must at
Wee be ho<^|ed to the sanitary authority.

fl (Phaaeolus muUiflortis), a

n#Re of MqkW* is e climbing bean now much

S tivated ii England, with a thick tuber,
dual twinii^ branches, and scarlet or white
Soirers op rnWy-flowered peduncles, which are
mcceeded by rough pods. These are eaten
vhen green. The ripe seeds are purple with
tilack dots.

Soavlotti James, Ist Babon Abikgrb, Lord
)hief Baron of the Exchequer, was born in
famaica on December 13th, 1789. He was
ePt to England in 1786 to complete his edu-
^on and graduated at Trinity College, Cam-
image. Called to the bar in 1791, he joined
he northern circuit, which he followed till
307^ and became a King's Counsel in 1816.
hm years before he had acquired an estate
b Jibinger, in Surrey. In 1819 he was elected
[.P. for Peterborough, in the Whig interest,
j 4 continued to represent the town, except-
g n brief interval, until 1830. In Canning's
fiilitry he accepted , the poet of Attorney-
ehiral and wae kmgbted in 1837. Folitleai
nrictioU aat lightly on him, however, and he
nsmited to fill the same office for the Duke
Welilngfepo in 1839. He was responsibla for
e Act in virtue of which the county palatine

'■2p0-r-N.K. ' ' '


of Chester and the principality ^ Wales were
deprived of their fieparate jurisdiction (1830),
In 1830 he was elected M,P. for Maldon and
by now was fully qualified to denounce Be-
form without qualm or scruple. This tergiver-
sation necessitating a change of seat he was re-
turned for Cockermouth in 1831 and, in the fol-
lowing year, for Norwich. In December, 1884,
he was appointed lord Chief Baron of the
Exchequer, and in the ensuing January was



TBS RIOBT HOK. LOBO ABINaSB (JAMBS SOARLSTT).

(After the pairUing by
Sir Martin Archer ^Shee, PS. A.)

created Baron Abinger. Ho died at Bury St,
Edmunds on April 7th, 1844. At the bar he
was the most successful advocate of his time,
though neither a great lawyer nor an orator.
He owed his pre-eminence to his skilful hand-
ling of juries and, as some averred, of judges
also. His knowledge of human nature was un-
surpassed, he was keen to seize a point, and
his self-possession was imperturbable. He did
not repeat his forensic success on the bench
and by his dictatorial manner, vauity and
partiality repeatedly gave umbrage to juries.
His eon. General Sib Jambs Yobke SoABjLsrr
(1799-1871), was leader of the Hea^ Brijgfade
in their famous charge at Balaclava. If the
world has heard less of the Heavies in that
affair, this was because Tennyson immortal-
ised the Light Brigade in his wonderful ballad,
but in point of fact the ride of Scarlett'a
Three Hundred was an act of sublime heroi»itt.
With a squadron of Inniskillings and
squadrons of Scots Greys he charged the
Bussian cavalry, 3,500 strong, under General
Byloff, uphill and stayed the Muscovite at-
tack. Hie men having newu their w^ to the
back of the Bussian column, turned to ent
their way back to the front. The advent Of
a second squadron of Inniskillings, the 8th
Boysl Dragoon Guards and the Boyals com-




Metarouk


( 114 )


SeeftM.


plet«4 tihe <ii$co]]ifitiire of t!he enemy. Hezt
year Scarlett was cimted S.C.B.

SoaaEfVOIIf F.&17L, playwright and novelist, was
born in Paris on July 4tb, 1610. His father,
a member of the Parlement of Paris, havinpr
married again, Paul was unable to agree with
his stepmother and left home, became an abM,
and went to Borne about 1634. He had led a
dissolute life at Le Mans and elsewhere, and
being badly treated for some serious disease,
was doomed to spend the last twenty years of
his life a deformed, pain-racked cripple. His
versatile gtfts for literary composition came
to his rescue, aided by an adroit skill as a
begging-letter writer, and he managed to
scrape along somehow, enjoying the patronage
even of the king and Court. His comedy of
Jodelet (1645) hit the public taste, and he re-
turned to Paris in 1646. His L*H fritter Ridi-
cule (1648) was even more popular. Between
1648 and 1663 appeared at intervals his Virgile
Traveeti, which, though essentially an ignoble
performance — since it is always a poor thing
for a man of real genius to parody any of the
deathless works of the world — enjoyed a high
reputation in his own day. In 1651 his greatest
work was published, Le Roman Comiquct a re-
cital of the adventures of a company of strol-
ling players, that was practically the first
French novel. In 1652 a touch of romance was
introduced into his sombre and sordid life by
h*s marriage with Fran^oise d’Aubign6, a lovely
girl of seventeen, whom he married to save from
a nunnery. She loyally accepted her lot, and
after his death became known to fame as
Madame de Maintenon, mistress, and after-
wards wife, of Louis XIV. In 1653 his comedy
of Don Japhet d'Arminie, perhaps his master-
piece in this line, was produced. His latter
years, owing to the management of his wife,
were passea in some degree of comfort and
even refinement, but his sufferings were con-
stant, and often amounted to torture, borne
with indomitable pluck and a gaiety of spirit
t}|at is almost pathetic. "If there be a nell,
I have nothing to fear from it,” he wrote,
"having endured it in this world.” He died
in Paris, on October 6th, 1660. To describe him
as the creator of French burlesque is to narrow
the range of his accomplishments, for he was
an ornament of French literature.

Som1doiS]ll (Greek, ekeptaniai, ** I consider”),
as a ^ilosophical term, denotes the attitude
of mind which subjects all belief or opinion,
whether based on ecclesiastical dogma or " com-
mon sense,” to the criticism of the human in-
tellect. The term does not properly connote
disbelief or even doubt— though, as Tennyson

S hrased it, "there lives more faith in honest
oubt, believe me, than in half the creeds” —
but, as the ultimate basis of things is insoluble
for human reason, the spirit of doubt may be
regarded as its natural outcome. It is, how-
ever, the voice of prejudice rather than of
science to define scepticism summarily in
general terms as a denial of the possibility of


objective knowledge. Doubt, and not denial*
is the note of scepticism. The love of truth is
not the prerogative of any system of philo-
sophy, and doubt, sincerely felt, must yield
when the difficulties have been removed, until
they have been overcome it will remain; if
they cannot be surmounted, then to that extent
and on that particular subject scepticism would
seem to be justified. But to regard scepticism
as synonymous with negation is unsound on
every ground. It is true that many of the
ancient philosophers split hairs, or juggled
with words, or argued merely for the sake of
arguing, and that their verbal wrangling was
a weariness to the flesh, but these weaknesses
are common to most if not all schools of philo-
sophy. Denial certainly goes a long step far-
ther than doubt, which, honesty of thought
and purpose being postulated, may alterna-
tively be defined as suspense of judgment for
want of evidence or want of knowledge; The
Sceptics were a Greek school of philosophers
founded by Pyrrho. The Sophists held very
similar views. David Hume is commonly re-
garded as the representative of modern scepti-
cism, the latest development of which is ag-
nosticism.

So^tre (Greek, eMptron, staff originally
a staff for the aged, but in the Iliad already
the badge of military, judicial, or religious
authority. Specimens of the sceptres used by
Etruscan kings and priests, consisting of hol-
low gold truncheons adorned with beautiful
designs, are preserved in ihe British Museum.
In the days of the Roman republic an ivory
cceptre was borne both by the consul and the
victorious general {imperator), and was thus
the prototype of the modern marshal’s baton.
When the emperor had superseded both, the
ivory staff was surmounted by a golden eagle,
which, after the introduction of Christianity,
was frequently replaced by a cross. Both
these types were in use during the Middle
Ages. .A fine collection of old English sceptres
was destroyed by the Puritans. Of the six
sceptres now preserved with the Regalia in
the Tower of London, four date from the reign
of Charles II., one from that of James II., and
one from the coronation of William and Mary;
Amongst them are St. Edward’s Staff, of beaten
gold, 4 feet 7 inches in length, which is carried
before the sovereign at the coronation; the
Sceptr? Royal, or King’s Sceptre with the
Cross, made of gold, 2 feet 9 jnches long, and
set with precious stones, which is placed in
the monarch’s right hand by the Archbishop
of Canterbury at the coronation; the King’s
Sceptre with the Dove (the symbol of mercy),
also of gold, 3 feet 7 inches long, and set with
jewels, placed in the sovereign’s left hand;
the Queen’s Sceptre with the Cross, like unto
the King’s, but not quite so large ; the Queen’s
Ivory Rod, originally made for the queen of
James 11., 3 feet IJ inch long, of white ivory,
gold-mounted ; and the Queen’s Sceptre with the
Dove, resembling the King’s Sceptre with the


Solmdo#.


( H5 )




Bove, and supmsed to have been fasbioned for
Queen Mary, tne consort of William HI. The
Sceptre of the Scottish Begalia, preserved in
Edinburgh Castle, presents come interesting
features. It is believed to have
been made for James V., and
its total length is 34 inches.
On the top of the stalk is an
antioue capital of leaves and
small statues of the Virgin,
St. Andrew, and St. James, and
above is a great crystal beryl.
The beryl was an amulet which
had formed part of the more
ancient sceptre of the Scots
kings. Such beryls are supposed
to have been the official badge
of the Arch Druid, and among
the Highlanders were known as
“stones of power.”

S c h a d 0 w» Johakn Gott-
rniED, sculptor, was born at
Berlin on May 20th, 1764, and
became the favourite pupil of the
sculptor Tassaert. Some two hun-
dred of his works adorn the
chief cities of Germany, among
which may be named “Frederick
the Great,” at Stettin ; “ Marshal
Blucher,” at Rostock; and "Mar-
tin Luther,” at Wittenberg. He
modelled Goethe, Wieland, and
I -i B Fichte from life, and two of his

(1) acEPTRR strongest compositions were the
wiTU r>ovE. four-horsed chariot (quadriga)

(2) ST. EDWARD’S qu tlic Braudenbupg Gate, and

STAFF. frieze on the Royal Mint

Berlin. He wrote on art,
and died at Berlin, on January
28th, 1850. Rudolph Schadow, his eldest son,
was born in Rome on July 9th, 1786, and studied
sculpture first under his father and then
under Thorwaldsen and Canova. He especially
affected imaginative subjects, such as the
“ Spinning Girl,” " Maiden Fastening her San-
dal,” "Dancing Girl,” "Discus-thrower,” and
a colossal " Achilles with the Body of Penthe-
silea.” He was cut off prematurely at Rome
on January 31st, 1822. Godenhaus Feiedbich
Wilhelm Schadow, painter, second son of
Johann Gottfried Schadow, was born at Berlin
on September 6th, 1789. After studying under
his father, he went to Rome in 1810 with his
brother Rudolph. In 1819 he was made profes-
sor in the Berlin Academy, and in 1826 suc-
ceeded to the directorship of the Diisseldorf
Academy, which under him achieved high dis-
tinction, his talents as a teacher and encour-
ager of others transcending his merits as a
painter. Among his works were "Christ and
the Pharisees ” (1827), "The Four Evange-
lists” (1828), "The Queen of Heaven” (1833),
” Christ on the Way to Emmaus” (1835y,
"Mater Dolorosa” (1836), and "The Wise and
Foolish Virgins ” (1843). He died at Diisseldorf
on March 19th, 1862.


ScbaffliMieii, a canton of Wltserland, the
most northerly tract of the Confederation,
lying on the right or German side of the
Rhine, which divides it from the cantons of
Zurich and Thurgau. It is bounded on the W.,

N. and E. by the duchy of Baden. It occupies
an area of 114 square miles. It is largely
under cultivation, tne chief cr^s being cereals,
potatoes, hCM, and grapes. Live-stoSc also is
raised, the Elettgau breed of pigs being in
some repute. Pop. (1904), 42,628.

Sobaffliaiiseily capital of the preceding canton,
Switzerland, on the right bank of the Rhine, 23
miles N. by E. of Ztirich. Among the principal
buildings are the cathedral, with its great bell
bearing the clanging legend, Vitm voco, wor-
tuo$ plangOf fvUgura frango ("I summon the
living, I bewail the dead, and I break the
lightning-fiash ”) ; the Castle of Munoth, up
the tower of which one may drive by the spiral
ascent; the Imthumeum, a species ot Pepple*s
Palace, the gift of a London Swiss, an^ the
Public Library. The industries include iron-
founding, machinery, textiles, railway-carriage
building, watch-making, pottery, and wine-
making. Two miles to the south-south-west are
the famous Falls, where the Rhine descenda
100 feet, the steepest fall making a vertical drop
of 60 feet. The town itself lies 1,295 feet above
the sea. Pop. (1900), 15,403.

Schall, Johann Adam von, missionary, was
born at Cologne, Germany, in 1591, and, becom-
ing a Jesuit, was selected to lead a mission into
China. He met with a favourable reception
from the emperor Schun-che, was created a
mandarin, and allowed to erect churches and
convert the natives. He was also engaged in
the work of reforming the Calendar, along with
his senior colleague Rfere Terentius, on whose
death he continued his labours. He was ap-
pointed Director of the Bureau of Celestial
Affairs and President of the Tribunal of Mathe-,
matics. Having superintended the Chinese
gun-foundry he may be said to have been
largely instrumental in enabling the people to
repel a Tatar invasion. He seems to have in-
curred the enmity of Kang-he, the succeeding
emperor, for he was condemned to be cut into
pieces, but died in prison in 1669, ere the bar;
barous sentence was carried out.

Scliatimblirg-Upp6i a principality of Ger-
many, enclosed by the Prussian provinces of
Hanover (on the north) and Westphalia (on
the south). It covers an area of 131 square
miles, partly hilly and partly fertile plain,
producing excellent crops of grain and flax.

The industries comprise yam-spinning, linen-
weaving. and coal-mining. The principal
natural feature is an extensive lake in the ex- ,
treme north called the Steinhuder Meer. The C
lords of Lippe (that is, of Lippe-Detmold and
Schaumburg-Lippe) founded one o^ the most
ancient of German reigning families. In 1613
the old line was broken into three branches, of ,
which one died out in 1709. The ruler of ^

s



( n6 )


Sohauittl>iirg*Li|>pe became a eoTereifii i^vince
in 1807, and in 1866 aided with Anetria, bttt
afterwarda entered the 0ennan Confederation.
The prinoijpalitj sends one member to the Bun-
dearat and one to the Beiohstag. The capital
h Biickeberg (5,625). Top. (1900), 43,132, almost
wholly Protestant.




1781 he discovered the composition of tni^ten,
which has been re-named scheelite; in 1783 he
discovered glycerine, and demonstrated that
an acid was necessary to the production of the
colouring matter of Prussian blue, and this
acid was afterwards called prussic acid. In
conducting the last experiments he discussed



8olia0la» Karl Wilhelm, one of the most
brilliant of experimental chemists, was born at
Stralsund, a town of Pomerania, which then
belonged to Sweden, on December 19th, 1742.
Atithe age of fourteen he was apprenticed to an
apothecary in Gothenburg, where he studied
chemistry sealously, and conducted many re-
searches which gave him remarkable mfinual
dexterity. In 1765 he proceeded to Malm6,
and in 1770 to Stockholm, where he discovered
hydroftuoric and tartaric acid. In 1773 he re-
moved to Upsala, and next yea¥ obtained the
salts of manganese and showed its e^ect on
the colouring of glass. This he followed up, in
1775, with the discovery of bensoio and arseni-
ous acids and the arsenite of copper, named in
his honour Scheele's green. In the same year
he, flitted to Kflping, at the western, extremity
of Lake Malar, where he died on May 19th,
1786. During the last eleven years of his life
his labours were unceasing. In 1777 his im-
portant treatise on Air and Fire appeared,
in which he announced his discovery of oxy-

f en ^hich, however, Priestley, unknown to
iin» had anticipated in 1772). Amongst other
acids which he obtained were molybdm, lactic,'
mucic. citric, malic, oxalic, and gallic. In


tbe composition, smell, taste, and properties of
the body without being aware of its deadly
nature. Considering bis poverty, the imper-
fect appliances of the time, and the still tenta-
tive stage of chemistry, Scheele’s work must
be pronounced to be amongst the most brilliant
in the whole history of scientific investigation.

Solieffelf Joseph Viotor Von, poet, was bom
at Carlsrube, capital of Baden, on February
16th, 1826, and educated at Munich, Heidel-
berg, and Berlin, for the law, which be soon
abandoned for literature. His first venture
was a collection of student songs entitled
Gaudeamm (1853). This was followed by
Der Trompeier von SdhJdngen (1854), Ehhe-
hard (1866), Frau Aventiure (1864), Juniperun
(1866), Sergpialfnen (1870), and WMeineamkeit
^877). In 1884 he published his last work,
Nugtdeo, dying in Carlsrube on April 9th,
1886.

Soliefflairi Ary, painter, was bom at Dordrecht
in Holland, on February 10th, 1795. On the
de^th of his father his mother removed to Paris
and placed Arj in the studio of Gu4rin. He
achieved considerable success as a genre^ainter
with such productions as Veuve du Soldat *'




Sclifldt.


( 117 )


So1ioii«ot»d3r«


and "Le Eetour du Canscrit.” Later he produced
his well-known illustrations of "Faust/* "Mig-
non,” "Francesca da Bimini/* "Bante and
Beatrice/* and the "Giaour/* between 1827 and



1836. He was now drawn to religious subjects,
and during the next ten years painted "Christus
Consolator,** "Christus Remunerator,*’ "St.
Augustine and Monica,** and other kindred
works. He died at Argenteuil, France, on
June 15th, 1858. His devotion to the Romantic
movement was uncjuestionable, but it probably
cost him his place in Art. At the same time hia
thin colour, forceless drawing, and lachrymose
sentiment were defects too pronounced to be
saved by a certain charm and ease of composi-
tion.

Scheldt, or Schelde, or Esoaitt (French), a
river which rises near Catelet, Aisne, France,
and flowing north for 75 miles, enters Belgium
near Mortagne, and, after traversing Belgium
to Antwerp, a distance of 137 miles, divides
into two branches, the East and the West
Scheldt, which pursue a further course of
37 miles through the Netherlands till they find
their way by various estuaries into the North
Sea, after enclosing the Dutch islands of North
and South Beveland and Walcheren. It has
upon its banks the towns of Cambrai, Benain,
valeucifennes, Fontenoy, Tournai, Oudenarde,
Ghent, Bendermonde, and Antwerp, and is
connected by canals with many other places,
being navigable almost throughout its entire
length. It receives on the left the Scarpe and
Lys and on the right the Selle, Bender, and
Rnpel.

ffdliclUiig, Friedbich Wilhelm Joseph voy,
philoaopher, was bom at Leonberg, in Wiirtem-
herg, Germany, on January 27Fh, 1776. He


completed hia education at ni#|en, where he
began his friendship with As early as

1703 he came under the in^ietice of Kant*s
metaphysics m modified by Fichte, and . wrote
two treatises which coip mended him to the
latter teacher, and in 1798 he was appointed
professor of philosophy at Jena. He now
developed views somewhat opposed to those
of his patron, and these he embodied in the
Naittrpmosophie ^1799) and the Transcend^
entalen Idtalismus (1800). In 1803 ho left Jena,
having married, by amicable arrangement, the
divorced wife of A. "W. Schlegel, and, alter
a brief residence at Wtirzburg, was called by
the King of Bavaria to a poet in the Munich
Academy (1806), being ultimately promoted to
a professorship in the new university (1827).
In 1841, at the invitation of the King of
Prussia, he went to Berlin m a supporter of
orthodoxy. In later life his philosophy de-
veloped in the direction of mysticism. Ho
died at Ragatz, Switzerland, on August 20th,
1854.

Scheltopusik {Pseiidopus PallaHi), a reptile
belonging to the family Zonuridae, of the sub-
order Brevilingues, of the order Lacertilia or
Lizards. It is a dark, chcetnut- brown, glassy,
snake-looking creature, about two feet long,
not readily distinguished from some of Uie
Eo-called Blind Snakes (Typhlopidce), It occuro
in Central Russia, Hungary ana Balmatia.
It has rudiments of hind limbs in which a
small femur is hidden, but has no digits. In-
ternally, there are traces of the shoulder- and
pelvic-girdles and one lung is somewhat smaller
than the other. It is qu3e harmlesa and feeds
on insects, worms, frogs and young mice.

Sclieinilits (Hungarian, Selmiccz), a town of
the county of Hont, Hungary, 65 miles N, of
Budapest. It is the mining centre of the
country, the mines having been known and
workea since the Roman period. They yield
gold, eilver, lead and copper, and the excavated
galleries now exceed a total lenjgth of 200
miles. Maria Theresa established a mining
academy in 1760, and to this was a^ached a
School of Forestry in 1809. In addition to the
mining industries there arc manufactures of
pottery, tobacco-pipes and cigars. Pop. (1900]||
16,370.

Schonectadyf capital of a county of the same
name. New Yorx State, United StatcB, on the
right of the Mohawk, an affluent of the Hudson,
17 miles N.N.W. of Albany. It.is noted as the
seat of Union University, which consists of
Union Cpllege (founded in 1795 by a friendly
bond of various religious sects) and the law
and medical faculties and Budley Observatory#
situated in Albany. The public building in-
clude the court-house, city hall and charitable
and educational institutions. Tl^ industries
comprise the making of locomotives, boilers,
bridges and agriculturaV implements, besides
hosiery and shawl factories and electric works.
It occupies the site of part of the Mohawks



( 118 )


8e]iil]Ar»


liuatitig-grouiidfl^ became a Butcb tradiag
imj hk 1620> was burned down by tbe JB^eucb
and ludiaus in 1690, and waa created a borough
in 1766 and a city in 1799. Fop. (1900), 31,682.

Sdliailktlf 0ANIEL, theologian, was bom at
I)d|^Hiu, in the canton of Zlirich, Switzerland,
on Becombet 21et, 1813, and studied at Basle
and Odttingon. He occupied the pulpit for a
time at ScSaffiiauson, but resigned in 1849 to
take up the ti^eological professorehip at Basle,
whence two tears later he passed to Heidel-
berg, whore he died on May 19th, 1885. His
gneatest work. Das Oharacterhild Jesu (1864),
h eoznewhat rationalistic in tone.


MdllOvaVy Bdmojjd H«kri Adolphe, critic
and politician, was born in Paris on April 8th,
1816, and educated partly in England. He
studied theology at Strasburg, and in 1843
obtained a professorship of exegesis at Geneva.
Helo he became closely allied with Vinet, and
strongly advocated the divorce between Church
and State, He edited La Riformation au
XI SUcU, and wrote much in the way of
literary criticism. In 1860 he settled in Paris,
joined the staif of the Temps, became corres-
pondent of the Daily News, and gained a seat
in the Chamber in 1871 as deputy for the de-
partment of Seine-et-Oise and became a Senator
in 1876. He died at Versailles on March 16th,
1889. Among his works may be mentioned
Dogmaiiqut de VKglise Reformie (1843),
Rsguisse d*une tMorie de VEglise ChrUlenne
(1845), La Critique et la Foi (1850), Alexandre
Vinet (1863), Mndes Criti^ts sur la litera-
ture contemporaine (1863), Diderot ^880), and
mudes sur la literature au XvIID Siicle
(1891),


SollOVOulngexi, the most fashionable watering-
place in Holland, on the North Sea, 2 miles
N.N.W. of The Hague, with which it is con-
nected by a beautiful avenue. The promenade
on the front attracts the 61ite of Dutch society.
Sand dunes divide the village from the sea
and there is a fine beach with excellent sea-
bathing. In the immense Kurhaus is a Kur-
saal with accommodation for 3,000 persons. The
fisheries are the only industry. Ofif this part of
the coast De Ruytor in 1673 defeated the com-
bined armaments of England and France. Pop.
(estimated), 20,000, greatly increased during
tho season.


SoModanii a town in the province of
South Holland, the Netherlands, at the con-
fluence of the Schie and Maas, 3 miles W. of
Rotterdam, It has a worldwide reputation as
the headquarters of the manufacture of gin
or schnapps, of which its name has practically
become a synonym. The yeast and the grain
refuse from the distilleries— the latter usM in
the fattening of thousands of pigs — are im-
poflrtaat articles of export. There are manu-
tahtures of candles and glass, in addition to
fibine shipbuilding. Fop. (1900), 27,100.


SeMeliallioiLf a mountain of Perthshire, Scot-
land, 15 miles W. by S. of Pitlochry and 4
miles S.E. of Loch Rannoch. It is 3,547 feet
above the level of the eea. Viewed from the
north-west (from the northern shore of the
lake named, for example) its summit presents
the appearance of a cone, but from the south
or east its crest is seen to have an east-and-west
direction. The eastern face rises gradually, but
the ascent on the west and south is steep.
There is pretty general agreement that the
climb, 80 far as the prospect from the top is
concerned, will scarcely repay the trouble :
this should be noted, as the mountain in any
case is not readily accessible. The hill is as-
sociated with the experiments conducted in
1774 by Nevil Maskelyne, the Astronomer
Royal, to determine the attraction of moun-
tains by deviations of the plumb-line, and with
the geological investigations of Dr. John Mao-
Cullooh and Professor John Playfair.

ScMUery Johann Christoph Friedrich,
dramatist and poet, was bom at Marbach, in
Wiirtemberg, Germany, on November 10th or
11th, 1759. The reigning duke of Wiirtemberg
noticed the boy and adopted him, sending him
to study first law and then medicine, neither
of which greatly interested the youth, whose



SCBIVSKIKOEN : 8BA FRONT.


(PJkoto ; Af. r, Vimr, jun„ The Bagm.)

ducal patron, though meaning well, was some-
thing of a fussy martinet. But relief was at
hand. Schiller had given his best energies to
the composition of Die Rduber (1777), a play
‘directed against the old order of things, .ana his




Seliiats.


( 119 )


SeUioflifta.


matron cast him off. In 1783 he produced
Fiesct> and Kahah nnd Lhhe at Mannheim. At
Dresden, whither he had gone to pay an ex-
tended visit to his friend Korner, he published,
in 1787, his play of Don Carlos. He now
dropped poetry for a time, and began his un«
finished History of tha Revolt of the Nether-
lands (1788), and History of the Thirty Years*
War (1792). In 1790 he was appointed professor
of history at Jena, and married Charlotte von

Lengef eld. Later
he contributed to
periodicals some
of his best bal-
lads and lyrics.
From 1794 he was
on terms of the
utmost friend-
ship with Goethe
(although they
had known each
other somewhat
for several years)
under whose en-
couragement
Schiller went for-
ward to his
highest achieve-
ments. In 1 799
he transferred his



JOHANN SCHILLER. home to Weimax,

chiefly for the
sake of Goethe's society, and set to work upon the
great dramas of Wallensteins Lager, Die Picco-
hmini, and Wallensteins Tod, which were all
put on the stage within a few months. Maria
Stwirt (1800), Die Jungfrau von Orleans
(ISdl), Die Braut von Messina (1803), and
Wilhelm Tell (1804) occupied him during the
next four years, and he was engaged on Deme-
trius when he died, at Weimar, an May 9th,
1805. Not only as a writer of ballads and lyrics,
upon which he brought to bear his exquisite
sense of beauty in diction and rhythm, but as a
dramatist pre-eminently Schiller has earned a
place among the worldA master poets.


SollistSf crystalline rooks in alternating Layers
or folia of different minerals. On the Con-
tinent the term is frequently extended to
slates and shale, the constituents of which,
though laminated or cleaved, are neither
crystalline nor alternating. There seem some-
times to be transitions in the field, on the
one hand, from shales, slates, and sandstones
to spotted slates- — i.e., slates with scattered
crystals, quartzites, and true schists ; and, on
the other nand, between confusedly-crystalline
rocks and those that arc foliated; but these
transitions, even if demonstrated, are not (in-
clusive as to modes of origin. The distinc-
tion between schists and foliated rocks — i.e.,
between schistosity and foliation— is one of
minor importance, dopendent as it is mainly
on the presence in the former case of a lamin-
ated mineral, such as mica or talc in masses
ol considerable surface. Thus gneiss often


passes into mica*achist. The most abundant
schists are the light-ooloursd but slightly
greasy mica-schist, talo-schist, lighter and
greasy to touch, often merely the result of the
weathering of mica-schist, the dark-green and
soft (dilonte-schist, and the harder hornblende-
schist; but gneiss, ouattzite, hornblende-rock,
and other rocks which commonly occur in
association with these schists, especially in the
series known as Archman, are often spoken of
with them under the general term of “the
Crystalline Schists." Of the two conflicting
theories as to their origin, the alleged occur-
rence of fragments exhibiting the same struc-
ture as the main mass in conglomerates at the
base of the Cambrian, as at Bangor, is a strong
argument against their merely metamorphic
origin ; whilst it is difficult to explain the for-
mation of gneiss or mica-schist, to say nothing
of graphite and crystalline limestone, as pre-
cipitates directly from a heated primitive at-
mosphere. It is now generally admitted that
gneiss and hornblende-schist may result from
the alteration of granite and diorite, and
quartzite is often obviously only a partially-
fused sandstone.

Scbisooaxpf a dry, partly dehiscent, syncarpous
fruit, splitting in such a manner as not to dis-
close its seeds, dividing into bodies known as
mericarps, cocci, or nuUets, each consisting of
a carpel or of half a carpel, and each generally
containing one seed. 'Though physi^ogically
identical, schizocarps are structurally of two
classes — namely, superior, or regmas, and in-
ferior, or cremocarps. As types of the first we
have the fruits of the Malvaceae, Geranium,
Tropaeolum, and Euphorbiaccae, which split
into their constituent carpels, and those of the
Labiatae and Boraginaceae, in which two carpels
give, owing to ingrowth of their midribs, four
nutlets. 'The samara of the maples is merely
a winged regma. As types of the cremocarp
we have the bicarpellate fruits of the Umbelh-
ferae, which, being inferior, are necessarily in
part receptacular in origin, and which split
into two mericarps.

ScMsocodlei the name of that type of body-
cavity which results from a splitting of the
tissues of the animal, and has no conneclion
with the body-cavity of the original embryo.

Schizomycetds. [Bactbeu.]

SchisBOnoniortdftf nn order of worms belong-
ing to the class Nemertea, and charactensed by
the possession of a pair of deep longitudinail
fissures, one on each side of the head. The two
principal genera are Lineus and Getebratulus.
They are all marine. The Sea Long Worm
{Lineus longissimus) is fourteen feet long and
not more than from two to four lines broad.

So]iilopll3rtaf ^ suggested for the Proto-
phyta, a subdivision of the Thallophyta, com-
prising both algal or chlorophyll-containing
forms (Schizophyceae), and those without chloro-
phyll (Schizomycetes), in neither of which is
there anv sexual reproduction. Though some





( 120 )


MUMeliairi


ftfe iniillioellular filaaneilt^ ti^ ate minute
unieeliulat planta, and fiision is the a^
metJiod of mtiltiplioaticm. The algal fotmi are
now, however, referred to the Cyanophyoe® as
a division of the Algie, and the f ungal ones to
a division of Fungi under the name Schizo-
mycetes.

SeSlisopoAfti an order ol Crustaoea, comprising
the family of Mysidas or Opoesum-shrimpe,
Their nearest allies are the Stomatopoda or
Squills and t|>« ordinarv Becapoda or Crabs,
Lobsters, etbv From tne former group the
Schizopods dif er in the possession of a large
“ cephalothoracic shield ” or plate covering the
anterior end of the body. From tlie Crabe and
Lobsters they differ in having the eight pairs
of limbs on the thorax composed of two
branches or rami. The members of the group
are all marine. The Opossum-^hrimns are fre-
quently met with in countless myriaas towards
the surface of the Arctic Seas and, email
though they be, they actually constitute the
principal food of the Whalebone Whales
(Balccna mynHcetm) which accumulate a great
quantity of fat or blubber. The obvious ex-
planation of tho sustenance of an animal of
gigantic proportions on a diet apparently so
inadequate is that it swallows hundreds of
thousands of the Mysis at every mouthful, the
prey being entangled in the bristle-like fringe
with whid the ^atos of baleen or whalebone
a^ lined. And, of course, the whales also feed
on other things, such ns diatoms and small
molluscs. Qampsonvx and some other Carboni-
ferous genera may belong to this order, which
is otherwise unknown as a fossil.

flolilMintweit-SaJcdx^^ HEhHXKK

vow, explorer, was born at Munich, Germany,
on May Idth, 1826. He and his brother Adblph
(who was born on January 9th, 1829) undertook
a scientific study of the physical geography of
the Alps, and, in 1854, four years after the
publication of their book on the subject, they
were commissioned by the East India Company
to carry out similar investigations in Hindo-
stan, with reference particularly to terrestrial
magnetism. In this pursuit their brother
Robert (bom October 27th, 1837) was asso-
ciated with them. They explored the Deccan,
Himalaya, and other regions, Hermann and
Robert being the first Europeans to cross tho
Euenlun Mountains, in recognition of which
feat the former acquired his cognomen of
Baktlnlfinski. Adolph, who remained to con-
duct his inquiries in Central Asia, was mur-
dered the Ameer of Kashgar on August 26th,
1867. In this year his brothers returned home,
and the four volumes containing an account of
their researches appeared between 1860 and
1866. Hermann died at Munich otr January
19th, 1882, Robert at Giessen, where he held
the chair of Geography, on June 6<Ji, 1885. Two
other brothers amieved some ^mtinction —
Edhard (born March 28rd, 1831), wrote an
aooqmt of the Spanish expedition into Morocco
in 1^^60, and was killed at the battle of Kis-


singen, on July 10th, 1866, and Emil (horti
July 7th, 1835), an expert in the tohgnee of
India and Tibet, Who was the author of Die
K&mge vm Tihei (1865), Die
I rider (1866), and other learned works.

Sehlogalf August Wilhelm, translator and
critic, was born in Hanover, Germany, on Sep*
tember 6th, 1767, and educated at Hanover
Gymnasium and Gdttingen University. At
Jena, where he held the chair of Literature
and Fine Art, to which he had been appointed
in 1798, he began his translation of Shake-
^eare*8 dramas, which was completed by
Tleck and became the classical version in Ger-
man. In 1803 he published his tragedy of Im,
and soon afterwards undertook translations of
several of Calderon*s plays, and Spanish, Por-
tuguese, and Italian p^ms. In 1808 he de-
livered at Vienna a series of lectures on dra-
matic art and literature, which may yet be
profitably studied. During many years he
acted as secretary to Madame de StaSl, aniw is
said to have rendered her especial serviceip her
work, De rAUemagne, and in 1813 and 1814 he
was secretary to Bernadette, Crown Prince of ^
Sweden. In 1818 he was appointed Professor
of Literature in the University of Bonn, whe#e
he died on May 12th, 1846. During his latter
years he devoted himself to Oriental literature,^
and was mainly instrumental, through hinpl
Latin translations of the Bhagavad^Oita (1823X
and Ramajana (1829) and his study of Sanscrit,
in preparing the way for the systematic eul^
tivation of this language in the West. His *'
uncle, Johann Elias Schlegel (1718-1849), Jigs .
author of Triumph der guten Frimeri^Kfi^^^
Stumme ScMnhtU, two comedies stil3(i in gob^
repute, and of the excellent tragedies ''Mermar^
and Kanut.

Solileffel, Kael W ilhelm Feiedetch, historian
of literature, brother of August Wilhelm von
Schlegel, was born at Hanover, Germany, on
March Wth, 1772, and educated at Gottingen
and Leipzig. He attracted attention by liis
book Grtechen und Romer (1797), and especially
by his novel of Lucinde, in which |ie enun-
ciated free love opinions. At Jena hb spent a
few years lecturing in the university and con- "
tributing to the Athenceum articles on the Ro-
mantic movement, of which he was the leader in
Germany, and in 1802 proceeded to Paris, where
he pursued those studies which bore fruit in
his valuable Z/eher die Sprache und Weieheit
der Indier in 1808. In this year he removed to
Vienna, and was engaged in the Austrian
public service, becoming for a period councillor
of legation in the Austrian Embassy at the
Diet of Frankfort. In 1811 he published his
lectures, Ueher die neuere GescMchie, and, in
1816, QeechieMe der alien und neuer lAteratur,
the latter one of his most useful works. He
died at Dresden, on January lltk, 1829, whilst
on a lecturing tour.

SeUMlelier, August, philologist^ was borp at
Meiningen, Germany, on February I9<li, 1821,




8oU«i«gniiMlt<r.


(121 )




aii 4 at the ^nirersities of Leipzig

ma iMbingen. Be became professor of Bla*
Tonic philology at ) Pri|ague in 1650, and in
1857 Was appointed oimnary professor at Jena,
where ii© uied on December eth, 1868. Among
his best^known works are Die Sprachen Euro^
pas (1850), Handhuch der lUauischm Sprache
(tdB7)s mrgltichendeii Oram-

mdiis! der Indogetmmischen Sprachen (1861^
and Indogermanuchs Vhtestomathie

SelileiormaehKiiri FaiEBRioH Ernst Daniel,
theologian, was bom at Breslau, Germany, on
November 21st, 1768. He was sent to the
Moravian school it Niesky, in Prussian Silesia,
and afterwards to the Moravian seminary at
Barby,«in Prussian Saxony, but finding the ex-
treme and narrow tenets of that body repug-
nant, his father at last, though reluctantly,
allowed him to attend the tTniversitj of Halle.
Here he became imbued with a spirit of rev-
erent criticism of the New Testament and a
profciind love of philosophy, especially for
Plato sill Aristotle among the ancients, and
Kant amo^ the moderns. Through his friend-
ship with &rl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel
§e took a keen interest in Romanticism, but
his Strong moral sense enabled him, not with-
out a struggle, to escape the deteriorating

S uence of its baser elements. He was chap-
r to the Charitd Hospital in Berlin from
8 to 1802, and produced his Beden iiher die
igion in 1799. During the two years he was
*at Stolpe, in Pomerania, he began his great
ttanslation of Plato, the first volume appearing
in lUik the last in 1828. In 1804» he became
theology at Halle, whence he re-
miliif''ih 1807, to Berlin to assume the pas-
tome of the Trinity Chapel. When the Uni-
versity of Berlin was founded (1810), he was
appointed to the chair of Theology, and hence-
forwaMr^i, what with his preaching (which he
seldoiul intermitted), his professorial duties,
and his literary labours, led an extremely
aotlv^ life. To this period belongs his principal
original book, Der uhristliche Giauhe nach aen
Gru%m0^zen der evangeli»chen Kircke (1821-2),
the purport of which was to bring man into
the most intimate relationsh^ with his Maker,
without the intervention of Church, or sect, or
scol^siastical routine. During the controversy
to which this work gave rise he maintained
Ilia position yfith undiminished vigour, but his
4emhg years were darkened by the death (1829)
only son. He died in Berlin, whilst par-
of the Lord’s Supper, on February 12th,

a province of Prussia,
fcpmy, formed out of the duchies of Schles-
rig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which formerly
elohged to Dehmai^k, but in 1866 b^ame in-
orporated in the kingdom of Prussia. It is
oui^ed on the N, by Denmark, on the E. by
bie Baltio, on the S. and S.W. by Hanover,
ad on the W- by the North Sea. It inclndes
leligolahd (Helgoland) and the North Frisian
elands in the North Sea, and the islands of


AlseO' and'^'^'Fehiharn' in 'the Balfinv ' and ^oovera
an area of 7,338 square miles, ichieswig con-
stitutes the northern half, and Holstein and
Lauenburg form the southern, the latter only
a small district. The coasts are deeply in-
dented. Most of the surface is a plain tract,
but there arc elevations of inconsiderable
height in the east, whilst the western shore
needs to be protected by dykes from the en-
croachments of the sea. The Eider, once the
boundary between Schleswig and Holstein, is
the principal river, and Lake Plbn the largest
lake. The raising of live-stock is a flourishing
industry, the flocxs and herds being extensive
and horses and pigs being in great demand.
Bee-keeping is also pursued. Good crops of
grain aud potatoes are yielded. The fisheries
are important, and the western coast of Schles-
wig furnishes a favourite oyster, misnamed
“Holstein natives.” The industries are of
secondaiy interest, but shipbuilding is carried
on at Kiel, and the peasantry of Northern
Schleswig are expert face-makers. The pro-
vince is traversed by the Kaiser Wilhelm
Canal, extendii^ from Kiel harbour to tbe
estuary of the Elbe, and thus connecting the
Baltic with the North Sea. In the 11th
century Schleswig became a Danish possession,
was united with Holstein in 1386, but a grow-
ing sense of German patriotism arose in the
19th century. The duchies of Schleswig and
Holstein, as they were then, ineffectually tried
to separate from Denmark in 1848-50 (the first
Schleswig-Holstein War), but in the second war
of 1864 Prussia and Austria wrested the duchies
from Denmark, and in 1866 they were annexed
to Prussia. The duchy of Lauenburg (area 446
square miles, pop. 51,833) became a part of the
province in 1876. 'fhe capital is Schleswig
(17,909), aud Altona (161,501), Kiel (107.977)
and Flensburg (48,922) are the leading towns.
Pop. (1900), 1,387,968.

Sohliemann, Heinrich, explorer, wac born at
Neu Buckow, on the borders of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin and Brandenburg, Germany, on
January 6th, 1822. As a youth he became
seized. with an intense affection for the Homeric
poems' and, having amassed a fortune in busi-
negg — partly as an indigo merchant in St. Pe-
tersburg, whfere he was established in 1846, and
partly as a military contractor in the Crimean
War — he was ultimately enabled to attempt to
realise his life-dream, and discover the sites
rendered memorable in the immortal ernes of
*Hhe blind oldma.i of Scio's rocky isle.” Begin-
ning in 1870 to excavate at Hissarlik, in fhe
extreme north-west of Asia Minor, which he
conjectured to be the site of the city of TiPoy,
in three years he reached the remains not of
this town but of a still older community. The
customary rapacity of the Turkish Government
now causing a suspension of his work here, he
crossed to Greece, and was rewarded with the
discoirfjry at Mycen® of invaluable relics of a
oivi'iisation still older than ^e Hellenic. He
resumed his exploration at Missariik in 1879^



( 122 )


'0€iiititstiri


and carried on research work at Orchomenos,
Tiryns, Alexandria, and Crete, always hdnging
to light some fresh facts of incomparahle in-
terest to classical and pre-classical antiqnlt|r.



POTTfiKV, STONB HAMMER AND AXK>nEAD8 FOUND ON THE
BY DB. BCUtlEMANN.

He died at Naples on Christinas Day, 1890. I
Among the books in which he recounted the j
history of his various explorations may be i
Djcntioned Ithaha, dor PoloponneSi mid Troja ;
(1869), Trojanuoho, AHorthilmor (18741, Myhence j
(1877), Ilios (1880), Troja (1883), and Tiryns i
<1886), j

Sohmalkaldexit or Smalkald, a town of the !
province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, at the junc-
tion of the Schmalkalde and the Stille, 12 miles
N. of Meiningen. It contains several pictur-
esque old buildings, such as the town hall,
church, and castle, besides a monument to
Karl Wilhelm, the composer of "Die Wacht
am Ehein," who was born here on September
5th, 1816, and died here on August 26th, 1876.
There are manufactures of hardware and iron-
mining. Historically the town is famous as
the place where the League of Schmalkalden
was drawn up, in which the Protestant princes
and Imperial cities agreed to make common
oaude for the Beformed faith against Charles
V. and the Eoman Catholic States. The tavern
in which the alliance was concluded in 1531,
and the house in which Martin Luther, Philip
Melanchthon, and other leaders drew up the
Articles of Schmalkalden in 1537 still exist.
Pop. (1900), 8,720,

tSohmits, Lbokhabd, educationist and his-
torian, was bom at Eupen, in Bhenish Prussia,
on March 6th, 1807, and educated at the gym-
nasium of Aachen and the University of Bonn,
fn youth an accident cost him his right arm,
but by dint of perseverance he managed to
write an excellent script with his left bund.
Coming to EngUnd in 1837 he acquired letters
4>f naturalisation, and in 1646 was appointed*


Beotor of the Boyal High School of Edinburgh.
In 1859 the Prince of Wales (afterwards Ed-
ward yn.) came to him for private tuition, as
also did the Duke of Edinbumh in 1862^, and
the sons of the Due d’Aumale, the
Prince de Joinville, and the Due
de Nemours were amongst his
pupils at the High School. Htpm
l&m to 1874 he was Principal
of the International College at
laleworth, Middlesex, and after-
wards officiated as classical
examiner to the University of
London. He died in London on
May 28th, 1890. He was LL.D.
of Aberdeen (1849) and Edinburgh
(1886), and among his works
should be mentioned his transla-
tions of the third volume of
Niebuhr’s History of Rome (1842)
and of Niebuhr’s Lectures on the
History of Rome (1844), based on
his own notes while a student,
which led to the authorised
— German edition, and gained the

^ King of Prussia’s gold medal for

SITE OF TBOY literature and science. From
1843 to 1849 he conducted
the Classical Museum, and was
I a constant contributor to Dr. (afterwards
1 Sir) William Smith’s well-known classicll
I dictionaries. His Latin Grammar (founded
r on that of Karl Zumpt) and his History of
j Rome (1847) were his best school-books.

j SclmitBerf Eduard (Emin Pasha), traveller,

I was born at Oppeln, in Prussian Silesia, on

: March 28th, 1840,

and educated as a
doctor at the uni-
versities of Breslau,

Berlin, and KOnigs-
berg. He proceeded
to Turkey to prac-
tise, and adopted an
Eastern name and
habits, embracing, it
is believed, the Mus-
sulman faith. In
1876 he entered the
Egyptian medical
service, was sent to
Khartum, and ap-
pointed by General
Gordon chief medical
officer — but really
with full political
power— in the Equa-
torial Province

EDUARD SCHN1T2ER

of Bey. Soon after (emin pasha).

the outbreak of the

Mahdists he was completely cut offi from civilisation,
but (having meanwhile been promoted to the rank
of Pasha) managed to withdraw from Lado to ^
Wadelai. He seems to have held his own,
apparently had neither the wish nor was nnd^




Solmom


( 123 )


8o]iomb«rf«


tke necessity of beii^ relieYed. However that
may be, Sir H. M. Pauley “discovered** him
in 18^, and Hmin ultimately accompanied the
expedition to Zanzibar, which was reached
in December, 1889. After recovering from a
serious accident, he undertook an expedition in
Qjirman interests in Central Africa, but had to
eiik>unter all manner of obstacles — dissensions
with different authorities, epidemics in his
force, and personal illness — and, finally, was
murdered in the Congo Free State by an Arab
slave-dealer on October 23rd, 1892.

Selmorr von Carolsfeld, Julius, painter,
was born at Leipzig, Saxony, on March 26th,
1794, and entered the Academy of Vienna at the
age of seventeen. He acquired skill as a fresco-
painter, and executed some designs in Home
in illustration of Ariosto. In 1825 he settled
at Munich under the patronage of Ring Lud-
wig of Bavaria, whose palace he adorned with
frescoes, the sub;ject8 of which were taken from
the Nihelunoenlied. Later in his career he
spent several years in illustrating the Bible,
his designs for which, amounting to 180, were
at one time familiar through engravings in
every well-to-do household. Schnorr had some
yepute as a designer of stained-glass windows,
find examples of his work in this line may be
seen in St. Paurs Cathedral, London, and the
Cathedral of Glasgow. He died at Dresden on
May 24th, 1872.

Sotiolasticism, the philosophy of the Middle
Ages, grew out of the endeavour to reconcile
man’e innate tendency to speculation with the
demands made upon his faith by the Church.
Jdhti Scotus Erigena (flourished in the 9th cen-
tury) may be regarded as in some respects a
forerunner of the schoolmen; but he cannot
properly be reckoned among them, as his works
have only an indirect bearing on the problems
with which they were chiefly occupied. The
great discussion which throughout the Middle
Ajges divided the schoolmen into two hostile
camps was that concerning the real existence
of the entities corresponding to abstract names.
The Realists held that all genera and species
exist as intelligible forms apart from their
manifestation in this or that individual,
whereas the Nominalists believed the sol©
source of general notions to be abstraction
from particulars. The dispute was in great
measure due to a confusion between names and
things, which could not have persisted so long
if men*s minds had not been cramped by the
exclusive study of the Aristotelian logic, whilst
at the same time the authority of the Church
prevented them from taking a free view of the
universe and their own natures. The Renais-
sance and the Reformation were at once the
symptoms and the causes of a new order of
convictions; men now felt that the capabilities
of the mind transcended the limits imposed
unpn it by tradition. They were seized
with an eager desire to probe the secrets of
Nature, and, wherever these ideas prevailed,
the Whole fabric of Scholasticism speedily


crumbled away. Roscellinue (b* drca 1050) is
held to be the founder of Nonlinalism, whilst
Anselm (1033-1109), Archbishop of Canterbury,
was the first who came forward to defend the
Realism implicitly involved in the doctrines of
the Church. Peter Abelard, the disciple of Roe-
cellinus, carried his speculations much farther
than kis master, thereby earning for himself
many bitter years of persecution. The attempt
to reconcile the discrepancies between the
Fathers, which had been too clearly pointed
out by Anselm, was undertaken with but im-
perfect success by his pujpil Peter Lombard
(d. 1160). Early in the 13th century the meta-
jphysical and ethical writings of Aristotle be-
came known to the western world through the
Arabian philosophers Avicenna (980-1037) and
Ayerrhoes (1126-1198), and from that time the
discussions of the schoolmen were carried for-
ward on a wider basis. Albert us Magnus (1193-
1280) was the first who undertook the perilous
task of reconciling the teaching of Aristotle
with the doctrines of the Church. He was fol-
lowed by Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274), author
of the famous Summa Theoloaica, in which he
endeavoured to show that faith and reason may
be regarded as independent sources of know-
ledge in their respective spheres. He was op-
posed by Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308), who holds
a similar place among the Franci.scau doctors
to that which belongs to Aquinas among the
Dominicans. The dispute between the two
gave rise to the rival schools of Thomists and
Scotists. Roger Bacon (1214-94) belonged to
the Franciscan order, but he was far in ad-
vance of his age, and seems actually to have
made use of inductive methods. The last of the
great schoolmen was William of Ockham (circa
1270-1349), a pupil of Duns Scotus, who carried
Nominalism to its logical result, and thus
undermined the whole scholastic system.

Scliombergi or So h on berg, Friedrich
Herman, Duke op Schombero, general, wau
born at Heidelberg, Germany, in December,
1615. He lost both parents before he was
a year old and was educated privately and at
the ^Academy of Sedan and the University of
Leyden. He took to a military career and saw
service in most countries in Europe, tn
France his reputation stood almost as high as
that of Marshal Turenn© and the Prince of
Conde. While Charles 11. was on the Contin-
ent during the Protectorate, Schomberg made
his acquaintance, and in 1673 Charles, but for
the f&ar of being taunted with yielding to
French influence, would have summoned him to
England to take over the army. He come
to England with the Prince of Orange on
November 5th, 1688, and next year he was
made Knight of the Garter, created a duke, and
voted ^100,000 to recompense him for the loss
of his estates in Prance, forfeited to Louis
XIV. when he learned of Schomberg*s support
of William III. In May, 1689, he gave the
peremptory order that led to the relief of
Londonderry, and, as i?ommander-in-chief of


Soliomlnuili^


( 124 )




fk>6 i<mm in Ireland, proceeded to place the
country in a state of defence and orl^nise
victory. He was anrionnded whilst croeaing
the Boyne during the battle of July 1st, 1690,
and instantaneously killed. He wae buried in
Bt. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.


SolloiitbiUfglCi Bib Eobbbt Hebmakb, ex-
plorer, was born at Freiberg, in Saxony, on
June 5th, 1804, and educated in Germany. His
taato lor natural history incited him to travel.
He explored the rivers Kseequibo, Corentyn
and Berbioe, and exhaustively examined the
potentiality for settlement and commerce of
!British Guiana. Me discovered and eent to
England the magnidcent lily, Victoria Begia.
From 1841 to 1^1 he was engaged in deOm*
iting the boundary of Briti^ Guiana and
established the ‘SSohomburgk line, " of which
so much was heard in 1895-6, during the
bbubdarv dilute between Great Britain and
Venezuela. On his return to England in 1844
he received the honour of knighthood. In
1848 he was appointed British Consul in St.
Domingo, and in 1857 at Bangkok. His health
failing ne retired from the service, and died in
Berlin on March 11th, 1866.

Sohdnlmilliii an imperial palace in the south-
western suburbs of Vienna, Austria. It was
erected by Maria Theresa in 1744, and the
peace between France and Austria was signed
within its walls on October 14tli, 1809. It is
famed for its beautiful park, which contains
both a zoological and a botanical garden.


ftohpolorafty Henut Kowe, explorer, was
bwn in Albany county. New York State,
United States, on March 28th, 1793. Ho
studied chemistry and mineralogy, and for a
few years was engaged in bis father's glass-
factory. In 1818 he was appointed to the
Geological Survey of Missouri and Arkansas
and afterwards accompanied General Cass as
geologist to the Lake Superior copper mines.
Evincing so much aptitude for frontier work
he became “Agent for Indian Affairs” in
1823 and, marrying the granddaughter of an
Indian chief, he acquired in time an intimate
knowledge of the manners, customs and lan-
guage of several tribes of the red men, about
whom he published several works, the most im-
portant of which— a classic and invaluable —
was Hidorical and StaHaiical Information
respecting the Indian Tribes of the United
States, published between 1851 and 1857. It
was illustrated with 336 plates after original
drawings and was issued under thepatronage
of Congress. The author died at 'Washington
on Deoember 10th, 1864.


Selioolsy Beothebs of Christian^ a congre-
gation in the Boman Catholic Church, com-
posed of lay-brothers who devote their lives to
Ihe instruction of the poor, after receiving a
preliminary training in the normal schools of
the order. The eociety was set on foot by the
Abbe de la Salle, who in 1684 r^gneA his
oanonry at Bheims in* order to give himself


wholly to this work. The schools are now
doing a good work not only in France, Italy and
the south ol Germanjf, but also in other parts
of Europe, and in North America and Africa.
The Institute of Irish Christian Brothers was
founded in 1802 by a wealthy and enlightened
provision merchant of Waterford named Ed-
mund Ignatius Bice (1762-1844). The excellelit
work which it was doing amongst poor chil-
dren induced other men to support it, and in
other towns Bice's example was followed. In
1820 Pius VII. officially recognised the order
under the title of the Religious Brothers of
the Christian Schools (Irelano). The number of
pupils attending the primary and other schools
of the order exceeds 40,000. The methods of
teaching have been highly commended by
various royal commissions.

SdlOOUBTy a small but swift vessel, of sharp
build, which commonly has two masts, but
sometimes three, and even four or five. A fore-
and-aft schooner has fore- and aft-sails only,
whereas a topsail schooner carries a square top-
sail and top-gallaut-sail. The latter rig is now
seldom seen but in trading vessels.


SoliopexiliaiioVf Akthur, philosopher, was
the son of a banker, and was born at Danzig,
Prussia, on February 22nd, 1788. His mother,
a well-known
authoress,
was ac-
quainted
with most of
the great
writers of the
time, who
visited her
house, and in
that way the
future phil-
osopher had
early and ex-
c^eptional op-
portunities of
cultivating
his intellect.

His precocity
was the sub-
ject of re-
mark, and bis
peculiar contempt for humanity seems to have
been developed whilst he was a boy. In 1809
he entered Gottingen University, afterwards
attending the lectures of Fichte in Berlin, and
travelling in England and France. He became
very fond of English and French literature, and
expressed some scorn for that of Germany and
for his countrymen. In 1813 he had graduated
at Jena, and, after much restless journeying,
settled in Frankfort-on-the-Main, possessing
sufficient means to gratify his whims. He pur-
sued his studiee closely, and lived the life of a
recluse. He had a strong feeling of admiration
for Oriental ideas, and ehthusiastically praised
Buddha. His principal mrk is that entitled
Die ole iraie und Yomtellung t'TU



ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER.




(126)


Volmliovli


Jkftvtimiv.


W^ffld as Will and Idm ’)> which came out
in 1819, and was very coldly received, a fact
which did not tend to dissipate his contemptu*
ous views of human nature. He was very iU-
tempered, and had a profo*und disbelief in the
gooaness or intelligence of women. (From 1614
till her death in 1638 Schopenhauer never set
eyes on his mother.) Slowly but surely he at-
tracted some admirers of his philosophy^, and a
second edition of his work appears in 1844.
His philosophy is partly based on that of
Kant; but the Will (= force), rather than the
Idea, was the mainspring of his svetem. He
held that human nature was as evil as it well
could be. His style is e^rcellent, and an Eng-
lish translation of his chief work appeared m
1866. He died at Frankfort-on-the-Main on
September 21st, 1860.

Schreiners Olivk (Mrs. Cronwright-
Schbbinkr), a gifted South African writer,

who made a
great reputation
by her Story of
an A fnean Farm
(18 8 3), partly
because of the
author’s strong
and nervous
style, partly be-
cause of the
book’s unexpec-
ted revelation of
profundity o f
thought and
poignant human
interest experi-
enced amidst
the silence and
immensities of
the illimitable
veldt. Others of
her works are
OLIVJ acHRBiNiB. and

i?hato : mm db Fry, Baker Bt., IT.) (1893),

Trooper Peter

Bcdhet (1897), An English Satith African's View of
the Sitmtim (1899), and, in collaboration with
her husband. The Political Situation (1895). She
was yery strongly opposed to the war be-
tween Great Britain and the Boers (1899-1902),
and did all iu her power to prevent hostilities.
Soon after t|ie outbreak of the war, she was
subjected to military surveillance. In 1894 she
married Mr. S. C. Cronwright and, along with
him, visited England with a view to addressing
public meetings, but was refused a hearing.

SdWCillClff Bt. Hoit. W. P., politician and
iawyet, was born in Cape CJolony, South
Africa, in 1857. He was educated at the Cape
University, London University and Downing
College, Cambridge. He was Attorney-
General in Cecil Khi^es’s Ministry in 1893.
Ho parted company with that statesman, how-
ever^ after the Jameson Baid, and in lfi®8 de-
lected Sir G. Sprigg’s Government and became
Fremier with &ie aupport of the Afrikander


Bond. During 1699 and 1900^ ^in the Boer
war was being waged, his noiiition was one of
great difficulty, and thouf a charged by some
with disloyalty, it was more geiiierafi^ felt
that he acted throughout with steadfast
patriotism. He resigned in 1900,

Solmbartt CHRisTiAisr Friadrigh Dakibl,
poet and musician, was born at Obersontheim,
Swabia, Germany, on March 24tii, 1739, and
was educated at Ndrdlingen and Nuremberg,
and, in 1758, studied theol<^y at Erlangen.
He became a teacher at Geisslingen in 1763,
and six years later organist and choir-master
at Ludwigsburg. Losing this position in con-
sequence of h5 frivolity, he wandered from
town to town until he settled at Augsburg,
where, from 1774 to 1777, he produced his
Deutsche Chronik and gave a eSnes of public
readings of his own compositions, which were
received with great applause. His unruly
tongue and pen, however, landed him in more
trouble, and he languished in prisop for ten
years. He was released in 1787 by the inters
vention of the King of Prussia, and became
musical director of the theatre at Stuttgart,
where he died on October 10th, 1791. A col-
lected edition of his works appeared shortly
before bis death.

Schuhart von Xleefeld, Johann Ohristian,

agriculturist, was born at Zeiiz, in Prussian
Saxony, on February 24tb, 1734. He began life
by undertaking commissariat contracts for the
British army in Berlin, and he was afterwards en-
gaged ill a similar capacity in the Seven Years’
War. He next travelled throughout Europe for
the Freemasons iu 1767 and, having amassed a
fortune, purchased an estate at Zeitz, where
ho turned hie attention to agriculture. He in-
troduced the cultivation of 3over, tobacco and
madder on a commercial scale. He was en*
nobled for his services in 1784 and died on
April 23rd, 1787. He recounted his observa-
tions and experience in his Oekonomisch
KanieraliBtischen Schriften (1783-4) and Oehoii^
omischer Brief wcchsel (1786).

SAhuherty Franz Prtbr, one o! the ^eatest
of musicians, was born in Tienna, on Jahuary
31st, 1797, of a musical family, and at the
^0 of seven was a pupil of Michael Holzer.
His family did not desire him to become n pro-
fessional musician, having the impression that
he would do better in some other walk of life.
His remarkable genius was so soon manifested
that he composed iome beautiful pieces while
almost an infant, and hm excellent voice wo-
cured him admission to the choir of the Im-
perial Chapel. His father was a humble school-
master and gave him a fairly good education,
and, to his disappointment, he was obliged
to assist him in the tuition of the school,
thus interrupting rather seriously his musical
studies. He was enabled to take lessons from
Salieri, and after a time began to teadi pupils
himself as a means of UvelmoCd. He was at
this time, as all through his later career, a



( 126 )




SdumiAitil.


most voluminotift^iji literal trutlb, a malvel-
loue—rcomposer, attemptingf ererj brancli of
the art, and eompleiitig sonatas, operas, masses^
overtures, sympnonies, and cantatas. His first

mass in E flat,
which was
found among
the enormous
quantity of
MSS. he left
behind him, is
a magnificent
work. He was
a great ad-
mirer of Beet-
hoven, and
felt s o m e-
thing like re-
verence for
that master.
Beethoven re-
cognised his
genius also,
being one of
the few who
did so during

FRANZ SCHC^ERT, 8 C h U b 6 T t’s

life. He was

much disappointed at the lack of appreciation of his
earlier <^ra8 and other ambitious works, and
died in Vienna, where he had mostly lived, of
a fever on October 13th, 1828. It is curious,
seeing his notable feeling for Beethoven's
music, that there is so little sign of the latter's
influence in his works. He was a most strik*
ingly original composer, and was perhaps at
his best as a song-writer. His songs, which
number about six hundred, are often perfect,
and give the highest expression known to music
of the sense of harmony and melody. It has
often been regretted that his early masters did
not more strictly supervise his budding genius,
as otherwise there can he no doubt that he
would have done work as memorable in other
branches as in that of the lyric; but his
teachers used to exclaim that his powers were
so astonishing that they could not teach him
anything. He set 67 of Goethe's and 64 of
Scniller^s songs to music. Robert Schumann
said of him that he could have set a placard
to music, and Vogl described his glorious lyrics
as ‘Mivine inspirations — utterances of a musical
clairvoyance.’* Despite his marvellous gifts,
Schubert had much difiioulty in inducing the
publishers to take his compositions, and when
he died he left a tremendous mass of MSS. to
his brother, which his friends and admirers
proceed to get published as speedily as
possible. Schubert was buried near Beethoven
m the Ortsfriedhof, Vienna, but his remains
were re-interred in the Central Cemetery in
1888. Liszt did a great deal to spread a know-
ledge of Schubert's genius, and was a passion-
ate admirer of his works. But now Schubert
has entered into his kingdom, where he reigns
supreme as the rarest and most versatile song-
writer the world has ever known;



Schillie«]>eliiauiOll, Hebm akn, economist and
politician, was born at Delitzsch* in Prussian
Saxony, on August 29tih, 1808, and studied law
at Leipzig and Halle. After holding legal
offices at Naumburg and Berlin, he became,
in 1841, head of the manorial court of justice
in his native "town. Having been elected to
the National Assembly at &rlin in 1846, he
took a keen interest ‘in the inquiry into the
prevalent distress, and soon afterwards founded
a people's bank, where subscriptions of small
sums were received and through whidti mem-
bers were entitled to borrow money. We have
been so long familiar with the principle, which
has been extended to building societies and
other organisations besides banks for the small
lender and borrower, that it is easy to realise
the importance of the movement initiated by
Schulze, which speedily spread throughout Ger-
many and to the adjoining countries. Having
seen his reform securely estaWished he again
took an active interest in politics, and was a
member of the Reichstag, representing Berlin
from 1867 to 1874 and Wiesbaden from 1874
till his death, which took place at Potsdam on
April 29th, 1883. Araon^t his works should be
named Associationshiica filr deutsche Hand^
werker und Arbeiter (1853) and VorscAiiss-
und Krtdiivertine als Volk&hankm (1876). It
is curious that so recently as 1850 a public
man like Schulze should have had to stand his
j trial for daring to enunciate the maxim, now
commonplace in every constitutional country,
that representation and taxation should go to-
gether.


Sohtiiiiaxiny Robert Alexander composer
and critic, was born at Zwickau, in Saxony,
on June 8th,

1810, and in
1829 entered
Leipzig Uni-
versity. In-
tended for the
law, but with
a strong pre-
dilection for
musical
studies, he
finally gave
himself up to
his favourite
art and began
to practise
the piano-
forte under
Friedrich
Wieok and
composition
under Hein-
rich Dorn,
composing a
little and editing Die mm Zeiimhfift filr
a musical journal which he founded in 1834,
and to which he contributed much valuable and
profound criticism. His leading compositions
of this period are his Etudes Symphmigues,



ROBERT SCHUMANN.



Solitiiiiaiiiii


( 127 )


leliwflddwi.


ICreuieriana, and other pieces less known. In
1840 he married Clara, the daughter of his
teacher Wieck, and she did mu^ to extend
his fame hy her perfect interpretation of his
works. The same year saw his admission to
the degree of doctor of philosophy at Jena
University, and he then turned tis attention
to lyrical pieces, in which probably only
Beethoven and Schubert surpassed him. He
set most of Heine’s songs to music. In 1843
he produced at Leipzig his choral works.
Paradise and the Pen and a version of Faust.
Ho also composed for the orchestra, and
brought out some very beautiful symphonies
and other chamber-music. In 1843 he was
appointed Professor of Composition in the Con-
servatorium at Leipzig ana in 1848 wrote his
only opera, Genoveva. In 1850 he became
musical director at Diisseldorf, a position
which Mendelssohn had occupied with distinc-
tion, which he held for three years. He had



CLARA SCHUMANN.


been for many years siitfering from mental
disease, and on one occasion, whilst a young
man, attempted to commit suicide. In lfe4 he
■ i tried to kill himself, and two years later

E 25th, 1856) died in a private asylum at
rich, ne£^ Bonn. At first he was some-
what derided, but later opinion has placed him
on on© of th© highest pinnacles of modern
musical geniue. flis compositions are often
most entrancing, and there is no question now
of his place in musical history. Elis works are
becoming more and more popular in England
as people ate given more opportunities of
judging. His wife, Claea Josephine Wiegk,
was born at Leipzig on September 13th, 1819,
and was taught the piano by her father. Her
remarkable executive gifts were early mani-
fested, and by 1832 she took her place with the
most accomplished interpreters of the classical
school. After her marriage (which was not
favoured by her own people) she set herself to
render in public her husband’s music, a task


which became to her imperative a^r his death.
She paid her first visit to England in 1856.
Her wonderful capacity was immediately evi-
dent, yet her particular mission, owing to
the hostility, insularity and ignorance of the
critics, yielded only negative results. But
time was on her side and though she was not
in a hurry to repeat her trip, when she did
come (in 1866) it was to enjoy a veritable
triumph. She died at Frankfort-on-the-Main
on May 20th, 1896. She was a composer of no
mean order.

Schuyler, Philip John, soldier and statesman,
was born at Albany, New York State, United
States, on November 22nd, 1733, and educated
at New Rochelle. He entered the army and
took part in th© battle of Lake George in
1765. After the peace of 1763 he developed his
estate in various ways, sending timber down
the Hudson from Saratoga and erecting the
first flax mill in North America. He never
ceased his interest in public affairs, however,
became member for Albany in the Colonial
Assembly in 1768, and was author of the pro-
posal for appointing Edmund Burke agent in
England for the Colony of New York (1770).
When war with the Mother Country grew in-
evitable Schuyler was assigned the command
of the northern department of New York, but
weak health, not unaggravat^ by petty
jealousies on the part oi the chief omcers of
the staff, led him to transfer his field com-
mand to General Richard Montgomery. He now
took charge of the commissariat and recruit-
ing, but here, too, he was so greatly hampered
by the conduct of General Horatio Gates (who
ignored his command) that he tendered his
resignation to Congress, which was not ac-
cepted. In 1777 he was elected to represent
New York in the Continental Congress, by which
his conduct was completely vindicated, as it
was also by the court-martial summoned In
1778 to consider the whole situation. Schuyler
had had enough of it, however, and resigned
definitely next year. He took a prominent
part in the dealings with the natives and had
acted as Indian Commissioner for several years.
From 1780 to 1784, from 1786 to 1790, aii4
from 1792 to 1797 he was State Senator for
the western district of New York; while from
1788 to 1791 and from 1797 to 1798 he was
a senator of New York City. In State politics
he was a federalist and went solid pot the
Union. He was the promoter of the canal
system of his native state and one of the
founders of Union College. He died at Albany
on November 18th, 1804.

SoliwartSBf CnRiSTiAN Fribbuich, missionary,
was born at Sonnenburg, in Brandenburg,
Prussia, on October 22nd, 1726, and educated
at Sonnenburg, Kfistrin and the University of
Halle, where he studied for the Church. Be-
coming interested in the Danish Mission at
Tranquebar in South India, he determined to
take part in it, and was ordained at Copen-
hagen in 1749. Next year he landed at TTaIl^


gc hwCTt n u rg-Bnaolstadt.


(128)


Seliwaialtot.


':i' ' ' '

cmebat a&d acquired facility net only in
^niil (tb# local lan^age), but ako in
diiitani, Persian and Manratta, wbicb be spoke
as bnentiy as be spoke German^ English and
Portuguese V For twelve years be laboured
xealously In eburcb and school, bis unostenta-
tious piety and unselfish life g^tly imprees-
ing the natives. In 1762, during a visit to
Tncbinopoly be agreed to take over the
mission statleb there and act as chaplain to
the British troops as soon as a church was pro-
vided. €hrist Church was dedicated in 1766
and thither Schwartz removed in that year.
Here he remained till 1778, when he went to
Tanjore, with whose Bajah he had become
friendly. Soon afterwards he undertook a
secret mission to Hyder Ali, who received him
Ip^aciously at Seringapatam. This enperience
proved useful a little later, for when Hyder
overran the country and threatened Madras,
Schwartz was permitted to move freely in and
out to tend the wounded, sick and dying.

He is a holy man," said Hyder, and
means no harm to my government.** He next
neared a scheme of Government schools for
Tanjore, and was instrumental in founding the
largest native church iu Tinnevelly. He was
appointed Governor of Serfojee, and when a
cousin of the Bajah, who had adopted him
as his heir, was set aside by the dead
Bajah*s brother, Schwartz successfully appealed
to Government for a hearing of the lad's claim,
which was settled in the youth's favour.
Schwartz died at Tanjore on February 13th,
1798.

8ohwmhlirg-&1l^ol8tadt, a principality
of Thuringia. Germany, consisting of the upper
lordship, situated among the Saxon duchies,
and the lower lordship in the south of Prussian
Saxony. It occupies an area of 368 square
milee. The scenery of the Forest is extremely
attractive. The surface is hilly, the highest
point being 2,850 feet above the sea. The
Saale, Ilm and Schwarza are the principal
etreams. Agriculture is the chief industry, the
leading crops being potatoes, rye, oats and
barley. For a small territory the raising
of live-stock is vigorously carried on. The
minerals include iron, copper, salt, cobalt, alum
and lignite. The manufactures, which are com-
paratively insignificant, comprise textiles, iron-
ware, glass and porcelain. The principality sends
one meml^r to the Bundesrat and one deputy
’^o the BeichStag. The Sohwarzburg-Budolstadt
line is a younger branch of tm house of
^ohwarzburg, being descended from Albrecht
TI., 1606, who died in the middle of the 17th
century. Budolstadt (12,406) is the capital.
Pop. (1900), 93,059, nearly all Broteetante.

Ji^wfumbiiM.8omdoirliAU6ii^

of jraiuringia, G^many* comp^ing the upper
loril^ip in two detached portions surrounded
hy ^the Saxon duchies of Gotlia, Weimar and
Mizningen, and the lower lordship in the eouth-
WU^t, of Prussian Saxony. ' ' It'ocoupiee an urea /
Of 383 square miles. The surface is moun-


tainousi part of the forest glands reaching a
height of nearly 3,000 feet. The Wipper,* Hmhe
ana Gera are the chief rivers. The principal
crops are potatoes, oats, barley. Wheat ahd
rye; fruit is extensively cultivate^, and the
raising of live-stock is vigorously pursued*^ Salt
is the only mineral of any oonsequenoe.. Ihe
manufactures are neceesanly oonanoted on a
small scale, and include machinery, porcelain,

lass, leather, shoes, gloves, beet-sugar and

ardwaze. The principality sends one member
t > the Bundesrat and one deputy to the
Beichstag. The chief towns are ^nderhausen
(7,054) in the lower, and Arnstadt (14,421) in
the upper lordship. Pop. (1900) 80,898, almost
entirely Protestants.

Sdiwarsenbargi Kabl Philipp, Prince vo^,
field-marshal, descended from a noble family,
was born at Vienna on April 16th, 1771. He
served in the Turkish War of 1789 and during
the wars against the French Bepublic, especi-
ally distinguishing himself by his intrepid
cavalry charge at the battle of Cateau-Cam-
br4sisln 1794. He was promoted to the rank
of field-marshal in 1799. He fought at Hohen-
liuden (1800), and at Ulm (1805) cut his way
through the French army, and showed great
bravery at Wagram in 1809. In 1812 he was
sent with a large Austrian contingent to the
aid of Napoleon's invasion of Bussia, but in
1813 was entrusted with the supreme com-
mand of the Allied Forces and gained the great
victories of Dresden and Leipzig. He died at
Leipzig on October 15th, l620. He was some-
what of persona grata to Napoleon, for whom he
conducted the negotiations terminating in the
marriage with Maria Louisa.

Schwarawald. [Black Forest.]

Soltwaidnitlf a town of Prussian Silesia,
Germany, on the left bank of the Weistritz,
30 miles S.W. of Breslau. It is a well-built
town, the old fortifications being now laid
down in promenades. The surrounding country
yields flax, hemp, sugar-beetroot, cereals ana
fruit, in which products a brisk trade is done.
The manufactures include textiles, macliineryr
agricultural implements, hosiery, carets, ihml-
stones, tools and hardware, ^hweidnitz beer
is famous. In 1278 it became the camtal of a
principality which then belonged to ^hernia,
but was transferred to Prussia in 1741. It
sufl?ered severely during the Seven Tears' War.
Pop. (1900), 28,432.

Sohiweilifiirti a town of Lower Franconia
Bavaria, on the right bank of the Main, 22
miles N.N.E. of Wfirzburg. The principal
buildings are the Benaissance Town Hall, the
Gymnasium founded by Gustavus Adolphus
in 1631 (the new school dates from 1881), the
Commercial Institute, the Technical Schooli
and the Gothic Church of St. Johtt. The in-
dustries include bell-founding, eotton-spinniag ,
and brewing, besides manufactures of paint
(‘^Schweinfurt green** being noted in Gefi
many), soap, paper, steel shot, bicycle bear-



SoliwtinHirtli.


(129 )




mgs, flour, shoos, machine^, and si^ar. A
statue has been erected to Friedrich Eiickert,
the poet* who was born here in 1788. It was
a im Imprial city from the 13th to the be-
ginning of the 19th century, when it was as-
signed to Bavaria. In 1810 it w'as transferred
to the Grand Buke of Wiirzburg, but four
years later it was rcsto-red to Bavaria. Gus-
tavua Adolphus occupied it in the Thirty
Years* War. Pop. (1000), 16,295.

SchweisiAirtlii Gboro August, traveller,
was born at Biga, in Bussia, on Beoember
29th, 1836, and was educated at Heidelberg,
Munich and Berlin, of the last named of which
he became a doctor of philosophy. Ho went
to the Soudan in 1863, traversed the Nile
valley as far ae Khartoum, and made some
botanical discoveries. On a second expedition
(1869) he found the river Welle, a tributary
of the CJongo, and now called the Aruwimi.
His valuable work, Im Herzen von Afrlha
(1874), records many interesting and important
facts. He strongly opposed the extension of
British influence in the Nile valley. In 1880
he was appointed director of the Natural His-
tory Museum at Cairo.

Solxwexihfeldf Gaspar von, Beformer, was
born at Ossing, in Prussian Silesia, in 1490,
and was educated at Cologne and other uni-
versities. He first became a priest, but, agreeing
with Luther as to main questions, he accepted
the principles of the Beformation, though he
strongly objected to Luther’s moderation and
lack of enthusiasm. He was himself of excel-
lent character, but a fanatic, and openly
quarrelled with Luther in 1625, and was ban-
ished from Silesia. Ho made many disciples,
and founded a sect of his own, which spread
very widely. He thought the Scriptures were
always, and would be always, wrongly inter-
preted. He was for a time an Anabaptist, but
finally denied the inspiration of tne Bible.
His piety and sincerity were never questioned
by any of his contemporaries except Melancli-
thon. "He died at tllm on December 10th, 1561.

ScllweiHlnf capital of the Grand Duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the south-western
shore of Lake Schwerin, 112 miles N.W. of
Berlin and 2K) miles S. of the Baltic coast. Its
situation is attractive, and the environs are
charming. Tie principal structures include
the Grand Ducal Palace, built in 1844-67 in
the French Benaissance, the Old Palace, the
Grand Ducal Library, the Government Build-
ings, the Museum, the Town House, and the
13th-century cathedral. There are manufactures
of furniture, carriages, dyes, musical instru-
ments, maoMnery, and cloth. The town was
founded in 1161 by Henry the lion in opposi-
tion to the old Wendiah fortress. Owing to
a series destructive fires and the hardsnips
inflicted bn it by the Thirty Years' War, It
declined until the accession of the Grand Duke
Taul Friedrich (1837-42), under whose enlight-

201— N.B.


en^^ie its prosperity tevivedil;? Pop. (1900),

Scliwyiy a forest canton of Switzerland,
bounded on the N. by the Lake of Ziirich, on the
N.E. by St. Gall, on the E. by Glarus, on the S.
by Uri, on the W. by the Lake of Lucerne and
Lake Zug, and on the N.W. by Zug. It occupies
an area of 351 square miles. 'Hie surface is moun-
tainous and includes the peaks of Bdse Faulen
(9,200 feet) and Bigi Kufm (5,906 feet). The
chief streams are the Sihl and Muota. Cattle,
swine, goats and sheep are raised, and the
industries include cotton-spinning and silk-
weaving, besides pottery and the making of
straw goods. Fruit is cultivated on a oon^
siderable scale. The largest towns are
Einsiedeln (8,496), the seat of a celebrated
abbey, and Schwyz (7,398) the capital. In
1291 Schwyz, along with Uri and Unterwalden,
combined against the house of Hapsburg, this
league constituting the nucleus of the Con-
federation. The Austrian invasion in 1316 was
repelled in the pass of Morgarten. Since
Schwyz played always the foremost part in
such struggles for freedom, foreigners at last
came to apply its name to the league, from
which it was easily and naturally extended
to the whole territory of Switzerland. Pop*
(1904), 66,901.

Sciatica, pain in the course of the great sciatic
nerve, which runs at the back of the thigh,
and thence down the leg to the foot. The pain
is neuralgic in character, and is aggravated by
pressure, particularly when such pressure is
applied in certain situations, and even by
such apparently trifling causes as movement of
the limb, stooping, or sneezing. Sitting is
sometimes impossible. The disease is frequently
brought on by exposure to cold, over-walking
and strains, or may be associated with gout,
malaria, and with rheumatic conditions. It is
often very intractable, but sometimes yields
to counter-irritation and the administration of
appropriate remedies internally. In the more
obstinate cases electricity is of service, and
acupuncture has been resorted to with bene-
ficial results, while it may even be necessary
to adopt the heroic methoa of nerve-stretchin|p
to procure relief from the exquisite and intoler-
able pain. In the latter operation the nerve-
trunk is cut down upon and the nerve is then
pulled strongly. In milder attacks it may
suffice to keep the patient in bed and apply
hot fomentations, linseed poultices, or blisters.
A liniment of belladonna and chloroform sprin-
kled on spongiopiline and laid along the course
of the nerve may relieve the pain and cuvC the
neuralgia. Possible constitutio'nal causes should
always be sought for and treated with appro-
priate remedies, such as colchioum fot ^ut,
quinine for ague, iron for anmmia, and e&tcy*
late of soda for rheumatism.

SciUy Islftndt, a group of islands at the
western entrance to the English Ghannel* 25
miles W\ by S. of Land's Ena and 40 miles W.


SGilljr Islands.


( 130 )


fioiOi


of lizard Point, Cornwall. They consist of five
inliabitod islands— namely, St. Mary's (1,500
acres), Tresco (700 acres), St. Martin's (550
acres), St. Agnes (350 acres), and Bryher (300
acres) — and about 140 islets of greater or less


Civil War they stood ont for the kii^ and were
strongly fortined in 1649 by Sir J^hn Gren-
ville, who swept the Channel from this coi^
of vantage and played such havoc with the
shipping that at last Parliament ordered a



BCiLLy islands; oeniral view of ST. Mary’s,
(Photo: C. J. King.)


extent, and occupy a total area of 3,560 acres.
They are wholly composed of granite and, by
the action of rain and sea, their rooky surface
has been hollowed out into huge basins or
carved into various fantastic forms. Though
there are few trees the scenery has a charm of
its own and the climate is so mild as to admit
of a semi-tropical vegetation and is also the
mainspring of the leading industry of the
islanders. This is the raising of narcissus and
other flowers, as well as asparagus, early pota-
toes and vegetables. Fuchsias, myrtle, gera-
niums and other plants grow to a remarkable
size, and aloes, cactus and the prickly pear
flourish in the open, while the rhea, or South
American ostrich, has taken quite kindly to
the climate of Tresco. Some fishing is
carried on, and there is a lucrative catch of
lobsters. At times seals put in an appear-
ance, and the cliffs and rocks are covered
with sea-fowl. Hugh Town, on the west side
of St. Mary's, is the capital of the group.
Half a mile to the west of the town sianas
Star Castle, a wanite structure dating from
the reign of Mizabeth, which derives its
name from the circumstance that the fortifica-
tions project in eight salient angles. Charles
II found shelter here in 1646, when he was
Prince of Wales, till he escaped to Jersey, and
it was the prison, in 1637, of Dr. Bastwick,
deported hither by the Star Chamber for writ-
ing scurrilously of the bishops. Tresco is the
mo^ beautiful of the islands and contains the
reeidence of the pro|wietor. The islands are
probably the Csssiterides, or Tin Islands, of
the Greeks and the Silur® Insulro of the
Homans. In 936 Athelstan granted them to
monks who had eettled in Tresco, hut they
weTO bestowed at a later date on Tavistock
Abbey as a portion of its endowment. In the


fleet, under Admiral Blake and Sir George
Ayscue, to besiege them, and the gallant
Eoyalist was compelled to surrender in 1651.
During the free-trading period the isles were
haunted by smugglers. At the time of Eliza-
beth they were parcelled out amongst-numeroue
owners, from whom they were purchased by
the Crowu. They are "now included in the
Duchy of .Cornwall by which they are leased to
a proprietor. The islands are reached by
steamer from Penzance, the average passage
taking three hours. Pop. (1901), St. Mary's,
1,365; Tresco, 331; St. Martin's, 176; St.
Agnes, 134 ; Bryher, 97 ; or a total of 2,092.

Scinde. [Sindh.]

Scintillation is the sparkling or twinkling
effect noticeable in stars, and, since it is much
more apparent when the star is on the horizon
than when it is near the zenith, the effect is
attributed to the earth's atmosphere. It is
commonly stated that this scintillation dis-
tinguishes stars from planets, hut some of the
planets have been observed to scintillate very
slightly when near the horizon, though the
phenomenon is not of frequent occurrence. AH
the stars are so far off that they have no
sensible disc even when viewed through a
powerful telescope; hence they may be con-
sidered as single points of light. The star will
therefore send out very few rays of light to the
eye compared to the number from the relatively
larjjer planet, and so these few rays will ex-
hibit the effect produced by a heterogeneous
atmosphere, whereas the average effect on the
greater number of planet rays will be constant.
The planet will therefore give a steady light*
whereas the star varies every moment.

8oio. [Chios.]




Scioppiils.


( 13X )


Bcolopendira.


ScioppitUly Gaspak, scholar and disputant, was
born at Neumarkt, in the palatinate, Germany,
on May 27th, 1576, and was educated at Heidel-
berg, Altdorf and Ingolstadt. He was origin-
ally a Protestant himself, but became a Homan
Catholic, and wrote a panegyric of Clement VII.
in 1698, for which he was rewarded. He visited
Italy, Austria and Spain, and rendered himself
obnoxious everywhere by his ferocious on-
slaughts on Protestants, on James I. (for which
he was flogged in Madrid [1614] by Lord Dud-
ley’s servants), and afterwards on the Jesuits.
His venomous attack, in 1607, on the illustrious
scholar, Joseph Justus Scaliger, whom he sati-
rised in his t!)caliger HypoholimaeuSy did much
to embitter that great man’s latest years. His
works were burnt by the common hangman in
London and Paris. They show great learning,
and some of the philological treatises are rather
valuable, but his extremely partisan spirit de-
stroys much of their merit. He died in Padua,
on November 19th, 1649, after a somewhat stormy
career. His writings number over a hundred.

Sciopticon is a particular design of optical or
magic lantern. A sciopic ball is a perforated
wooden globe containing the lens of a camera
obscura, equipped with an appliance by which
it can be turned on its centre to a slight extent
in any direction. It may be fixed at an opening
in a window-shutter, and is employed for pro-
ducing images in a darkened room.

Soipio, Publius Cornelius, The Elder, sur-
named Apricanus, one of the most famous gene-
rals of old Rome, was born of noble family in
234 B.C., and in youth was noted for his courage
and decision. At the age of twenty-four he was
proconsul in Spain, and commanded the forces
which took Carthago Nova. His humane conduct
was noticeable here as on many other occasions.
He gradually made himself master of nearly all
Spain, and was offered the sovereignty, but de-
clined it. He formed an alliance with the king
of Numidia, and in 206 returned to Rome, where
he was welcomed, made consul, and given
Sicily as his province. In 204 he went to Africa,
and gained many remarkable victories, captur-
ing the Numidian king, who had deserted him,
and concluded the second Punic War by the
total defeat of Hannibal at Zama in 202. He
was offered many honours in Home, but refused
most of them, becoming, however, censor and
consul for a second time, and in 193 was am-
bassador to Syria. Accused and acquitted of
embezzling money during the Syrian War of
190, he left Home for ever, and died in 183. He
was a great soldier, very prompt and ener-
getic, an accomplished Greek scholar, and he
was also deeply religious.

SeipiOf Publius Cornelius JEmilianus Afri-
cans, The Younger, conqueror of Carthage,
was the younger son of Lucius Paullus JEmilius,
and was born in 185 b.c. He was adopted by
the eldest son of the elder Scipio Africanus,
from whom he took the name of Scipio and sur-
name of Africanus. He was partly instructed


by Polybius, and was present a# the battle of
Pjdna, in Macedonia, m 168, a victory won by
his father which rendered Northern Greece sub-
ject to Home. In 151 he joined the, expedition
to Spain, and, after exhibiting his prowess there,
proceeded to Africa to take part in the third
Punic War. He became consul in 148, and in
the following year laid siege to Carthage, and
took it, in 146, after the shedding of much blood.
By the command of the Senate, the majority
being inspired by Cato’s reckless dictum, “ (7ar-
tJiago cst dchnda ! ’ ’ the city was completely ob-
literated, in spite of its heroic defence and its
being a centre of culture. Scipio was welcomed
with acclamation on his return to Home, and
became censor in 142. He effected many re-
forms, and in 134 again became consul, Spain
being his province. He captured Numantia
after a stubborn fight, and greatly extended the
Roman sway. Ilis marriage with Sempronia,
sister of the" Gracchi, was unhappy. He lived a
simple and, for that period, an extremely moral
life, and was at last found dead in bed (129),
being assassinated, it is believed, for political
reasons.

fSIcirrhus. [Cancer.]

Scissortail forficatus)ym American

Flycatcher, with a long deeply-forked tail,
which can be opened or closed like the blades of
a pair of scissors.

Sclerostoma Buodenala, a nematode worm
which sometimes infests the small intestine of
inhabitants of Italy and Egypt.

Sclarotiiuii, a densely - compacted tuberous
form of mycelium which occurs in many groups
of Fungi as a resting stage and store of reserve
material. It consists oi a central medullary
tissue, often pseudoparenchymatous, enclosed by
one or more layers of thick-walled cortical cells.
The best-known example is that of the pyreno-
raycetoue Claviceps purpurea, which is the
ergot, or diseased condition of the ovary of
grasses.



SOOLOPSNDBA OtNOULATA.


Scolopeiidraii one of the commonest genera
of Centipedes. All the largest and the great
majority of the forms are found in tropical and



0 ub«lro]}ical regions, but a few of tbe smaller

T icsies occur in Buro|>e. Tbe ocelli, or organs
vision, are never more than four in nuuSber,
and tbe segxnents of tbo body always exceed
twenty. One of tbe largest European species
(Scolo^mdra cinmlata), three inches and a half
long, is met with in the south of Europe, and
especially in Prance. It is of a rusty colour, but
the head, antennce, a central band, and the mar-
gins of the segments are green. In India and
South America several i^ecies are nine or ten
inches longi and W. S. Dallas says he saw ex-
amples brought from the equatorial forests of
South America that were more than twelve
inches in length.

tilMllopeildrella is a genus of Arthropods of



sookk: abbey gateway.
{Photo : Cassell & Co,)


great interest, as it appears to some extent to
combine some of the characters of Insects and
Myriapods. The body is composed of numerous
segments, which are in the main similar to one
another, and ure all provided with limbs. In
this character it agrees with the Myriapods and
differs from Insects, in which the segments of
the body are grouped into three dissimlar sets,
and those of the hindmost or abdomen have no
limbs. The mouth-*part8, however, are arranged
very differently from anything known among ihe
Myriapods, as they are situated within the head,
and not ae appendages upon it; in this Soolopen-
drella agrees with some primitive insects, such
as the Collembola or Spring^tails, There are,
however, some insects with rudiments of limbs
on the abdonjen (e.r;., in the Thysannra, and the
oercopoda on the last segment of Orthoptera,
etc.), and thus Scolopendrella may be regarded
as a primitive type ofinsect in which the somitet


are not very markedly dissimilar, and the limbs
of the abdomen still persist.

8c 01I6 (pronounced j3kom% a parish of Perth-
shire, Scotland, comprising the hamlet of
Old Scone and the town of New Soone,
on the left bank of the Tay, immedi-
ately to the north-east of the city of
Perth. AH that remains of Old Soone is the
old cross, as to which it has been said
there are plenty of instances of towns losing
their crosses, but this is the only cross that
has lost its town. In the beginning of the
8th century Scone was the capital of the Pictish
kingdom of Pictavia. At the Mote Hill (after-
wards called Castle or Hill of Belief, in refer-
ence to the episode) the Pictish king, Necktan,
proclaimed in 710 his ao*
ceptance of the Boman
date of the observance of
Easter, a change of view
that led to the expulsion
oil the Celtic ^ Church
from his territories. It
was to the Palace of
Scone that the Stone
of Destiny was brought
from Dunstaffnage in 844
by Kenneth InacAlpin.
Upon this stone the
Scots kings sat during
their crowning (Alexan-
der III. being the last
BO privileged), and it is
practically still used in
this ceremony in West-
minster Abbey (whither
it was removed in 1296
by Edward I.), where it
has been protected by
the old oak Coronation
Chair, But, though the
Stone had been con-
veyed the wise it
call ''), the Scots kings
up to James IV, (and
alter him Charles II,)
were still crowned at Scone. The Mote Hill
continued in ruder times to be the gather-
ing-place of the early Parliaments. In 1064
a bloody battle was fought at Scone be-
tween Macbeth and Siward, Earl of Northum-
bria, uncle of Malcolm Canmore, whose claim to
the throne he had espoused. It was a drawn
battle, and Macbeth*s time was not yet. Near
the site of the present Palace stood the Augus-
tinian Abbey founded in 1114 by Alexander I.,
which r^laoed a venerable church dedicated
to the BColy Trinity. Both Abbey and the
first Palace were destroyed in 1659 by a Perth
mob, inflamed by Protesant zeal against all
things '^ Papistical.*' A new Palace was built
by the Ear! of Gowrie, and on his forfeiture
(1000) James VI. gave the estate to David Murray
of Tullibardime, who became Iibrd Soone in 1606
and Viscount Stormont in 1621, and one of
whose descendants, the great Lord Chief Justice,





( 183)


8oor^oitti<


became Earl of Mansfield in 1756, tbe Palace
etill being one of tbe seats of this family. Of
the parish chtirch erected on the top of the Mote
Hill in 1624 by the first Yiscount Stormont only
an aisle, containing a marble statue of the
builder and other monuments, is extant. The
Old Pretender was a guest in the Palace in 1716,
and the Young Pretender in 1746. The existing
Palace dates from 1803-8. It is a castellated
mansion, of somewhat heavy aspect, but stands
in a noble park along the bank of the Tay.
Among the trees in the grounds are Queen
Mary’s sycamore and James VI.'s oak and syca-
more, and the ancient cross, already mentioned,
also stands in Scone Park, some 300 yards to the
north-east of the Palace. Queen Victoria and
Prince Albert were entertained hero on their
first visit to Scotland ^September Oth, 1842).
New Scone, fully a mile to the east (pop. 1,685),
almost wholly a residential quarter, dates from
the beginning of the 19th century. In the
churchyard is a monument to the memory of
David Douglas (1798-1834), the traveller and
botanist, a native of Scone, who, while on a
visit to the Sandwich Islands, fell into a pit-
snare for wild animals and was gored to death
by a bull.

Scopas, Greek sculptor, almost rivalling Praxi-
teles, came of iicrcditarily artistic family, and
flourished in the 4th century B.c. He was born
in the Isle of Paros, but very little is known
of his life. Among many other works, he d^
signed the principal sculptures for the magni-
ficent mausoleum at Halicarnassus, in .^ia
Minor, and his * ‘Venus’’ was greatly admired
by the ancients, who assigned him a very high
rank among sculptors.

Sooresby, William, Arctic explorer, was born
at Cropton, near Whitby, in Yorkshire, on Octo-
ber 6th, 1789, and was apprenticed to his father,
a master-mariner, with T^om he made a voyage
to Greenland when he was only 11 years old. In
1806, as chief officer of the Resolution, he made
81° 30' N. and 19° E., being the farthest North
then reached by any navigator. Being of a
studious disposition, he afterwards entered
Edinburgh University, and took a degree. He
then became commander of a whaler, and pub-
lished his work. History and Description of the
Arctic Regions, in 1820. This contained a sum-
ming-up of the scientific results of his own
voyages an4 those of earlier explorers. After
the death of his wife, in 1822, he determined to
enter the Church, studied at Queens' College,
Cambridge, for two years, took holy orders in
1825, and was appointed curate of Bessingby,
Yorkshire. Before this, however, another im-
portant work had appeared, his Journal of a
Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery, which
included an account of his researches and dis-
coveries on the eastern coast of Greenland. He
had meanwhile obtained clerical preferment at
Xiiverpool, Exeter, and Bradford, but still kept
up an active interest in science, particularly
^rrestrial magnetism, and in 1824 was elected
P.B*S. He paid visits to America and Australia


in search of additional data in support of his
theories on magnetism, and ^|||er his return
from his second voyage to tbS tinited States
(1848) drew up some observations bn the height
of Atlantic waves for the British Association.
He also devoted attention to social questions,
such as the improvement of the conditions of
factory operatives, and in 1850 published a Work
urging further prosecution of the search for
Sir John Franklin and the members of hia ill-
fated expedition. Scoresby died at Torquay,
Devonshire, on March 21st, 1857.

Scorpions, or Scoepionidjs, a family of air-
breathing Arachnida. It is characterised by a
rather broad anterior part, composed of the
eephalothorax and seven distinct segments fol-
lowing it, at the hinder extremity of which
come five narrower segments forming a sort of
tail, the last point of which is a bulbous piece,
swollen at its base, and narrowed and curved



scoanoN.


into a hook at the free end. The bulb contains
a pair of glands which secrete a poisonous fluid,
which is conveyed by ducts to the minutely but
doubly perforated point of the hook which ren-
ders the sting so formidable an offensive weapon.
The Scorpions strike forward over their head,
and in a badly-directed blow the sting may
strike some part of the body ; this often occurs
when the animal is dazed by smoke or fire, and
thus may have arisen the story about Scorpions
stinging themselves to death when surrounded
by a zone of fire. The Scorpions have eight long-
jointed legs, and four pincer-like claws ; the an-
terior pair of these is small, and is known as
the pair of “chelicer® ” ; the two hinder pinc#tt
are large and strong. The animals breathe by
four pairs of lung-sacs, which open to the ex-
terior on the under-eide of the abdomen, and
four pairs of “stigmata.” The Scorpions are
the largest and most forbidding members of the
Arachnida and are mostly confined to tropichl
regions. A few occur in Southern Europe : of
these Androctonus occitanus is three inch^ tbng,
but in hot countries specimens of twiefe this
length are met with. Androctonus is dhiefiy re-
presented in Africa, but also occurs in Western
Asia, as well as in Europe. Its name, meaning
"man-killer,” shows the terrot in which it is
held, but though its sting is productive of very
painful consequences, it is still doubtfnl whether
xt is fatal. Scorpio Europmns ranges north-


8 ooirsdii«ifii.


( 13i )




wards into Germany. The Scorpions shun light,
during the day frequenting crevices in irocks
and walls, or seeking the shelter of fallen trees
and stones. They hunt at twilight, their prey,
consisting of large insects and their larvae, and
spiders. When on the prowl they carry the long
hexible tail elevated over the back of the body,
so that the sting is nearW as far forward as the
cephalothoracic plate. The victim is seized by
the pincers and then stung to death. They
select dry places for their quarters and live
alone. Iney will fight one another if brought
accidentally together, the victor usually feeding
on the slain. As the male is smaller than the
female it behoves him to be extremely circum-
spect and deferential in his approaches, lest he
be torn up and consumed. The eggs are hatched
in the enlarged oviducts of the female, and the
number of the young may amount to sixty. At
first the infant Scorpions are carried about on
their mother’s back. In The JhJig'mi of Ancient
Greece Professor W, M. Flinders Petrie says
that the Scorpion was the emblem of the god-
dess Sel, and 18 found in prehistoric amulets;
but it is not known to have been adored, and
most usually it represents evil, where Horns
[the hawk-god of tipper Egypy is shown over-
coming noxious creatures.”’ The oldest Scor-
pions occur in the Silurian rocks, such as Palaeo-
phonus. Eoscorpius is a well-known Carboni-
ferous genus; none occur in the Jurassic rocks.

Soorzouera, a genus of Composite plants, of
which there are some 120 species, native to the
Mediterranean region especially, but extending
also into Central Asia. They are smooth, woolly,
or bristly plants, with rather large long-stalked
heads of yellow flowers. The best-known variety
is Scorzonera hispanica, which has been culti-
vated, jprincipaliy in Europe, for its root, which
is useci as a vegetable, and also possesses the
medicinal virtues of dandelion. It is sometimes
called Spanish Salsafy, from its resemblance to
Tragopogon porrifolius, and its old popular
name was Viper’s Grass. The root has a brown
flkin, whence is derived the French name 4corce
noire, and the Italian, the literal meaning of
which is black bark.”

Soot, or Scott, Michael, mathematician, physi-
cian, and scholar, may have belonged to the
family of the Scots of Balwearie, near Kirkcaldy,
Fifeshire, Scotland, but was more probably one
of the Border Scots. The date of his birth has
been placed oonjecturally in 1176. He studied
at Oxford, Paris (where he acquired a name for
his mathematical knowledge), Bologna, Palermo,
and Toledo, spending a few years at several of
these cities, and entering fora time the ©ervic©
of King Frederick II. of Sicily. He had a com-
petent knowled|re of Arabic, which enabled him
to translate Avicenna and Averrhoes, There is
great reason to believe that he was in holy
orders and patronised 1^ the Pope, for Hono-
rius III. ana Gregory IX. both begged for pro-
motion for him, the former on the ground of his
eminence in science. He was nominated to the
archbishopric of Cashel, but declined it on the-


plea that he had no Irish. In 1230 he appeared
at Oxford, anxious to disseminate the philosophy
of Aristotle. He may even have revisited his
native land. He died in or before 1234, and
late traditions bury him at Melrose and other
places in Scotland. His universal fame as
a man of science and learning soon made
him, in a generally unlettered and superstitious
age, the subject of rumour and legend, accord-
ing to which he was neither more por less than
a professor of the Black Art and in the service
of the Devil, his master. He is believed to
have written Liher Physiognomice (1477), which,
in some points, anticipates Lavater; a trans-
lation into Latin of Aristotle’s Dc Animalibus ;
Qucestio Curiosa de Natura Solis et Lunm, a
w^ork on alchemy, and Mensa Philosopkica,
Several works on astronomy and alchemy and
some translations still exist in manuscript.

Scot, Ebginald or Reynold, disbeliever in
witchcraft, son of Richard, second son of Sir
John Scot, of Sco'ts Hall, near Smeeth, Kent,
was born about 1538. He studied at Hgrt
Hall, Oxford, but left without taking a degree.
In 1568 he married Jane Cobbe, of Cobbes
Place, Aldington, and after her death in 1584
married Alice Collyar, a widow, to whom when
he died on October 9th, 1699, he left his pro-
perty in consideration, he stated in his will,
of the trouble he had been to her, “ whom if
I had not matched withal I had not died worth
one groat.” He led an active life in his native
county, being collector of subsidies for the
lathe of Shepway in 1586-7; member of Par^
liament for New Romney, 1588-9; and besides
the management of his own property attending
to the affairs of his cousin. Sir Thomas Scot.
In 1674 Scot published A perfte Platform of
a Hoppe-Garden, and necessary instructions for
the making and maintenance thereof, illustrated
with woodcuts, which gained him the credit
of originating the cultivation of the hop in
England. More remarkable is his famous
work, The Discouerie of W itchcraft wherein the
Lewd e dealing of Witches and W^itchmongers is
notahlie detected, in sixteen hoohs^ published in
1684, in which he endeavoured to check the
persecution of persons charged with witchcraft,
alchemy, and magic. Witches were of two sorts
only, he said, ‘'the one sort being such by
imputation, as so thought of by others (and
these are abused and not abusers), the other
by acceptation as being willing so to be ac-
counted, and these be meer Coseners.” This
learned and logical exposure of a popular su-
erstition exhibits Scot as far in advance of
is time, and Shakespeare is thought to have
been indebted to him for hints for his witches
in Macbeth. It excited great opposition, and
Kin^ James I. O'bjecting to its “damnabl®
opinions,” ordered it to be burnt by the com-
mon hangman. Besides studying the subject
in Latin, Greek, and Arabic authors, he pur-
sued it in the village life around him, where
cruel punishments were practised, often in
the name of religion. Many refutations were


Sociter. ( 135 ) flcotlani.


issued, and it is remarkable that belief in
witchcraft long kept its ,hold on the jpopular
imagination, and that men of the calibre of
Sir Thomas Browne, Bichard Baxter, and John
Wesley should have given it credence.

ScoteTi or Black Duck, a duck belonging to
the genus CEdemia, with five species from the
Nearctic and Palaearctic regions. Excepting for
a stripe of orange running dowfi the ridge of
the bill, the colour of the male is entirely
black, the female being of the colour of soot
and brownish- white beneath. The Scoter is
wholly marine in habits, frequenting the land
only for breeding. They congregate in estua-
ries or off the shore, in such numbers at times
as to darken the surface of the sea. Their
fiesh is decidedly strong, and is ranked as fish
in the ecclesiastical dietary. The Velvet Duck,
another species, has a white bar on each wing
and a white spot under each eye, and is less
common than the Black Duck. The Surf Duck,
a third species, occasionally seen in European
waters, is more at home off the coast of British
North America. It has a white patch on the
crown and a coloured bill.

Scotland, the most northerly portion of Great
Britain, has an area of 30,902 square miles and
a population (1901) of 4,472,103 — i.e., about
one-fourth of the area, and somewhat more
than one-ninth of the population of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It is
separated from England by the liberties of
Berwick, the north-eastern reach of the Tweed,
the Cheviot Hills, the Kershope, Liddel and
Sark. Thus, it will be seen,* the loose phrase

north of the Tweed is not based on an accu-
rate appreciation of the southern boundary,
since, were the river the delimitation, the bulk
of the Scottish Border counties would be Eng-
lish territory. The area is divided between a
mainland portion and about 800 islands, of
which the Outer and Inner Hebrides or Wes-
tern Isles on the west, the Orkney and Shet-
land Islands on the north, and Bute and Arran
in the Firth of Clyde are the chief groups. Of
the islands, only about fifty are more than
five square miles in area. The largest are
Long Island, comprising Lewis and Harris
(876 square miles), Skve (643), Mull (351), and
Islay (246), among tie Hefedes; Mainland
(378), in Shetland; and Pomona (207), in Ork-
ney. The mainland portion has a total length
of about 275 miles, a breadth varying from 25
to 146 miles, and so irregular and indented a
coast-line (over 6,000 miles long) that no spot
in the interior is more than forty miles from
the^ sea. The Scottish mainland is commonly
divided into the Highlands and the Lowlands,
the former lying to the north-west of a line
running north-east from the Clyde opposite
Greenock to Stonehaven on the east coast, and
known as the Highland Line ; but Forfar, Kin-
cardine, the east and greater half of Aberdeen-
shire, Elgin and Banff, toother with the flat
north-eastern portion of Caithness, are rec-
koned as outside the line. The Highlands are


intersected from sea to sea by Glen More (or
great valley), in which lies the ^hain of lakes
connected by artificial chhtthblft to form the
navigable Caledonian Canal ; and the country
to the north-west of this line is occasionally
distinguished as the Northern Highlands.



The Western Islands are sometimes included
under the general name of “the Highlands”;
but the people of Orkney and Shetland, plum-
ing themselves on their Scandinavian descent,
regard themselves as distinct from both Low-
landers and Highlanders, though the former
feeling of superiority has long since died out.
By far the richest, most populous, most indus-
trial, and best cultivated part of Scotland is
the plain of the Forth and Clyde, including
Fife, which forms the northern part of the
Lowlands. Scotland is distinctively a mountain-
ous country. The Highlands are almost covered
by the Grampian Mountains — a huge, irregu-
lar, lofty mountain-mass, seamed and inter-
sected in all directions by straths and glens
(wider and narrower valleys), presenting much
grand and imposing scenery. The Cairngorm
Mountains form the loftiest group of any size
(Ben Maedhui, 4,296 feet; Cairn Toul, 4,241
feet; Cairngorm, 4,084 feet; Ben Avon, 3,843
feet); but the highest summit in the British
Isles is Ben Nevis (4,406 feet), near Port Wil-
liam, in the south-west of the shire of Inver-
ness. In the Lowlands there are various dis-
tinct ranges or systems, such as the Sidlaw and






( 196 )


Sciitifiad.



Ochil Hills to tlie north of the Forth, and to
the south the Pentlands, the Lammermoors,
the Lowther Hills, and the Cheviots on the
English Border. The highest summits in the
Lowlands are Merrick (2,764 feet), in Kirkcud-
brightshire, and Broad Law (2,754 feet), in
Pe^lesshire. The valleys may be divided
into such fertile straths as Strathmore, Strath
Tay, Strathearn, Strathallan, and Strathspey,
and the richer Carses of Gowrie and Stirling,
and the famous mountain glens, such as Glen
More, Glencoe, Glencroe, Glendevon, Glen
Farg, Glen Lyon, Glen Garry, Glen Nevis,
Glen Eoy, Glen Shee, and Glen Tilt, with
which may be bracketed the mountain passes
of Brander, Leny, and Killiecrankie and
others. Tlie chief rivers of Scotland are
the Clyde (106 miles). Forth (75 miles), and
Tay ^93 miles), all of which form wide
estuaries or firths of ^reat value to ship-
ping. The other numerous rivers are mostly
mountain streams of impetuops course and no
great depth, but famous for their beautiful
scenery and good fishing. The Spey (107 miles),
the most rapid river in Great Britain, the pee
(87 miles), the Bon (82 miles) and the Find*
horn (62 miles) are noted saimon-streams to
the north of the Highland line. The North
Bsk (29 miles) and the Sonth Esk (48i miles)
are also well-known salmon*streams. In the
south are the Nith (70 miles) and the Tweed
(97 miles), perhaps the most famous of all, -


/ *

which forms the Border for about thirteen
miles. The famous lochs of Scotland are of ||
two kinds — the sea-lochs or fiords on the west ,
coast, and the inland lochs or lakes propcjp. ,)
Among the former are the numerous lochs ^
running off the beautiful estuary of the Clyde,
Loch Fyne (noted for herrings). Lochs Linnhe,
Sunart, Nevis, Hourn, Ewe, Broom, Kyan and
others. Among the lakes are Loch Lomond —
the largest lake in Great Britain — Loch Nesl,
Loch Awe, and Lochs Tay, Earn, Lubnaig,
Achray, Vennachar, Laggan, Shin, Fannich,
Shiel, Eannoch, Ericht, Maree, Katrine and
Leven. There are numerous other arms of
the sea, such as the smaller firths of Moray,
Beauly, Cromarty, Dornoch and Lome, am
Luce and Wigtown Bays. The chief headlanoi
are, on the east coast, St. Abbs Head, Fife
Ness, Girdle Ness, Buchan Ness, Kinnaird
Head, Tarbat Ness, Noss Head and Duncans-
bay Head; on the north coast, Dunnet Head
and Cape Wrath ; and on the west coast, Eu
Stoer, Eu Coigach, Eu Eea, Ardnamurchan
Point, th^ Mull of Kintyre, Turnberry Head,
Corsewall Point, the Mull of Galloway and
Burrow Head.

The natural resources of Scotland are not
great. Only one-fonrth of the area (nearly all
in the Lowlands) is under cultivation. In the
Highlands vast regions are covered with barren
mpors, interspersed with scanty pasturage, sup-
porting a limited number of sheep, but dliefiy



PHYSICAL MAP OF SCOTLAND.
















Sootlttnd. ( 1B7 ) SlMltlftEd.


▼aluable as ffame-preserres for deer and grouse.
These so-called deer-forests are even destitute
of trees, for only about 1,400 square miles in
all Scotland are under woods. The main in-
dustry in this part of Scotland is deep-sea
fishing, without which the crofters or small
tenants could scarcely make a living. Kelp-
burning and weaving are minor industries.
Whisky -distilling is, however, of considerable
importance, although employing more capital
than labour. Agriculture reaches its highest
level in the Lothxans, Fiieshire and Aberdeen-
shire; probably no land in the world is better
farmed than the holdings of the Lothian far-
mers. The hills of South Scotland are among
the best sheep-walks in the kingdom, and seve-
ral tracts in the lower Highlands support great
herds of cattle. Both the mining and manufac-
turing industries are practically confined to
the lowlands. The important coal- and iron-
fields of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire support
various prosperous towns. Fife also has coal in
abundance, and Midlothian has coal, oil-shale
and lead. Glasgow (761,709 inhabitants) is a
commercial and manufacturing city of the first
importance; and the shipbuilders of the Clyde
enjoy a world-wide reputation. Forfar and
Fife have flourishing manufactures of flax
and jute, the linen industry centring at Dun-
fermline (26,250), the jute industry at Dundee
(161,173). Paisley (79,350) is the headquarters
of the world^s thread manufacture and has
also a varied assortment of industries. Ha-
wick (17,303), Galashiels (13,615), and Selkirk
(6,292) are the chief seats of the woollen and
hosiery manufacture, which is also carried on
at Kilmarnock (36,091), while Alloa (14,458) is
celebrated for its yarn. Edinburgh (316,837),
a famous educational centre, is the seat of the
book-trade and has a large printing business.
The chief seaports are Glasgow, Leith (77,439
inhabitants, the port of Edinburgh), Greenock
(68,142), Dundee, Grangemouth (8,386), and
Aberdeen (163,503), Wick and Fraserburgh are
herring-ports. Perth (32,872), Stirling, Ayr
(29,101), St. Andrews (7,619) (famed for its golf
links), and Dumfries (14,444) are of historical
importance only, excepting that Perth has the
largest dye-works in the world. Oban (5,374),
Portree (in Skye), Stornoway (in the Lewis,
3,852), Inveraray, besides numerous inland
spots like Callanaer, Braemar, Lanark, Moffat,
Peebles and Melrose, are well-known tourist
centres, as is also Inverness (23,066), the capi-
tal of the Highlands.”

The population of Scotland has increased
from 1,608,420 in 1801 to 4,472,103 in 1901. The
Celtic Highlanders are quite distinct in history
as in language from the Teutonic Lowlanders;
and though this distinction is perfectly living
to this day and fully understood by the Scots
among themselves, it is interesting to note
that there is, as against " foreigners,” a strong
national solidarity that pays more attention to
the geographical boundary of the country than
to this e^nographical or linguistic division . The
language of tlhe Highlands is Gaelic, but of the


230,806 Gaelic-smeaking inhabitants returned
at the census or 1901, only 28,106| or 0’63 per
cent, of the total population i^oke Gaelic
solely. The language of the Lowlands (^^ Broad
Scots”) is an independent development of the
original tongue brought to Great Britain by
the Teutonic invaders from idle Continent^ and
not a corruption
of southern or
book-English. It
is, however, no
longer thetongue
of the educated
classes in Scot-
ian d, although
it has a rich
literature (per-
fectly distinct
from the contri-
butions of Scots-
men to English
literature) e x-
tencling back for
600 years, cul-
minating in the
poems and songs
of Robert Burns
(1759 - 96), and
still being added
to.

Though the robeet borns.

Crowns of Scot- {From the portrait by Alexander

land and Eng- Nasmyth in the National Gallery^

land have been Minburgh,)

united since 1603,

and the Parliaments since 1707, the smaller country
has maintained a very distinct individuality, both
in the character of its people and in many of its in-
stitutions. In Church, law, and education,
this is very evident. Apart from the Roman
Catholics and a large number of qiiite insig-
nificant sects, the vast majority of Scotsmen
belong to one or other of the two great Presby-
terian bodies : the Established Church of Scot-
land C tke Establishment,” dating from 1560
and renewed in 1688), and the United Free
Church of Scotland, the latter resulting from
an amalgamation (in 1900) of the Free Kirk
(founded in 1843, known as the Disruption
year) and the United Presbyterian Church
(‘*the U.P.^s” of popular parlance, constituted
in 1847 by a union of the Secession and Belief
Churches). At the time of the constitution of
the United Free Church, a minute minority
(called popularly the “Wee Frees”) claimed
that the union "could not be legally effected
and that they were the Free Churen of Scotland.
Though the Scots courts decided against them,
the House of Lords, on appeal, upheld their
contention, but a Royal Commission ha'^ng re-
ported that they were unable adequately to
carry out the trusts of the vast property thus
handed over to them (in defiance of public
sentiment), an Act was passed in 1905 to appor-
tion the property between the two bodies.
The Auld Kirk and United Free differ bn
points of government (not doctrine) that seem



Cootiiiid.


(138)


Sootlijid.


Terjf tiiinute to all but Scottisk eoolesiaatical
poatioians and ** yillcaup commentatorfl/' espe*
cially since the abolition of patronage in tke
Establisked Ckurck, in 1874, removed the chief,
bone of contention. One important result of
the existence of two such bodies is the fact
that in Scotland Dissenters/* as such, have
never suffered loss of social status. Ecclesias-
tically Scotland is divided into parishes, and
local government has generally accommodated
itself to this division* so that tnere is but little
of that overmpping of jurisdiction that makes
English local government such a puzzle to the
uninitiated* Counties are administered by
county councils^ and the cities and most of the
towns by municipal bodies, the chief magis-
trates being called provosts and the magistrates
bailies. The chief magistrates of Edinburgh,
Olasgow, Aberdeen, Perth and Dundee arc
entitled to the designation of Lord Provost.
An excellent system of public parish schools
was established by law in Scotland in 1696, and
the result is shown in the high level of educa^
tion among tlie peasantry. These parish
schools, however, have been superseded by Board
schools since the Education Act of 1872. The
better^class secondary schools are for the most
part day-schools, the few Public Schools — of
which Loretto in Musselburgh, Trinity College
in Glenalmond, and Fettes College are tho
chief — being in the main imitated from the Eng-
lish type. The grammar-schools in many of
the larger towns are under the jurisdiction of
school boards, and of such institutions the
Royal High School of Edinburgh has a long
nnd illustrious history. Scotland has four uni-
versities; at St. Andrews (founded 1411), Glas-
gow (1450), Aberdeen (1494), and Edinburgh
(1582). These resemble Continental rather than
English universities, there being no college-
residence and practically ^ no collegiate super-
vision of tho students outside the lecture-rooms.
Scotland has retained its own system of law,
largely based on Roman law, so that there are
considerable divergencies from English law on
such points as marriage, land-holding, poor-
law, etc., as well as in points of procedure. In
every county there are sheriff-courts for minor
cases; but the supreme courts are the Court of
Session, with Inner and Outer Houses (for civil
causes), and the High Court of Justiciary (for
criminal cases) at iJdinburgh. The House of
Lords is the final court of appeal in civil causes.
Scotland has also a Secretary of State (consti-
tuted in 1894), a Lord Advocate and a Solicitor-
General.

Caledonia, as Tacitus calls Scotland to the
north of the Forth and Clyde, was more than
once invaded, but never aubdued, by the
Romans. Its inhabitants were the Celtic-
apeaking Piets or Cruithne, vfha were also
found in the eouth-west of modem Scotland,
while the south-east was peopled by Britons.
About the end of the 5th centu^ the Scots, a
Celtic tribe from the north of Ireland, estab-
lished themselves in Argyllshire and on the
west coasts. Before the time of Bede (8th


century) a fourth race, the Saxons, obtained a
footing in the south-east, while the Scandi-
navians had long before ac^juired power in the
Orkneys and the western islands. The Scote
gradually gained the upper hand, and about
843 Kenneth Macalpin became king of the
Scots and Piets, his kingdom (wholly to the
north of the Forth and Clyde) being known as
Alban. The name Scotland first emerges in
the 10th century. Christianity wa^ introduced
among the Southern Piets by St. Ninian in
the 4th century, and among the Northern Picta
by St. Columba in the 6th. The successors of
Kenneth extended their power southwards, up
to and beyond the present Border, but the
far north and the distant islands long re-
mained practically independent. Under Mal-
colm (III.) Canmore (1058-93), who succeeded the
able usurper Macbeth and had married tho
English princess Margaret, the English lan-
guage and customs gained ground; but im-
mensely greater strides in civilisation and in ,|
the organisation of Church and State were
made under David I. (1124-53), the “Scottish
Alfred,” though James VI. could only regard
him as a “sair eanct for the fipown,” in con- ^
sequence of his many gifts of mnd and money
to the Church. William the Lion (1166-1214),
captured by Henry II., regained his freedom
by an illegal oath of fealty,, which, though re-
mitted by Richard I. in 1189 for a payment of
money, was long afterwards the pretext for
much unhappy interference in Scottish a^rs .
on the part of the English kings. From^fto-
liam*s reign also dates the first of the allfwlw
with France, which have left many tiaces ofi
later Scottish history. The wise and benefi-
cent Alexander HI. (1249-86) was succeeded by
his infant granddaughter Margaret, “the Maid
of Norway,” who died in 1290, on her way to
Scotland. Edward I. of England, invited to
act as umpire in the ensuing dispute as to the
succession between John Baliol and the elder
Bruce, decided in favour of the fomier (1292).
Baliol, however, was carried prisoner to London
in 1297, and Edward, in his efforts to reduce
Scotland under his own sceptre, was confronted
by the patriot William Wallace, who, after
^mo successes, was captured and beheaded
in 1306. The struggle for freedom was carried
oil by Robert Bruce (1306-29), who finally
triumphed at Bannockburn in 1314. Robert
II. (1370-90), Bruce's grandson, and Robert III.
Q390-1406), the first two kings of the Stewart
aynasty, were succeeded by five Jameses in
succession. James V., djing in 1542, left the
kingdom to his infant daughter Mary (1542-87),
afterwards the famous “Queen of Scots/’ whose
career fills so romantic a page of history. Mary
abdicated in 1667 in favour of her ©on James
VI. (1667-1625), who succeeded to the Engli^
throne in 1603, thus uniting Great Britain
under one Crown. The history of Scotland
under the earlier Stewarts is a record of fierce
struggles between the Crown and the i^werful
nobles, punctuated by difficulties with the
turbuleut Highlanders;j and by costly wars



Seotitend Tard.


( 139 )


ikwtt.



JOHist^NOX,


'witii England, culminating in tlie disaster of
Flodden (1513), where James IV. perished with
the flower of the country. The condition of the
people, at least in the south, was, however,
gradually improving, and this wric^ added
many famous names to Scotti^ literature.
The Reformed religious doctrines penetrated

to Scotland early
in the 15th cen<
tury, and cham-
pioned latterly by
John Knox, were
formally approved
by the Parliament
in 1560. The Scot-
tish Reformers and
common people
were Calvinistic
Presbyterians,
while James VI.
and his successors
were zealous ad-
herents of Episco-
pacy. This differ-
ence of opinion
developed under
Charles I. (1626-
49) into open and
bitter strife ; and on the outbreak of the great Civil
War Scotland joined the English Parliament
against the king. On the execution of Charles
t I.^ however, Charles II. (1649-86) was immedi-
‘ ' . proclaimed king in Scotland, but Crom-
jand afterwards Monk, effectually made
Kselves masters of the country. After the
Restoration in 1660, the religious troubles in
• Scotland again broke out, the Covenanters
resisting to the death the introduction of
I^iscopacy. The persecution was but slightly
rwaxed under James VII. (1685-88), but re-
ligious freedom was finally attained under
William and Mary (1688-1702). The Scottish
and English Parliaments were united in 1707,
in the reign of Anne (1702-14), the younger
daughter of James VII,, but there still
lingered a certain jealousy between the two
nations, which encouraged the Jacobites, or
adherents of the expelled Stewarts, to rise in
1716 and again in 1746 (under Prince Charles
Stewart). These risings were firmly quelled,
and, the advantages of an alliance with a
rich and prosperous country gradually making
themselves felt, Scotland settled down into a
loyal and useful member of the United King-
dom. Its siubs^uent general history is sub-
stantially identical with that of England.


Scotland Tardi a district adjoining White-
hall, on the east, in London. It is believed to
occupy the site of a palace, with pleasure
grounds extending to the Thaanes, which was
the residence of the earlier Scottish kings
^ence its title) on their occasional visits to
tiondon to do homage for their fiefs in Cum-
berlsmd and Westmoreland. This custom is
said to have originated with Kenneth III., and
the last royal tenant of the palace was Queen


Margaret, sister of Henry Till, and wife of
James I V„ who fell at Flodden || 1513. When
Henry became reconciled to nlr after her
marriage with the Earl of Arran, he enter-
tained her here in great state, and she resided
here during her second widowhood. At the
Reformation the building had already been
sadly neglected, in Elizabeth's time it was a
ruin, and, upon the union of the Crowns in
1603, when its raison d*Hre ceased, it was dis-
mantled and partially demolislied. Among dis-
tinguished occupants of the houses built on its
site were John Milton, Beau Fielding, Inigo
Jones, Sir John Denham the poet of Vooper'^
Hill, Sir Christopher Wren and Sir John Van-
brugh the architect and playwright. In 1829
public use was found for the somewhat shabby-
looking buildings, for they were converted
into the headquarters of the Metropolitan
Police Force then constituted by Sir Robert
Peel. Here the Police remained until 1890,
when the establishment was removed to New
Scotland Yard, the handsome edifice specially
built for it after the designs of Norman Shaw,
R.A. [Police.]

Scots GreySf a regiment of cavalry forming
the Second Regiment of Dragoons in the British
army. It was raised in Scotland in 1678 and
has had a glorious record. Among the battles
in which it has borne a part were tlioso of the
Duke of Marlborough's campaigns — Blenheim,
Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet; — Det-
tingen, the last action in which a British king
was personally engaged (1743); Waterloo;
Balaclava and Sebaswpol, in the Crimean War^,
and the relief of Kimberley and Paardeberg
in the Boer War. Its badge is the thistle
within the circle and motto of St. Andrew,
its crest an eagle, and its motto Nulli
Secundus — “Second to None.”

Scots OnardSf a name now used for a cele-
brated household regiment in the British army
(till lately, Scots FHisilier Guards), but also
applied to the Scottish troops who for many
centuries served under the kings of France.
The alliance of the two countries was due to
their common enmity to England brought
about by the ambitious designs of Edward I.
The nucleus of the Scottish forces in the French
army was a body of nearly 10,000 men led by
the Earl of Buchan, which disembarked at La
Rochelle in 1419. Charles VII. divided these
Scotsmen into two distinct corps — “Les Gen-
darmes Ecossais * ’ (the Scots men-at-arms), and
“La Compagnie Ecossaise de la Garde de Corps
du Roi” (the Scots Lifeguards). The loyalty
of the Scots Guards was hot more conspicuous
than their heroism in battle, and they played
a distinguished part in the wars of Charles
Vrn,, Louis XII., and Francis I. They ceased
to be composed of Scotsmen after the Seven
Years^ War, and were disbanded at the Revolu-
tion. Their final abolition took place in 1830.

Scotty Davib, painter, was bom in Edinburgh
on October 10th or 12th, 1806. He learned his


"MMPVli


( 140 )


«OOtt.


»rt liiA faiii«r^ an engraver^ and altar-
warda aiudiad at the Tmeteea* AGad 0 m|^> He
beg^ to exhibit at the reeently-founded Scot-
tim Academy id 1S28» and became a member
two years later. Perha|>s his earliest artistic
achievements of note were his illustrations
(1831) for Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, which
are admirable, as are also those designed by
him towards the close of his life for The
Pilgrim^s Progreu. He excelled in the weird
and imaginf^ve style, not unmixed with a love
of the morbm, and he had a fatal fondness for
vast canvases. In 1832 he visited Borne, where
hd produced some admirable pictures. His
“Vasco da iGama Encountering the Spirit of the
Storm as he passe® the Cape of Good Hope,”
w^ioh some consider his maeterpiece, was ex-
hibited in 1847, and i® now in Ttinity House,
Eeith. He competed for the decoration of the
House® of Parliament, and the disappointment
caused by his non-success hastened his death,
which took place in Edinburgh on March 6th,
1849. In 1851 were published hie fine series
of imaginative designs to the ninth edition of
Profeesor Kichol’s Architecture of the H cavern.
His “Vintages” and “Ariel and Caliban”
are in the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and
his “Achilles addressing the Mane® of Patro-
clus ” is in the Sunderland Gallery.

Scott, SiE George Gilbert, architect, was
bom on July 13th, 1811, at Gawcott, near
Buckingham, England, where hi® father,
Thomas Scott, son of Thomas Scott the com-
mentator, was perpetual curate. His love for
drawing ecclesiastical buildings manifested it-
self early, and led to his being articled to
James Edmeston, a London architect, who dis-
approved of the time he wasted in sketching
mediseval edifice®. Scott afterwards became
clerk of the work® at the new Fishmongers’
Hall, at London Bridge, and after gaining
further experience entered into a partnership
with an old fellow-pupil, W. B. Moffat, which
was chiefly remartable for the number of
cheap and ugly workhouses they designed. The
meanness of his first churches is traceable to
his early influences, and not until 1839 did he
become acquainted with the true principles of
Gothic art, through the writings of A. W.
Pugin and the work of the Camden Society.
Enthusiastic study of the styles of the Middle
Ages induced him to adapt a 13th-century
Queen Eleanor cross when designing Gie
Martyrs* Memorial erected at Oxford in 1840.
His first important Gothic building was the
church of St. Giles, Camberwell, and hence-
forth he became identified with that style. He
made a European reputation by his design for
the Lutheran church of St. Nicholas, Ham-
burg, which he won in open competition in
1844. The partnership with Moffat was dis-
eo'lved in 1845, In 1®I7 he was appointed to
restore Ely Cathedral, which led him to make
% Careful study of the great churches of
Fraiice, the real home of Gothic ecclesiastical
architecture, and in 1861 he visited northern.


Italy to pursue his studies. Appointed arohi*-
tect to the dekn fmd chapter of Westminster
in 1849, where he restored the Chapter-house,
in 1865 he was elected A.E. A. (B.A. in 1860),
and he was again successful in an open com-
petition at Hamburg for a design for the
Bathhaus, which, however, was built from an
inferior design. Scott’s designs for the new
Government offices in LondoBi 1856, provoked
a battle of opposing styles. Unwillingly he
consented to adopt a classical design, which



ST. PANCBAS STATION, LONDON.

{Photo: F, G, 0. Stuart, SoiUhampton,)


passed the House of Commons five years later
to the wrath of the Gothic faction. In 1864
he was engaged on the Albert Memorial, Ken-
sington, his design having been chosen in a
limited competition. His intention was to
make a kind of ciborium to protect the
statue of the prince ” in the style of the 13th
century. In 1865 ho designed the station and
hotel at St. Pancras, which he considered best
realised his ideas on the adaptation of Gothic
to modern usee. His works were more numer-
ous than those of any of his contemporaries
and he undertook more commissions than it
was practicable for him carefully to superin-
tend. That several of his restorations met with
severe censure was therefore natural. An in-
complete list of over 700 buildings with which
he was concerned in different capacities proves
his activity. His published works include
A Plea for the Faithful Bestoration of Ancient
Churches, Remarks on Secular and Domestic
Architecture, Oleanings from Westminster Ahhey,
and Personal and Professional Readlec^
tions. Scott married his cousin Caroline Old-
rid in 1838; in 1872 he was knighted, and
when he died, on March 27th, 1878, he was
buried in Westminster Abbey. Two of his
five eons became architects and completed some
of the works left unfinished at his death, which
included refitting the choir of Canterbury
Cathedral end St. Mary’s Cathedral in Edin-
burgh.

Scott, John, lABL OF Eldon, [Eldoi^.]



SooHs.


t 141 )


mum.


#O0H» Michael, novelist^ was bom at
Oowlairs, Glais^w, oa October 80th, 1789^ and
oducated at the High School and tJaiversity
of Oiasgfow. At the age of eeventeen he went
to Jamaica, where he stayed sixteen years.
On his return he engaged in commercial pur-
suits, but found leisure to write and publish
his Tom CringW^ Log, which appeared anony-
mously in Blackwood* 8 Magazine, and came out
as a volume in 1834, and The, Cruise of the
Midge, which was published in book form in
1836. They were both very popular, the first
being one of the most striking sea-stories ever
written. He died in Glasgow on JS ovember 7tb, 1836.

Soott, Robert, lexicographer, was born on
January 26th, 1811, at Bondleigh, Devonshire,
where his father, Alexander Scott, was rector.
Educated at Shrewsbury School and Christ
Church, Oxford, he became Fellow of Balliol
in 1835, in which year he was ordained. Ap-
pointed to the cx>llege living of Duloe, Corn-
wall, in 1845, and in 1850 rector of South
Lufienham, Rutland, he vras elected master of
Balliol in 1854, which, under his rule, became
one of the leading colleges in Oxford. In
1870 ho became dean of Rochester, where ho
remained until his death on December 2nd,
1887. Twice select preacher at his university
and member of the Committee for the Revision
of tho New Testament and the Apocrypha, his
devotion to his duties and to learning was pre-
eminent. With his friend, Dr. H. G. Liddell,
dean of Christ Church (to which they were
both elected students in January, 1830), he
compiled the groat Greek-EngUsh Lexicon,
founded on Passow’s Lexicon, without which,
they said, “as a base to work upon, our own
’^ould never have been compiled.’’ This work
rharked an epoch in Greek scholarship and
was soon found to be indispensable to every
student. Begun in 1836* the first edition
appeared in 1843, and until the seventh and
dennitive edition was brought out in 1883 its
authors had it continually under revision.

Scottf Thomas, commentator, tenth of John
Scott’s thirteen children, was born at Braytoft,
Lincolnshire, on February 4th, 1747. Appren-
ticed to a surgeon, by whom he was
soon dismissed for misconduct, his father,
a grazier, set him to herdsman’s work.
After nine years he left home in disgust
at his father’s harsh treatment. Encouraged
by ArchdeaiCon Gordon in his desire to be-
come a clergyman, he was ordained in 1772.
He became curate of Weston Underwood,
taught himself Hebrew and studied the Scrip-
tures in the original tongues. In 1781 he suc-
ceeded John Newton as curate of 01U€w, and in
1786 became joint chaplain of the Lock
Hospital, London, which he held with the leo-
tur««hip of St. Mildred’s, Bread Street. In
1801 he was instituted to the rectory of Aston
Sandford, Buckinghamshire, where, in 1807,
at the wish of the Church Missionary Society,
he undertook the txuining of miesionaries, and
where he died on April 16th, 1821, His


funeral eermoa wes pj^eached by Daniel Wil*
eon, afterwards Bishop of Ca|imtta. Soott’e
best known work is his celebratiei Commentory
on the Bible, which Sir James Stephen con-
sidered “the greatest theological performance
of our age and country.” Iseuea in weekly
numbers, which started on March 22nd, 1788,
it involved its publisher, Bellamy, in bank^
ruptby and ruined its author. After two
Chancery suits and grave pecuniary anxieties,
which lasted until 1813, Charles Simeon and
other admirers came to the rescue. Scott’s
liabilities were discharged and he gained some
^2,000. He also published several sermons
and an interesting spiritual autobiography,
The Force of Truth, Cardinal Newman in
ilia Apologia acknowledges that to Scott
“(humanly speaking) I almost owe my soul,”
and if the Commentary and its author’s Cal-
vinistic fervour are now somewhat out of
fashion, yet all who reverence Newman, who
esteemed his “bold unworldlinees and vi^rous
independence of mind,” will honpur Thomas
Scott’s memory.

Scott* Sir Walter, novelist, poet, and his-
torian, was born in College Wynd (since demo-
lished), Edinburgh, on August 16th, 1771. Tbo
descendant of a famous Border family, he was

early filled with
reverence for the
past, which was
fostered by his
mother’s tales of
bygone days. As
a child, he devel-
oped a lameness
which lasted
throughout his life,
butnever interfered
with his enjoyment
of all kinds of ex-
ercise. “ Always
the more mis-
chief the better
sport for him,”
wrote a witness of
one of his freaks
in a boat ; and his
love for outdoor
pursuits was In-
creased by a hospi-
tality which made
him happiest when the centre of the largest
party. His sympathy won the affection of all
classes. “He was the only one,” said James
Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, “I ever knew
whom no man, either poor or rich, heldl at ill-
will/’ and his kindliness, extending iyelf be-
yond his friends, constituted almost a personal
tie between him and his horses and dogs. He
was an ideal Scottish laird, and people won-
dered when he found time for nis literary
labours; yet in this profusion of enjoyment,
his life was filled with hard and varied work.
During his education at Bdinburgh High
School, and at Kelso, he learned no 0r^, but



SIB WALTER SCOTT.

{By Sir H, limhurn.)


< 142 )


Scoijfc.


goo«t^


gainied a knowledge of Latin/ to wkidi he
added a study of Italian and Spaniek.^^
leaving school he attended classes at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and in 1786 was appren- ,
tioed to Ms father, a writer to the signet. In
this year he had his only sight of Bobert
BurnSf whom he met at Dr. Adam Ferguson's.
The poet was a^tected by some lines of John
Langnorne's printed on an engraving of a dead
soldier, and inquired whose they were. The
lad Walter (who from childhood had been an
omnivorous if desultory reader) was able to tell
him, and was rewarded by a grateful look from
eyes Which, as he said, ‘‘literally glowed."
During his youth he was deeply attached to
WilUamina Belsches-Stuart, who, however,
married his friend. Sir William Forbes, in
1796. In the following year he married Char-
lotte Charpentier or Carpenter, a lady of
French descent, by whom he had four children,
of whom three survived him for a short time.
His practice at the bar, to which he had been
called in 1792, was never great; but two years
after his marriage he was made sheriff-depute
of Selkirkshire, and in 1812 Clerk of Session.
These appointments, together with his success
in literature, enabled him to indulge his desire
to possess an estate. He therefore purchased
Abbotsford, where he spent much of his time
and money in planting and building. In 1816
he refused the laureateship, which, at his re-
quest, was given to Bobert Southey. In 1818
the Prince jRegent offered him a baronetcy,
which he accepted, although he did not as-
sume the title until 1820. Meanwhile his ex-
penditure at Abbotsford, and his secret con-
nection with the publishing and printing firm
of Ballantyne and Company, were preparing
a disaster. His partners became involved in
the bankruptcy of Archibald Constable in 1826,
and Scott found himself confronted with a
debt of j 6117,000. This he determined to pay
with his pen, and in five years he actually re-
duced it to rifi54,000, by writing entirely for
his creditors. Sir Walter footed the bill with
a courage that fell not short of the heroic and
lost his life in the Herculean effort to preserve
his name unstained, setting, however, a high
and noble example that makes us feel the
better for Lis having lived and renders him as a
man the pride and ^ory of literature. In 1826 his
wife diea ; in 1830 he had an attack of para-
lysis. His brain was affected, and in the fol-
lowing year he tried a journey to Italy, with-
out avail. He returned to Abbotsford, where
he died on September 21st, 1832. Sir Walter's
literary work began with a translation from
Biirger in 1796, and a translation of Goethe's
Q6t% von Berlichingen in 1799, but his mark
in his own department was ma4e in 1802 with
his Afins^reZ^i/ of the Scottish Border, for which
he had “raided" the southern counties during
the holidays and leisure of several years. In
1805 The Lay of the Last Minstrel brought him
Immediate popularity. Marmion appeared in
of the Lake in 1810, Eohehy and |
Tm Bridal of Triermain in 1813> and The ,\


Lord of the Isles in 1815. Meanwhile Scott had
felt his inferiority to Lord Byron in poetry,
and had determined to try his powers in prose.
He took up the first chapters of Waverley,
which he had thrown aside some years before,
completed the story in a few weeks, and pub-
lish^ it in 1814. Its reception, in spite of the
anonymity on which Scott insisted for all his
novels, until the year 1827, was so favourable
that it decided the author's future. , The rest of
the Waverley Novels followed in rapid succes-
sion right up to 1832, some of them published
a'i separate stories, others as parts of the
various series of Tales of my Landlord, and
Chronicles of the Canongate, Scott, however, did
not confine his marvellous literary activity to
poetry and fiction; he edited State papers,
poured forth article after article, published bio-
graphies of Dryden (1808), and Swift (1814)/
with editions of their worlds, and brought out
a life of Napoleon Bonaparte (1827). His
Tales of a Grandfather appeared in three series
in 1828, 1829, and 1830. popularity gained
by his first poem, and increased by each sub-
sequent work, has never been lessened. The in-
fluence of Scott has been marked in the de-
velopment of romantic literature in England
and France, while the glamour Which he threw
around the life of the Middle Ages admittedly
contributed to the ecclesiastical movement
caused by the Oxford Tracts for the Times, The
secret of his power lies not in the subtle
analysis of character, but, as he himself recog-
nised, ‘‘in the hurried frankness of comp^i-
tion, which pleases soldiers, sailors, and young
people of bold and active dispositions." With
no deep spiritual message, he teaches a doctrine
of broad, sound life, and, as one of his bio-
graphers has observed, he takes his readers out
of the trivial interests of private society, and
places them in the current of national feeling.
It is not too much to say that he has trans-
formed the past into a living present, and
thus already has quickened the study of history
for several generations.

Scotty William, Lojid Stowell, judge, son
of William Scott, merchant, of Newcastle-on-
Tync, and elder brother of Lord Eldon, was
born on October 17th, 1745, the year of tlffe
rebellion in the north. The alarm which it
created caused hie mother, to escape an ex-
pected siege, to go to her father’s* house at
Heworth, Durham, where she gave birth to
twins, William and a daughter named Barbara.
To the accident of being a native of Durham,
after being educated at Newcastle Grammar
School, he was able to enter Corpus Chrieti
College, Oxford, where he gained a scholarship
open to persons bom in that county. He
matriculated in 1761, and in 1764 was elected to
a Durham Fellowship at Uiijversity College,
and appointed one of the two tutors. From
this he retired two years later, and devoted
himself to cloee study of that branch of the
law in whidh he afterwards became distin-
guished! He took the degree of, D.C.L. in




Soott.


(143)


SovdaM^.


1779, was called to the bar in tbe following
year, and elected to practise in tbe Admiralty
and Ecclesiastical Courts. In spite of bis want
of ability at first as a speaker his success was
remarkable. Briefs ana appointments mul-
tiplied upon him. Knighted in 1788, he
was made king’s advocate-general and vicar-
general of the province of Canterbury, and be-
came judge of the High Court of Admiralty
on October 26th, 1798, and a Privy Councillor.
He entered Parliament as member for Down-
ton in 1790, and in 1801 was elected member
for Oxford University, which he represented
until 1821, when, on the coronation of George
IV., he was created a peer. An opponent of
change, a wit and very courteous, a great eater
and drinker, Stowell, who was twice married,
lived until January 28th, 1836, when he died
a| Earley Court, Berkshire. At Oxford he was
introduced by ^bert Chambers to Dr. John-
son, whose intimate friend and executor he
became; friend also of Sir Walter Scott, who
said ‘*He was one of the pleasantest men I
jBver knew.” Lord Stowell was one of the great-
est of English iudges. His service to maritime
and international law was unequalled. Unfettered
by earlier judgments his vast learning enabled
him to* ^stemajjipe a department of English
law. “Hjjs decisions have passed into prece-
dents, equal, if not superior, in authority to
those of the venerable fathers of the science.”
On maritime points manv of his decisions re-
main as the only law. “If ever the praise of
being luminous could be bestowed upon human
composition,” said Lord Brougham, who equally
admired his character and great powers of
reasoning, “it was upon his judgments.”

Scotty William Bell, poet, painter and critic,
was bom in Edinburgh on September 12th,
1811, and educated at the Royal High School.
He studied art first under his father, and after-
wards at the Trustees’ Academy in his native
city and the British Museum, where he drew
from the antique. In 1837 he moved to Lon-
don and occasionally exhibited at the different
galleries and the Royal Academy. He com-
peted for the decoration of the Houses of
Parliament and, though his cartoon was un-
successful, its merits procured him the master-
ship of the Government School of Design at
Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1844. During his twenty
years’ residence in the north he executed for
Sir Walter Trevelyan at Wallington Hall a
series of eight large pictures illustrating in-
( idents in the history of Northumberland and
the Border and eighteen decorative oil paint-
ings from the ballad of CHievy Chase. He re-
moved to London in 1864, and gave up
a good deal of time to literary work,
his principal contributions to art at this
period being the series of pictures which
he painted in 1868 for the circular stair-
case in Penkill Castle^ Ayrshire, drawing his
subjects from the Kin^$ Quhair by Janies
1. He died in Penkill Caetle on November
22nd, 1890. He was a poet of considerable difik


tinction and produced Hades (1838), The Fear
of the World (1846), and volumes of Poems in
1854, 1875, 1882 and (poethuinOU^Iy) 1893. He
was also the author of a memoir Of his painter*
brother David Scott (I860), Hcdf JIour Lectures
on the History and Practice of the Fine and
Ornamental Arte (1861), and Albert Durer (1869)^
and numerous other works, besides editing
popular editions of John Keats, P. B. Shelley,
S. T. Coleridge, Lord Byron, and other poets.

Scotty Winfield, soldier, was born in Din-
widdie County, near Petersburg, in Vir-
ginia, United States, on June 13th, 1786. Ho
was educated at William and Mary College,
Williamsburg, and, studying law, was called to
the bar in 1806. He entered the army as a
lieutenant in 1808, and in 1812 had risen to
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was sent
to the Canadian frontier, and saw some fight-
ing there, becoming brigadier-general in 1814.
He was severely wounded more than once, and
after the war was offered the post of Secretary
of War, but declined it, Congreso thanking
him for his services and promoting him. He
was sent on several expeditions against the
Indians, and in 1841 b^ame Commander-in-
Chief of the United State® army. He com-
manded during the Mexican War, and cap-
tured Vera Cruz and other places, finally enter-
ing the city of Mexico in September, 1847. He
retired from active service in 1861, and died at
West Point, New York, on May 29th, 1866.
He was a great tactician, a man of command-
ing presence, and a stern disciplinarian (which
earned him his nickname of “Fuss and
Feathers”), and wrote some excellent works ou
military tactics.

Scotns. [Duns Scotus; Erigena.]

Scrautoxiy capital of Lackawanna County,,
Pennsylvania, United States, on the Lacka-
wanna, 160 miles north of Philadelphia. Till
1840 it was known as Slocum Farm, out in that
ear the blast-furnace erected by George and
oseph Scranton laid the foundation of its
prosperity and it was named after the brothers.
It is the centre of the anthracite region and
has rolling-mills, steel-works, steel-rail mills
and , furnaces, besides manufactures of loco-
motives, machinery, tools, carriages, leather,
silks and lace curtains. The principal struiS-
tures include Government building, the city
hall, court-house, Allbright Memorial Library
and the Roman Catholic Cathedral. Pop.
(1900), 102,026.

Screamer, a bird belonging to the three
species of the South American family Palamedeidae,
allied to the ducks and geese. , There are two strong
spurs on each wing, which are of service to the birds
in defending themselves and their young from
attack. Generally they are of shy and gentle
habits and, owing to their broad and powerful
wings, are strong fliers. The Horned Screamer
(Palamedea cornuta), from Guiana, rather
smaller than a turkey, has blackish-brown plu-
mage and an erectile horn on the head. Th®



C )




€fr 0 §t^ ■ (0kemna eSaPortah from

Bomkorn, Srazil and Paraguay, and tha JOer-
bian Somamar (C. derhianm)^ from Colombia/
bare erectile leatbers> but no born. Tbe for-
mer ii domesticated and allowed to run with
poultry that it may defend them from the vul-
tures.

Mese^^f as an architectural term, denotes a
partition separating one portion of a chamber



LADY CHAPEL SC:


at a radlas r inches, this force will act throngb
a distance of .2wr, while the nut or screw

moves through a distance the mechanical ad-,
vantage will, therefore, bo 2irrn. In prac-
tice about I of the applied foroe is lost in
friction. The screw is employed in various
mechanical implements and tools, such as the
screw-press, screw-iack, etc. ; in such cases the
relative motion of the screw and its nut is
arranged to produce the desired effect. A
fine - threaded screw is often used for
measuring small distances.

Screw 7uie« a plant belonging to the
genus Pandanus of the order Pandauese.
it derives its popular name from the
spiral arrangement of the leaves, which
present a distinct resemblance to those of
the pineapple. It includes some fifty
species, mostly natives of the Malayan,
Mascarene, and Seychelles Islands,
though a few occur on the continents of
Asia, Africa, and Australia. It bears a
large, bright orange fruit, insipid to
taste, but edible, called “bread-fruit.**
In India it is sometimes planted to form
hedges and to secure the banks of canals.
From the scented male flowers of
Pandanus odoratissimus the perfumers
extract the volatile Keora oil, while mat-
ting and sacking are made of the leaves
of other species. Pandanus candelabrum
is called the Chandelier Tree, because its
branches curve upwards after the fashion
of candelabra.


or an edifice from the remainder. In the halls
of mediesval residences the space thus cut off
formed a lobby which communicated with the
hall proper through doors in the screen, and
was surmounted by a gallery. These screens
were of wood, and consisted of close panelling
below and open work above. In churches,
screens separated chapels from the nave, choir,
or aisles, or they were put up as protection to
tombs; but the most important was the roc^-
soreen, which divided the nave from the choir.
It was so-called because, prior to the Refor-
mation, it was surmounted by a figure of the
rood or cross. As a general rule, the upper
art of church screens was open, but in catne-
rals and large churches the rood-screen was
close throughout. These screens, which were
constructed either of wood or stone, were very
elaborately carved, and also ornamented with
painting and gilding.

80 V 6 W may be regarded as an inclined plane or
wedge wrap^d round a cylinder. If a screw
has n threaaa per inch, it is clear that a nut
which fits it will mote Relatively to it through
n distance of of an inch, if one is rotated through
a Complete turn with regard to the other. A
lever of some kind (such as a screwdriver or
spanner) is usually used to turn the screw or
nut; and, if the turning force be so applied


ScribOii Augustin Eugi^nf, dramatist, was tbe
son of a silk mercer, and was born at Paris on
December 24th, 1791. He gave up the study of
law, cJid began to write plays, of which he
produced an enormous number, making a very
large fortune by his industry. During the ten
years following 1821, when he entered into his
contract with the Gymnaee Theatre in Paris,
it is said that he produced no fewer than 150
ieces. Such a turn-out was rendered poseible,
owever, by the Scribe factory, or school, which
the master established. One collaborator de*^
vised subject, another evolved plots, a third
wrote the dialogue, a fourth composed lyrics,
and a fifth coined “good things,** and the whole
then passed through the alembic of Scribe*s
brain. His most successful pieces were
Bertrand et Baton (1833), Le, Verre d'Bau
(1840), La Camaraderie (1836), and Adrienm
Lecouvreur (1849). His first play was produced
in 1810, but it was not till 1815 that he
achieved a notable success. He displayed simi-
lar success in writing the libretti for operas,
and among the works of this sort for which
he was responsible were Fra Diavoto (1830),
Bobert Le DiaUe (1831), Les Huguenots (1836),
Le Domino Noir (1837), Le PropMie (1840;
DMoile du Nord (lBB4i), mdDAfpcaine (1865).
In 1836 he became an Academician. He died
in Paris on February 20th, 1861.



C )


.ffllTiHlOT CHrlrrtiT mi Hebrew

blO&bim* wSe eppeet to biire wigiiia% «*er-
cieed military {auctions. Afterweroa tbe
name wae applied to those who ixmied the
beolm of the law. After the return from the
CajptiTity they seem to hare been reoogtdsed
as Its interpreters also. Thus the term cahie to
denote a man learned in the law;, and eventUr
ally the Scribes occupied a threefold position,
nreserring the body of law and tradition,
iioldihg public classes in the Temple, and ad*
ministering the law in the courts of justice.

SoriweneTf T'bebsbigk Hekey AiuBBodx, Bib«
lical scholar, was born at Bermondsey, London,
on September 29th, 1813, and educated at St.
Olave^s School in South warh and Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge. In 1835 he- was appointed
an assistant master at Sherborne, was curate
of Sandford Orcas in Somerset from 1838 to
1845, and was head-mastet of Falmouth School
from 1846 to 1856. Later he held several
clerical appointments, and, in 1876, was made
vicar of Hendon in Middlesex, where he died
on October 30th, 1891. He had made a life-
long study of the text of the New Testament,
publishinfif a collation of about twenty manu-
scripts of the Gospels hitherto unexamined in
1853, and in 1868 an edition of the Greek Testa-
ment. His Plain Introduction to the Criticum
of the New Testament, a standard work, ap-
peared in 1861. He was conservative in his
criticism, adhering firmly to the traditional
text. But his knowledge was beyond question
and he acted as a member of the company of
BeviserS of the English version of the New
Testament (1870 to 1882). In 1872 he was
awarded a Civil List pension “in recognition
of h^ services in connection with Biblical
criticism and in aid of the publication of his
works.''

Sdfofnla (serofa, "a sow”) or Stbuma, a
term which has had various significations at
different times, but which is particularly associ-
ated with conditions of anaemia and with glan-
dular enlargements such as occur where tnere
is development of tubercular mischief in lym-
phatic glands. Since knowledge of the local
manifestations of tubercle has increased, the
term “scrofula'* has been less frequently used.
Consumptive parents may have strumous chil-
dren, and children who have exhibited signs
of struma are prone to tubei^cular disease and
to other Ailments, since their capacity to resist
disease is deficient. The glands situated in
the neck and under the jaw are most commonly
involved. Not only does the swelling occasion
a deformity, but matter may form, and, work-
ing its way to the surface, produce a sore
which, healing with difficulty, may leave a life-
long (Bear, Other scrofulous conditions are
inflamed eyes, ulcers on the skin, eczema of
the head and elsewhere, affections of the knees,
nips and other joints, discharges from nose
and ears and enlargement nf the tonsils. The
treathient must be particularly concerned wiih
maintaining health an^ strength by a generous


and nouriahing diet* which should contain
plenty of fatty temml ihaat* lke|h eggs, milk,
cream: ""and • digestible; ^ yegetaMli'''' and fruit.
Fresh-air exercise should becoiie a regular
daily habit, and if dhildren cAh be xaared or
educated at the seaside, ho muoh the bHter.
Of strength-forming drugs, emi4iver oil in
winter, maltino and iron in summer may be
recommended, while Parrish's food is also ex-
cellent. Since very little irritation suffices to
cause the glands to enlarge (decayed teeth, sore
throat, slight eosema may be enough), care
must be taken to attend to all such possible
sources of irritation at once, with a view to re**
moving them without delay, and so preventing
their after-effects.

ScroggSf Sib William, Lord Chief Justice,
was born at Deddington in Oxfordshire* Engt
land, about 1623, and educated at Oriel and Pern*
broke Colleges, Oxford. Ho became a member
of Gray's Inn in 1641 and was called to the bar
in 1653. He Was a big, brazen-faced man, df
clever speech, a bully and dissolute. He was
knighted soon after the Bestoration, though il
does not appear what he had done to secure the
honour. In 1669 he was made a bencher of
Gray's Inn, in 1676 was appointed a justice of
the court of common pleas, and two years
later was promoted Lord Chief Justice of EUg-^
land. During the trials of the victims of tSe
infamous Titus Oates's “Popish Plot," which
began in 1678, he browbeat witnesses and
prisoners and otherwise did his best to bring
the administration of the law into contempt.
After about nine mouths of this bullyragging
he moderated his zeal, and it is supposed that
he was bribed to this end by Portuguese gold.
In 1680 his arbitrary behaviour effected his
ruin. He had suppressed a paper called the
Weekly Packet and discharged the grand jury
before the close of the term. For these ana
other malpractices he was impeached by the
House of Commons, but his trial was always
postponed, and in 1681 he was removed from
the bench. He died in London on October
25th, 1683. He shares with Bloody Jeffreys the
eternal ignominy of being the worst judge that
ever dishonoured the En^ish bench.

Seropep Gboegb Julius Poulbtt, geologist,
was born in London on March 10th, 1797. Sb
was the son of John Poulett Thomson, but
adopted his wile's surname on his marriage in
1821. He wAs educated at Harrow and Pem-
broke College, Oxford, and St, John's College,
Cambridge. A holiday at Naples awoke a keen
interest in the subject of volcanoes and in
geology generally. Every year from 1|19 to
1823 he spent many months in Sicil^, the
Lipari Islands, the Auvergne and the Eifel,
and in 1824 was elected a fellow of the Geo-
logical Society, of which next year he wA« ap-
pointed eeoretary along with Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Charles Lyell. In 1828 his €on»ideraiion$
on Volcanoes appeared and struck A deadly blow
at the Neptunists, his standpoint being that
of a UniformitariaA* Two years earlier hk


tit i


(146)


Boilftiim.


GeM 0 gy and Extinct Vdcanmc <?/ Central
Firmer alreiidy establklied lik reputatioii
and foctired hi$ election to tlie iEojal Society.
SciettCGi ihoweTer^ wan not liis oole liobliy, lor
be threw himeelf eealonely Into politics. He
wan returned for Stroud in 1833, and retained
his seat till his retirement in 1866. He was a
zealous Eeformer, both socially and politically,
and a convinced Free Trader. He spoke sel-
dom, preferring to circulate his views on the
emostions of the day in pamphlet form, a habit
that gained him me sobriquet of ** Pamphlet
Scrope.” He received the Wollaston medal from
the Geological Society in 1867, and died at
Fairlawn, near Cobham, Surrey, on January
19th, 1876.

8oropli1llariao0»f a large order of hypogynous
Oamopetalm, including about 180 genera and
1,800 sjpecies. They are mostly herbs, the mem-
bers of one sub-order^ the Rhinantheae, being
often partially parasitic on roots. Tlieir leaves
may be opposite or scattered, and are exstipu-
lato and simple. The inflorescence is various,
but ordinarily racemose, and the flowers are
generally monoavmmetric. The lobes of calyx
and cjorolla are four or five in number, and the
latter may be personate, sub-campanulate, sub-
rotate, bi-labiate, or rotate. It is usually con-
spicuouily coloured, pollination being effected
by insects. Ihe stamens may be two or five,
but are generally didynamous; and the ovary
is two-chamberea and generally many-ovuled.
The fruit is capsular, and the seeds are album-
inous. Tlie order is distinguishable with diffi-
culty from the Solanacew. Acanthace®, and
Bignoniace®, and is subdivided mainly accord-
ing to the variations in the imbricate ®stivation
of the corolla. It includes many favourite
garden flowers, such as the snapdragons, fox-
gloves, calceolaria, mimulus, pentstemon, and
veronica, the iateresting British semi-parasitic
cow- wheat, eye-bright and red and yellow
tattles, etc,, but few plants of economic value.

Soudiry, Madelbine de, romancist, was bom
at Havre, in France, on November 15th, 1607,
and was left an orj^an at six years of age.
After being educated by her relatives, she went
to Paris pd joined the Rambouillet circle, and
was considered one of its brightest ornaments.
Her brother G»oboks dk ScitdI:rt (1601-67;
received at the French Academy in 1660), was
a popular writer of portentous fecundity, and
it is known that she wrote some of his works.
She was very fond of society and pleasure, but
always did a considerable amount of writing
every day. Her novels or romances, which were
extraordinarily successful, are very voluminous,
and to the modern reader extremely tedious
reading. Even in other countries her CUlie
QO vols., 1656), and Arfomiwe, ou le Grand
Cfms (10 vols., 1649-63), and other works, were
There is much affectation in them,
and the “Map of Tenderness “ in the first-
nawed work has been often ridiculed. Her
liettera, being more natural, are better than
her romances. In 1671 the French Academy


awarded her the prize of elofinenee for her
Discaurs sur la Gloirt. She died In Park on
June 2nd, 1701.

8eiil]ptliar0» the art of producing artistic
forms either by cutting wood, stone or other
hard material, or by moulding a soft substance
such as clay or wax into a desired shape. As
an independent art, it is the peculiar province
of sculpture to imitate the living form; but
when subordinated to architecture it serves
the purpose of decoration. For the origins of
sculpture one must go back many thousands of
years before the Chrktian era. It k custom-
ary to associate the use of sculpture as a fine
art with the Greeks of the 6th century b.c., but
history proves that the Greek genius developed
itself upon lines previously laid down; that it
was evolved, in fact, from the E^ptians,
Phoenicians and iissyrians of a far earlier date.’
The sculpture of the early Egyptian civilisation
can only be roughly surmised, but that it was
practised and brought to an advanced stage of
perfection is evident from the Sphinx (ctre.
4(XX) B.C.), the noblest piece of monumental
sculpture in all antiquity, and other colossal
monuments in syenite ana basalt. It is known
also that many Egyptian wall reliefs reached
a high standard of art, and that they pro-
duced realistic portraiture. Their art, how-
ever, having attained a certain degree of ex-
cellence, did not advance ; it was restricted by
hieratic traditions which imposed conventions
that retarded its free development. Similarly
the Assyrians, whose earliest known monuments
date from the 12th century b.c., and whose
reliefs of the 8th and 9th centuries may
be studied at the British Museum, always re-
mained hampered by convention so far at any
rate as the rendering of the human form was
concerned. Where their sculpture obtained its
highest excellence was in the treatment of
animal forms, and it was in their specialisation
in this phase of the art that they stood apart*
from the Egyptian and other antique sculptors.
They particularly favoured hybrid forms; both
in tiie treatment of these and of those of a more
realistic character they developed wonderful
freedom and mastery. The Phoenicians, unlike
other peoples of antiquity, scarcely produced
any art for the decoration of their own build-
ings: they were a nation of traders, and the
carved work in metal or ivory which they
wrought in great abundance was mostly
carried by their ships to the many Mediter-
ranean ports with which they had commercial
relations. Hence Phoenicia itself has pro-
vided but few examples of its own antique art,
while other places are rich in treai?ures of
Phoenician origin. The latter specimens, how-
ever, show that the Phoenicians borrowed their
types both from Egypt and Assyria.

The influence of Phoenician, Egy|>tian and
Assyrian art, especially of the Egyptian, upon
Greek sculpture must have been considerable.
These peoples had acquired a technical acoom-
plkhment in every phase of sculpture long



SenlptoN.


( M7)




before the time when the Greek worker was
content with the ron^hest and most primitive
method of carving images out of stone or
marble; and the provision by them of, so to
speak, a ready-made artistic alphabet could
not fail to be of great service to the younger
nation, struggling to express its ideas but with*
out the means of doing
so. Having acquired
this alphabet and as-
similated many of the
types, etc., of their
predecessors in the art,
the Greeks proceeded
to evolve from this
basis an art that was
peculiarly their own.
Broadly speaking, the
difference, observable
from the first, between
Assyrian or Egyptian
sculpture and the
Greek is that the in-
tention of the former
was to record actual
facts and events that
had occurred, while the
Greek aim was to ex-
press the imaginary
and typical. As to the
earliest Greek artists
little is known beyond
the mythological stories
which were handed
down from Greek and
Latin writers — the
popular tales that as-
sign the lions of My-
ceniB and the head of
Hjledusa at Argos to the Cyclopes, the early statues
of the gods to the Telchines, and the first metal
work to the Telchines and the Idman Dactyli . F rom
Pausanias and later writers we learn that Dae-
dalus was the first to open, the eyes of statues,
to free their arms from their sides and make
their legs stride. It is evident, however, that
before and for some time after 600 b.c., Greek
sculpture was of the most primitive character ;
the metopes of Selinus (circ. 600 b.c.), for in-
stance, are uncouth in design, and the
Branchidse figures, attributed to 640 b.c., were
merely blocked out. The step from the archaic
to the advanced was effect^ before 480 b.c.,
the date of Salamis and Platsea, and the next
century was liie period of highest attainment,
the epoch that culminated in Pheidias and
the Parthenon. The 4th century produced
Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippus, when the art,
no longer content to emboay the perfect form
of man, was devoted to the further refinement
of his beauty and the expression of his moods
and passions. During the Hellenistic Age (320
B.c. to 146 B.c.) Greek sculpture degenerated;
and in the Graeeo-Boman period (146 b.c. to
A.B. 300) it virtually disanpeared, since Graeco-
Boman work was merely tne imitation of Greek
work, which was produced for the Boman mar*



THE VENUS OF MILO.


ket. The value of these imitations lies in the
fact that we are indebted to them for most of
onr knowledge of great Greek sculpture. The
Parthenon of Pheidias, thb Hel^US of Praxi-
teles, the frieie of the temple of the Wingless
Victory, and the JEginelan Marbles (ascnbed
to Onatas), now at the Glyptothek in Munich^
are among the few known examples of original
Greek work. The Venus founa in the iSand
of Melos, or Milo, in the ABgean, and hence
usuallv called the Venus of Milo, is attributed
to a Greek sculptor of the Hellenistic period
(circ, 100 B.O.), and, along with the Wingless
Victory from Samothrace, is the gem of the
Louvre. Myron, Polyclitus and a score of
others are only preserved to us by copies of
their art. The Farnese Hercules is a copy of
aLysippian original, the Torso Belvedere of the
Vatican is adapted from the same school, and
the statues of Arjgive Ageladas and his associ-
ates were probably imitated by the Pasitelean
sculptors of Kome. The Laocoon, found in
Rhodes, was produced by a sculptor of the
Roman period.

From the 2nd to the 4th Christian century
Roman sculpture steadily declined, and when
the government of the Roman Empire was
transferred from Rome to Byzantium, art
followed in its train. There arose at Byzan-
tium a local school of painting and sculpture,
classical in its origin but quickly becoming
tinged with Oriental gorgeousnees^a scho<3
that was destined to dominate European art
for many centuries. To begin with, sculpture
flourished to a certain extent ; the use of gems
and precious metals gave it a kind of super-
ficial splendour that seemed, at any rate to its
contemporary patrons, to an excellent sub-
stitute for the classic purity and noble lines
of Pheidias. But with the introduction of
Christianity, the arts wore subjected to an
ascetic influence that completely stopped their
development. Sculpture, indeed, was for the time
being destroyed, since it was considered idola-
trous to carve or mould the human form, while
even in painting the representation of the
latter was limited by a set of rigid conven-
tions imposed by the priesthood. Oppressed by
these circumstances, Byzantine sculpture died a
natural death, and with it went also the sculp-
ture of most of those countries which vrore
within its sphere of influence. In Italy, how-
ever, particularly in North Italy, the art
merely underwent a period of inactivity ; the
genius of the nation^ perhaps, did not allow
itself to be profoundly affected by the hard
religious sentiment that made its mark else-
where. At any rate, in the 12th century,
while painting was still hopelessly burdened
the Byzantine tradition, sculpture awoke in
Italy, and the 13th century witnessed"^ the
astonishingly modem work of Nicoola Pisano
and his eon Giovanni. The derivation of
Niccola's ant, as shown in the sculptured panels
at Hsa and Siena, was essentially classic, hut
at the same time it evidenced a naturalistic
freedom that might be traced to Gothic in*




( mi




it diwM to©

'wm iie ag© tiit Fmcflbi Ootliie a^U of
i^itecturo and aroliitaoinral aoulptura waa
attaining ttoe iiaiglit of ita gkMry in tib©
oathadrala of Ctoartz©#, Bliaijna ana Janlana.
On® modern writer, in fact— M. Marcel
tnond in La Smlptme Fforeiiftn©— claiaia tnat
Kiccola'a art and
that of tofi followers
was inspired whoUjr
by ttoe work that was
being done in
France. The matter
is still debatable.
In the litb oentnry
Italian art was en*
riohed by Andrea
Oro{ma, the author
of the Tabemaoolo
in Or San Michele
at Florence ; the
16th century
brought Ohiberti,
Donatello, and Luca
della Bobbin. Ghl*
berti (b. 1381) is
chiefly remembered
by the famous Bap*
tlstery gates at
Florence, which
were begun in 1403.
Donatello (b. 1386)
is acknowledged to
0 bo the greatest
sculptor tljat the Re-
naissance produced.

MioflAKi. AXQKto*tt oAviD. Consldored purely
as a sculptor his
genius was more perfect even than that of
Michael Angelo, whose gigantic personality
and |»ower ol expressing passionate action and
emotion occasionally lea nim beyond the true
limits of hie medium. Donatello, while his art
had no lack of virility, retained the Greek
simplki^, ita breadth and its comparative re*
pose. Luca della Robbia is nowadays re-
garded less as a sculptor than a© the founder
of the adhool that produced the beautiful ware
associated with his name. Yet on© work at
least* the ** Singing Boys^* in the Cathedral
Museum, Florence, has stamped his sculpture
with sweetuiss of sentiment, originality and



power.

Benvenuto Cellini (1600-71), again, is more
cloaely connected with the art of the gold-
smith than with that of the sculptor, with
the death ol Michael Angelo and the end of
the Renaissance interest in Italian sculpture
largely passes. Michael An^lo was followed
by a race of imitators who idt alone his artis-
tic virtues whil© they exaggerated his vices;
this school found its prime apologist in
Bernini (1598-1680) who attained great popu-
larity and exeroised a singular influence on
the sculpture of other countries besides his
own. Owing to this and other oanses European
icblpture during the 17th and 18th centuries


presents but Ipr l«atares of interpt^^^
EnglaniL in the 17th ' ^ -centniyv. .the .only,
work of importance was the sItll-Uf© cai^
ing of GiinBng Gibbons (1648*1721), |n the
18th century a Frenehntan/ lean Antoine
Houdon, proved himself a great porirait sculp*
tor in a style that wa© nei&ier dry and formal
Ilk© the pseudo-classical, nor exaggerated and
cheao like that of Bernini, France, however,
in the 16th century had been inraded toy
the Italian influence, had remained saturated
with it, and Houdonu example h^d no lasting
effect. The advent of Canova (1767-1822) was
the signal for a return to the more deffnitely
antique both in France and England, tJpcm
the Italy of his day Canova forced the ineipid
elegance of his neo-Greek Style, while in France
Chaudet, Fremiet, Pradier and the Danish
Thorwaldsen, and in England Flaxraan, fol*
lowed the general retrogression towards the
antiaue, until sculpture tnroughout the West-
ern hemisphere had settled down to a correct
lifelessness. But in the 19th oenturv there
was a revolt against Canova. Then it
was that the genius of Alfred Stevens, the
sculptor of the mueh-disottssed Wellington
Memorial in St. Paurs, rebelled against pseudo*
classicism and showed the wav to a more living
art, while in France Rude, Carpeaux and
Barye were forming a school which, with its
many diverse elements, was united in its desire
for independence.

However, the modern movement in sculp-
ture dates from the beginning of the last
quarter of the 19th century. Ihe end of the
Franco-German war was followed by a revival
of the art in


France. Eu-
gene Guil-
laume, a skil-
ful if severe
craftsman,
Paul Dubois,
Chapu, Bar-
rias, Falgul-
4re, Bartho*
1 0 m 4, are
some of many
names that
illumine this
epoch;
Moreau - Vau-
thier and
Fremiet
among the
apostles of
coloured
sculpture. In
Germany
Rauch and
others ; in the
United States



TBX WCLLtaOION MUtORIAL.


W. W. Stoiy, Hiram Powers, A. St. Gaudens and
Walter Palmer he^d to mark a wmrld-wide
revival. In Englana the coming of Jules Balou,
sculp^r and political refugee, to the South
Kensington Smiools, awakmied a latent en*





( 149 )




tikiiflasiii among Britiah acmljptoxa; iiie In*
guenoe of Carpeanx maY bo «aid to kaTo boon
into Englana tkxougk Balon. Ike
lattor iraa sucooeded in Ms official position by
bia dieoiple, Fiofoeeor lionteri Contempora-
neously tbe teaobing of Alfred Gilbert, one
of tbe few enocessfnl practitioners of poly-



chromatic sculpture, was making itself felt.
Much of tbe inspiration found in the work
of living British sculptors has com© from
France, where, indeed, the majority of British
sculptors, as that of British painters, spend a
period of their training. But it should be
noted that the latest movement in French
sculpture — ^the impressionist movement, of
which August© Boain is the accredited chief,
though the actual originator is said to have
been the Italian sculptor Medardo Kosso — has
made little or no headway in the United King-
dom. One finds traces of its influence here
and there — ^in pupils of Bodin, like John Tweed,
for instance-Amt on the whole the English
genius inclines, in this art as elsewhere, to-
wards orderliness rather than eccentricity,
towards the propriety of the Italian Eenais-
sance and the Greek rather than the experi-
mental and daring.

Materials and Prmu3e». The materials most
commonly need in modern statuary are marble
end bronze, but in this, aa in every age that
practised the art, many othere have been em-
ployed, of which granite, basalt, ivory, wood
and terra-ootta may be enumerated. Ime early
Gieebs wrought smtues of the gods in wood;
the ihaping of an image in this medium followed


naturally from the regarding of the tree itself
as the symbol of this or that deity. Marble,
howevez^ from Haxos and Paros, and bronze
were the principal materials ed the great
Greek craftsmen. The first woZlM in marble
probably elcetched a front and a aide view in
outline on the front and side of the block, and
then cut out tb© figure freehand^ t.e., without
the mechanical aid of a pointing machine;
but in Grssco-Boman and Hellenistic times
pointing from a full-sized model was evidently
in vogue, as it is to-day, and in this respect
the technical process of marble sculpture can
have altered but little during the last 2,000
years. The modern practice m marble soulp-
ture is as follows: — ^A full-sized model is first
of all moulded in clay, and f^m this a cast
is made, generally in plaster. On this cast are
marked a number of points, which are then
transferred to the block of marble by mechani-
cal measurement, and are drilled in to the
depth required; these measured points are
known as punUlli. After the drilling the
superfluous marble is cut away, usually by
trained workmen, till the points are reached,
when the statue is ready for the eurfaco finish-
ing to be given either by the sculptor or his
assistants. Generally speaking, the practice
among marble workers is to leave as much to
t})eir assistants as possible after the model is
once complete. There are, however, several
who prefer to work upon the marble with the
chisel when it comes to them, rough-shaped,
after pointing, and even a few who work free-
hand from a small, not a full-sized model, and
do without the regular system of pointing, in
the way that Michael Angelo is said to nave
done. It is doubtful whether anything is
gained by dispensing with any of the mechani-
cal aids to accuracy that are provided by
science, and were undoubtedly recognised in
principle by the finest sculptors of antiquity,
in all aepartments of the art me antiquity of the
processes used to-day is a curious and striking
circumstance. Bronze-founding, for instance,
which superseded the very ancient practice of
beating plates or bars of the metfl into
shape, is believed to have been known to the
Egyptians and to have been introduced into
Greece by Bhoecus and Theodorus of Samos;
at <any rate, it was extensively employed by
the sculptors of the 6th century b.c. There
are several methods of hollow casting in bronze,
all of which were not improbably known to
the Greeks, but the principle of all is identical
and may be briefly described. A monld is
taken from the finished clay model, and into
this mould a core is introduced, corresponding
nearly to the shape and size of the mould, so
that the molten metal will not fill the mould
entirely but only the interval between it and
the core. In fine casting, everything depends
upon the zeeurate correepondenoe of the core
vnth the mould, and a mould and core of the
required nature can best be produced by what
is Itnown as the etre perdm, or waste-wax,
process. In this the core of some fire-proof





C 160)




material, corrmponding a$ nearly m possible to
t^e sbaiw of tke statue re<|uired, but lalliug
wiibin me latter's surface by the tbickness
ivbicb the bronze is to bave, is covei^ with
wax to bring it up to ibe final surface, and
tbe final detailed modelling is added on tbe
waa. Oter this tbe moula is built up; tbe
wax is then melted out and tbe metal poured
into its place. Plaster, while often the material
in wbicb oxbibition work is shown, is rarely
the final form of statuary, neither is the
opaque whiteuess of its surface pleasing to
the majority of eyes. Canova, in summing
up the characteristics of various sculpture
materials, observed; “Clay is the Lif^ Plaster
the Death ; Marble and Bronze the Eesurrec*
tion.“ Olay, of course, is the medium most
universally adaptable to the modeller's hand,
but wax and terra-cotta are frequently used,
especially for the lighter species of sculpture,
and piaster is occasionally employed for model-
ling as well as casting. The combination of
fi^ulpture with metal work, a • movement of
which Alfred Gilbert was the initiator in Eng-
land, has produced many attractive results,
tliou|fh the latter belong rather to the order
of 00 jets d'art than to that of ecrious sculp
turo. Similarly the application of colour to
sculpturik has been mainly revived by the
workers, jthe art-craftsmen, in wax or terra-
cotta or any other material that lends itself
to clever and facile manipulation and pleasing
effects rather than to the working out of a
great conception and a stately result. The
ancient® coloured their statues, in order to
make them more realistic; oven after it 'was
discovered that the texture of marble siig-

S ested that of human fiesh better than any-
ling else, the practice of touching up statues
with colour was continued by the Greeks, and
this eirrnmlitio^a.^ it was called — was esteemed
a very high art. Marble, however, undoubtedly
gave the deathblow to coloured sculpture, which
nowadays only survives in those lighter forms
and mediums to which allusion has been
n»de.

SonljptllZIld StOMS, a name given to the
monumental stones erected in the British Isles
during the centuries which followed the intro-
duction of Christianity. The earlier specimens
nr© mostly unhewn and very rude in character.
Thev have been divided into four classee —
H) Those which bear Latin inscriptions in
Boman ci^itals cut into the stone ; (2) those in
which a Celtic inscription in Ogam characters
cut into the stone on one side corresponds to
a Latin inscription in Boman letters (usually
capitals^ on the other; (3) those with Ogam
inscriptions only ; (i) those with inscriptions
in Boman minuscules. This elaseification of
the stones corresponds with their chronological
order. The most important examples of the
two former classes ar© found in Wales, of the
two latter in Ireland; but all four are repre-
Bsnted in England and Scotland also. The in-
cised inscription commemorating the person


buried at the spot is frequently accompanied
by an incised cross, ana the «tones of the
third class are also ornamented with designs
in relief of the type common in Celtic manu-
scripts of the Gospels; in the fourth class, of
which there are numerous examples in the
cemetery at Clonmaonois, the ornamentation is
incised. There are also many sepulchral stones
with Runic inscriptions, both Anglican and
Scandinavian. Tbe finest examples of this
class are cut in the sha^ of crosses with ela-
borate ornamentation, ^at at Buthwell, in
Dumfriesshire, preserves twenty-one lines from
an Anglo-Saxon poem, The Dream of the Croes,
ascribed to Cynewulf, of which no other copy
was known before the discovery of a MS. in
1823. The sculptured stones peculiar to Scot-
land, dating probably from the 7th to the
12th century, seldom bear inscriptions, but
they display much rich ornamentation in re-
lief, together with certain symbols (such as the
mirror and comb) which do not occur else-
where and the meaning of which is unknown.
Of such crosses, the most beautiful examples
occur in Iona and elsewhere in the Highlands.

Scurvy, a disease characterised by debility,
bloodlessness, swollen gums, and a tendency
to the occurrence of hmmorrhages. It is pro-
duced by a deficiency of vegetable diet-^as was
discovered by Captain Ckrnk, the celebrated
navigator — and has from time to time worked
much mischief among armies in the field and
ships' crews whose diet has not been properly
regulated. It is clear that the mala<^ is
brought on by the exclusion of fresh vegetables
from the dietary, but there is some uncertainty
as to the particular element® to the absence
of which the disease is attributable. Some
authorities say scurvy ia produced by the lack
of vegetable acids; others by a failure of the
adequate supply of potaeh salt®. Since the
importance of the adoption of preventive mea-
sures has been recognised, the disease has be-
come rare. In the navy lime-juice or lemon-
juice is periodically administered to the crews
of vMkScIs on long voyages. The efficacy of at-
tention to diet as a radical cure for the disease
is demonstrated by a study of the annals of
the Naval Hospital at Haslar in Hampshire, in
England. In 1780 no fewer than 1,457 cases
were admitted into that institution. In 1806
and 1807 there was only a single case in each
year; in other words, the mere adjustment
of dietary had practically abolished the disease
in the experience of one great hospital in a
quarter of a century.

Scutari (Turkish, Uskudar; classic, Chryso-
polls), a port on the eastern shore of the Bos-
phorus, Turkey-in-Asia, opposite Constantinople.
It is a bright and busy town, containing a se-
raglio. several mosques (of which the principal
are the Mosque of the Dowager Sultana, built in
1547 by the daughter of Solyman; the Great
Mosque; the Mosque of Selim HI., and the
New Mosque), larg© baxaaio and huge but
handsome Wracks. The cemetery is the most


SeatttrL ( 151 ) Itajlliu


extensive and most beautiful ef any in Con*
€tantino|iie and tbe vicinity, and, being laid
out in Asiatic soil, is, in the e^res of pious
Mohammedans, exceptionally desirable as a
resting-place. It is. estimated that more Uian
three millions of Moslems have already been


violence to the fable if we regard it as a
picturesque impressionist attempt to portray
the dismay created in the minds of primitive
mariners by the hideous aspect 4|pd menacing
manners of the giant cuttle-fish, A variety of
this tradition represents the monster as



[Photo : SMt ct Joaillier.


buried there. Adjoining the barracks, on the
Bosphorus, is the hallowed spot where 8,000
British soldiers were interred during the
Crimean War, the site being now marked by
a tall granite obelisk. Near the barracks stood
the great red building which Florence Night-
ingale and her self-sacrificing staff of nurses
used as a hospital. Arms, saddles, and fabrics
of silk and cotton are largely manufactured.
On the rock close to the shore stands the
fabled Leander’s Tower, now a lighthouse.
Pop. variously estimated at from 50,000 to
80,000.

Scutari (Turkish. Scodra: Slav, Skadar), a
town of Northern Albania, capital of a vilayet
of the same name, Turkey-in-Europe. It is
situated near the southern end of Lake Scutari,
which is drained by the Bojana, on which the
town stands, 10 miles from its mouth on the
Adriatic. Manufactures of textiles and fire-
arms are carried on, and there is some ship-
building. The exports include grain, wool,
hides and skins, sumach and tobacco, and the
imports woollen and cotton goods and metals.
Pop. variously estimated at 20,000 to 35,000.

ScyUa, one of the mo.st familiar ficrures of
Greek mythology. She was the subject of
several traditions. According to one, she was
the daughter of Crataeis, was a monster
who barked like a dog, had twelve feet,
six long necks and mouths, each of which
contained three rows of sharp teeth, and fre-
quented a rock near Bhegium (modern, Reggio)
on the coast of Italy, at the northern entrance
to the Strait of Messina. We shall not do


possessed of six heads of different animals,
while another endows her with only three. A
favourite legend relates that she was originally
a beautiful maiden, fond of playing with sea
nymphs and beloved by Glaucus, whose pas-
sion she did not reciprocate. In an evil moment
he invoked the aid of Circe, but she, jealous,
cast magic herbs into the pool where Scylla
used to bathe, and by these means transformed
the innocent girl into a species of mermaid,
the upper part of her body remaining
womanly, the lower being fish-like or serpent-
like, surrounded by dogs. On the opposite,
the Sicilian coast, near Messana (modern,
Messina), was the whirlpool of Charybdis, and
between this vortex, on the one side, and the
rocks, on the otlier, the early navigators had
a rough time. The former seems to have been
the more formidable and a real danger so long
as juhe undecked boats were in vogue, and it
has been asserted that even men-of-war in
modern times have been whirled about on the
surface of the water by the concentrated forefe
of the eddies. Apparently the perils of the
rock, or rocky promontory of Scylla, were
greatly exaggerated, there being no reason
w^ this headland should have been more
difficult to negotiate than plenty of others of
which neither fiction nor fact says a word.
Indeed, so far from r^arding it as dangerous,
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Bhegium, who flourished
early in the 6th century b.c., seemed to think
it presented possibilities of attack. Therefore,
the position being naturally strong, he forti-
fied it and established a naval station at the
spot, with the view of holding in check the







t 152)


tlk« lyndieiiiiin '6oli* / -'Jlik led to a
* 111 ^ 1 } town frowtng np nn^er protection of the
itiwiigliold, thougli prolMiliif it neirer attnined
to nny congiderable eiite. Hiny, holder,
oftlled It IScyllieniii. The rodh is ftill o€«m^ed
by m fort. From the rock to the oppoeite
ehore the dietanoe ie di mileft, but the etrait
i« much narrower at the mouth, farther north.
The terrors inspired b^ the dilhcultiea of
navigating the strait ultimately found their
way into literature, and Scylla and Charybdie
found themselves playing the parts of the frying*
pan and the ^e of the hum ole proverb. The
classical rendering of the indisputable fact
that in trying to avoid one danger, or error,
or Whate^r else it may be, we freouently run
a serious risk of failing into another |iist as'
bad. Was ei^eseed in the line frodt
Aftmiidreii of Philippe Gautier (12th cehtiiry),
StpUam mpkiu vUare

*'Thoh fallest into Scylla desiring to avoid
Charybdis." ■

iferalm ScYPHXBroisa* a itage in

the ufe-^history of some of the Hydrosoa be*
longing to the sub-class Acraspeda. It con*
eim Of only a small fined tube resembling the
common Ireih-irater polype or Hydra; it is
therefore known also as the ** Hydra tuba.*’
It occurs in the members of the Ephyronim.

, •ogrtiiiaiifff the name of a people well-known
in classical times, respecting whose ethnology
and habitat considerable doubt still exists.
Speaking very generally, they would appear to
have inhabited the country familiar to us as
Bussia*in-£urope and Central Asia, with (pos-
sibly) a portion of Siberia. They seem to have
been called Scythian by the smaller tribes
lying between themselves and the Greeks, but
in tneir own tongue their name was Scoloti.
The earliest autborities, if the term be not
somewhat unfair, for our scanty knowledge of
them were Hesiod, Homer and Herodotus,
and though these ^eat men were credulous,
they occasionally acquired bits of hard fact.
Homer calls them Hippemolgi, in allusion to
their characteristic haoit of milking mares.
Occupying such an enormous area, the people
differed considerably amongst themselves, the
trilm bordering on civilised races presenting
somewhat less rude customs than those more
remote, thoul^ none degenerated into mere
effeminacy. JEiscliylus inferred that the milk-
drinking Scythians were ip$o faeio of milder
natures than the cannibalistic Barmatians,
who, however, wbre not Scythians. Where the
soil lent itself naturally to cultivation and
pasturage, there the Scythians were more
settled, and then, as now, certain tracts of
Bussia possessed extraordinary fertility. The
physical features of t^e vatt territory which
the Scythians peopled are, of course, quite
fampiar to hs, while to the ctaasical auraor
th^'" ''were' more or less ''matter'"' of: vague con-
iedure and imagination. Such rivers as the
Bmiube* Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, Den, Tolga,
Dral^ Astu^Daria, Byr-Daria and many more


watered -their land, which, but for the Dial
Mouniaine imd the rugged maesee of Caucasia,
Northern rersia, and me gigantic plateaus of
Central A^a, Uras either ri<m plain, or barren
steppe, or arid desert. Thus the pecmie i^aa
either migratory (and nomads lorm^ die vast
majority) or pastoral. In both cases their
habits were savage. They sacrificed to their
gods, of whom the war-god, a Scythian version
of Mars, was the chief, and to him — whose em^
blem was an iron sword^they offered up
horses, sheep and prisoners. Human beings
were sacrificed, but, curiously enough, swine
were not sacrificed, nor eaten, nor tolerated in
their country. They were brutal warfiore,
yelping their enemies and drinking out of
their skulls. There is growing belief that, to
express their racial affinities in current ter-
minology, the Scythians were Turks— in which
case, tie Turcomans, Tatarsi Uzbegs, Takuts
and other Central Asian peoples are descend-
ants— though Niebuhr contended for a still
more extensive range for them and claimed
they were of Mongolian origin, a theory which
would account for their habits and physio-
gnomy, but is probably wider than there is any
occasion for. According to a third hypothesis
that they are of Indo-European stock, it is
surmised that they were the progenitors of the
Goths, Germans, and — the Persian Sacce being
the equivalent of Scythie — Saxons : there is too
much mere book-learning and etymology about
this theory to carry any weight. But whatever
may prove to have been their original race and
country, it is small wonder that the Outer
Barbarians filled the refined peoples of antl^
quity with horror, or that, at the hour of
Erne’s decadence, they overran the empire.

Scytodornaatay a synonym of Holotburoidea
or Sea-cucumbers.

Sea, tbe general name for the hydrosphere or
water-shell resting in the hollows of the glob©
and covering about 72 per cent, of its suiiace,
or about 68 per cent, of the northern, and
about 83 per cent, of the southern hemisphere.
In the hemisphere of which New Zealand is the
centre two-thirds of the entire ocean-surface is
situated, only 8 per cent, being land. Most of
the hydrospnere is a connected whole, the
Caspian being the only considerable isolated
area of sea or truly inland sea, though there
are many nearly land-looked or mediterranean
seas. It is usual to divide the hydrosphere into
four oceans* the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and
Southern, the Arctic being considered as part
of the first-named. (GcogTaphers opposed to
this classification maintain there are five
oceans, making the Arctic an independent
ocean and not an outlier of the Atlantic.) The
Atlantic Ocean thus considered has an area of
33,000,000 square miles, and receives the rivers
of half the land area of the globe. It has as
more or less enclosed portions the Arctic,
Kara, White, Norwegian, North; Baltic, Black,
.^^an, Adriatic, Mediterranean, and OariV
bean tea, the Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson


( m )


B»y. Hie Bkeifio Ocean, tli« lafgettt In ajrea,
miMm {55*000,000 aqitare mika, an am equil
ia ilie entire land-enriace of tlia glql>e, and naa
as more or less enclosed portions tlie Bering,
Olcliotsk, Japan, Yelloir, China, Celebes, and
^rafnra Seas, and the Oulf of California. Ihe
Indian Ocean covers 17,000,000 square miles,
and has the Bed and Bengal Seas and the
Fersian Gulf as partially enclosed areas^ The
Southern Ocean, extending from 40^ S. to the ice
of the Antarctic land, covers about 30,000,000
square miles. According to Dr. Bobert Brown,
in Our Earth and Us Story, “Efforts have bfeen
made to define a certain law in the arrangement
and grouping of the basins of the seas. A law,
if such IS the proper name for it, appears
plainly before us in the convergence ot the
masses of land towards the Nom and their
divergence towards the South. In the land
hemisphere (see diagram) the four continents
which appear are massive and broad towards
the Nortn, but tapering into capes, which give
them a wedge- like form, towards the Sputh.
Otherwise there are wide differences between
them. Europe and Asia are deeply indented
by arms of the sea and bays, which form
numerous promontories and capes, nearly all of
the latter, like the great continents, pointing
towards the South. “ The north of America
is similarly indented, but, on the other hand.
South America (save at the extreme south),
Africa and Australia are distinguished by a
remarkably even or comparatively unbroken
coast-line. The origin of the sea is, of course,
a matter of speculation, since we possess no
data whatever enabling us to say for certain
how the first rain, now derived from evapora-
tion, began. But since all water comes from
the air, either directly o>r by draining through
the soil, we may infer that the sea must have
gradually grown in the hollows and wrinkles
of the young earth, as its crust contracted in
consequence of the diminution of heat at the
centre or of the cooling of the globe from a con-
dition of high temperature, the saltness being
due to the rivers and springs, laden as they
all are, more or less, with saline and other sub-
stances, flowing in and getting concentrated,
owing to there being no outlet to the ocean.

8es- water contains on an average 3 5 per
cent, by weight of saline matter, and is, there-
fore, about 2*6 per cent, more dense than pure
water. The saline matter consists of over 77
per cent, of common salt (sodium-chloride),
nearly 11 pen cent, of magnesium-chloride, an
equal percentage of sulphates of magnesium,
calcium, and potassium and very minute traces
of carbonates of calcium and magnesium and
of silica. These salts give to sea-water a
bitter as well as a salt taste. Whilst the Baltic
is exceptionally fresh, the Mediterranean and
Bed Seas are the regions of aaltest water. It
has been calculated %at the. salts in the ocean
would cover its surface 170 feet deep. Sea-
water is aerated by the action of waves at
the surface, and dissolved gases being cir-
culated by convection-currents, respiration is


rendered nossible for marine er^nitms at all
depths* Sea-water frbeaes at 21?^ F., most of
the salts si^araMng;ouVp''the:'':pioce^^ thus
vicMhg nearly fre(£ ice vrith mo|» saline water
below. 'Ihe Arctic l^a is moistfy frosen over
every winter, the floe-ice being from 2 to 10
feet thick; but Sir George Nares, finding floea



DIAGRAM BBOWmo DIVBBOEMCC OF LAMP MASBKB AMD KOMR
OF CLEAVAGE OF THE EARTH.


over 160 feet thick, estimated that they might
be five hundred years old, and named that part
of the Arctic the Paleeocrystic Sea. In the
tropical zone the surface-water has an annual
temperature exceeding 80*^ F., but in the Bed
Sea 90° and 100° have been recorded. At 300
to 400 fathoms below the surface a tempera-
ture of 40° is common in all latitudes, whilst
at greater depths it is only in polar regions
that the temperature falls below 30°. Sir John
Murray considers half the globe to be covered
with water over 10,000 feet deep. This h© terms
the abysmal area. About 22 per cent, of the
surface, covered by more shanow water, he
terms the transitional area, the remainder
being the permanently continental, or land,
area. The average depth of the sea is 2,100
fathoms (12,600 feet), one of the deepest
abysses — that known from the United States
exploring vessel as the Tusmrora Deep, be-
tween 20° and 60° N. in the Pacific—almost
reaching 4,700 fathoms, although there is h
record of 5,269 fathoms at a point east of the
Ladrone Islands. Hie movements of the sea
include tides, waves due to wind, currents
of surface water, due mainly fo the constant
winds, and circulation by convection-currents,
produced by concentration by heat in the
tropics, and by freezing in polar seas, by
dilution with fresh water, and possibly by
other causes affecting temperature. The sea
equalises temperatures, keeps up breezes and
monsoons, supplies the atmosphere with its
water^vapour, is constantly ten4i>^if ky its
waves and shingle to wear down its coasts to a
plane, and is i£e receptacle, not only lor ter-




( 154 )




!%«»« dejfKwitft formed fmin tlie wear and
teat of til© land, but alao for fieiaifie depoaits,
or ofiEea, formed in deep water, far from land,
by tlie alow accumulation of minute or^an-
iam'', decompoeed pumice, and meteoric ouat.
llie terrigene depoaita, beaidea gravela and
aandff, conaiit of muds, including coral mud,
Tolcanic mud, and widely^'diatributed blue
mud, coloured by Iron sulpbide and ferrous
oxide, and green mud, coloured by glauconite.
Tbe pelagic depoaita include the oozea known,
from their {ureTailing organisms and colours,
as the pleropod ooze, the Olobigerina or white
<ioe6, and the atraw*coloured or radiolarian and
diatomaoeona oozes, of which the two former
are mainly calcareous, and the two latter
mainly ailmiout, together with a very ubiquit-
ous red clj^, which covers half the floor of the
Paciflc. This consists of the residue of dis-
Holved Olobigerina ooze, of waterlogged pumice
and of meteoric and volcanic dust, and con-
tains manganic nodules, crystals of zeolites,
and numerous slowly-encrusted shark*© teeth.

< Though it was once believed that the bottom ‘
of the sea was analogous to the surface of
land and had hills ana glens, mountains and
valleys, deep-sea exploring expeditions have
modified this view. It is true that for some
distance from a land mass, the floor of the
sea is practically a continuation of the shore,
but beyond the boundary the ocean bed, as a
rule, exhibits few rapid inejiualities. Here
and there the lead may sink into deep holes, I
or even apparently bottomless pits, but, j
generally shaking, the floor displays gentle 1
undulations, recalling the aspect of a terres-
trial rolling plain, the soundings for, perhaps,
a hundred miles at a stretch Indicating very
little difference. Nevertlieless, in the Atlantic
are several extensive plateaux, along one of
which thecableeare laid, and this is true also of
areas in the other oceans. The colour of the
eea is another interesting point. In the open
ocean, away from the operation of all land
and river influences, the colour sometimes
changes rapidly from blue to green and then
back to blue. Investigations prove that the
natural hue of all water is blue (** ultra-
marine**) and that the divergence is due to
the admixture or presence of foreign ingre-
diente. There is a close connection between
colour and salinity, the specific gravity of
blue water being always heavier than that of
green, the latter, therefore, containing less
salt. There ate occasional exceptions, however.
Tropical seas are usually intehsely salt and
polar seas fresh, but green stretches are some-
times found in the IVopios and blue seas in
the Arctic regioiis.

Sm-Aii«iii0]|«. [Actinia.]

S«ft-Seftar. [Seal.]

9#»|yiax7, SamueXi. first Bishc^ of Connecti-
cut, was born at Groton, Connecticut, United
States, on November 80th, 1720* and was edu-
cated at Tale, where he graduated in 1748.


He then studied theology under his father, a
Church of Hnglaiid clergyman, and later m#i-
cine at Edinburgh University. He took holy
orders, being ordained in Loudou in 1753.

After his return to his native land he engaged
in missionary work for a few years and became
rector of Jamaica, Long Island, in 1757, and,
ten years later, was preferred to Westchester,

New York. Here his views were obnoxious to
the strait-laced Whigs, by some of whom he
was cast into prison in New Haven for six
weeks. On his release he supported himself
for a time by the practice of medicine. He
was still in bad odour, because of his sym-
pathies with the mother country in her con-
troversy with the colonies. In 1777 he re-
ceived the degree of D.D. from Oxford, and
in 1783 the Church of England clergy of Con-
necticut elected him first bishop of the diocese.

After waiting nearly sixteen months in vain
for consecration in ixindon, he applied to the
Scottish episcopate by which he was con-
secrated at Aberdeen in 1784. He carried oh
the duties of his office with zeal and efficiency^
and was the first president bishop of the cohT
vention of State churches, held in 1789, and,
along with Bishops Provoost, White, and
Madison, consecrated Bishop Claggett, through
whom every bishop of the Andean Commu-
nion afterwards consecrated in the Union traces
his episcopate. He died in New London, Con-
necticut, on February 25th, 1796.

tiea-Chioiimber. Holothurians.]

8ea-Firf or Seutularia abietina (Linn.),,||^ •
is a species of zoophyte belonging to the ^ *
family of Sertularid® and the order Hydroidea. • ^
As it is one of the commonest members of this^
group, the popular name is sometimes ex- *
tended to include them all, such as the Sea-* A,
tamarisk {Diphasia tamarisca, Lim|||| the Sea-
pine Coralline (D. pinaster, Ell. Sol.), the
Podded Coralline (Aglaophenia ptuma, Linn.),
and others. The groi^ are all marine, and are
plant-like in form. The skeleton is horny or
ckitinous, repeatedly branched, and is attached
to rocks ana shells. Ihe zoophyte is colonial,
many different polypites or individuals unit-
ing to form a fixed colony or hydrosoma.

This is composed of a chitinous or horny crust
known as ^e perisarc, which surrounds and
protects the softer tissues. Each polypite is
protected by an expansion of th^ perisarc
forming a cup or hydro theca. The polypites
are of two types of structure ; they are modi-
fied to serve either for nutrition (the
hydranths), while another set (the gonotheem)
serve for reproduction. The Skeleton consists
of two parts: the basal hydrorhiza by which
it is fixed, and the hydrooaulus, or tne erect
branching stem; the two form the hydrophy-
ton. In some genera, otherwise resembling the
Sertularians, there are no hydrothecss to pro-
tect the polypites; these form the order Athe-
cata, while the Sertiilatians belong to the
order Thecapliora. Hie Campanulimaziii are



SMfbsC




( 15fi)


familiar re|»reaeiitatiYes of tiio former. Tlie
Sea^firs and their immediate allies are marine.

8#a£ordf a watermg«place on the coast s of
Bueaea:, England^ 12 miles E. by S. of Brighton.
In consequence of its excellent golf links and
bracing climate the town is in growing re-
quest as a health-resort. A singular incident
in its phyeical history is said to nave occurred
in 1570. Before that year the river Ouse had
fallen into the sea at the cliffs, but during
the prevalence of an extraordinary storm its
waters were held up, driven back and perma-
nently diverted into another course, now reach-
ing the English Channel at Newhaven, fully
two miles to the west. Tlie parish church of
St. Leonard (restored in 1861-2) is a good ex-
ample of the Early English flint-and-ston©
structure. Prawns are caught among the
rocks and the fisheries (of mackerel especially)
provide the only considerable industry. Pop.
(1901), 2,616.

Seaforthif Loch, an arm of the sea, on tho
# ' eouth-eastern side of the island of Lewis, Outer
Hebrides, Scotland, forming part of the bound-
ary between Lewis and Hams. It extends in-
land for 13 miles, and its breadth ranges from
a quarter of a mile to three miles. For more
than half the distance from the sea it runs
towards the north-west, where it encloses an
island of considerable dimensions ; it then
bends north-eastwards and ends in an easteily
and a westerly branch* the former three miles
in length, the latter one mile. At its seaward
end it is bounded by lofty hills which render
ft the scenery somewhat impressive. The upper
part lies within the parish of Lochs, a parish
appropriately named from the great number of
lakes within its area. 'Hie loch is. associated
with a famous Highland regiment. In 1783
< Francis Iti e k enzie Humberston (1754-1615) suc-
* needed -t®ibe Seaforth estates and the here-
ditary dilmtaincy of the clan Mackenzie. In
1787 he offered to raise a Highland regiment
for service in India, but his recruits were
drafted instead to complete the 74th and 75th
regiments. He renewed his offer twice : the first
time it was refused, the second (1793) accepted.
Then ho set about raising the Roes-shire Buffs,
which were enrolled as the 78th Foot, being
the third Highland regiment that had borne
that number. The regiment is now the 2nd
Seaforth Highlanders. In 1797 Humberston
was created Lord Seaforth and Baron Mac-
kenzie of Kintail. Ihe Mackenzie, however,
had been created Earl of Seaforth in 1623, but
the title was forfeit in 1716, on account of the
then holder's Jacobite proclivities,

Stafnll. [Gvhu]

Sttftlifkm XarbouVi a seaport, Durham county,
England, 6 miles S. of Sunderland. It is
mainly noted as the place where the Marquis
of Londonderry cairies on the trade of coal
merchant. Ihe town dates from 1828, when
the first stone of the north pier was laid by the
3rd Marquis. At that time the district was


bleak and practically nninhabited. It now
flourishes, the mining and export of coal being
the leading ifidustry, though there are also
manufactures of bottles and chsifiicals in addi-
tion to iron-founding. The nrihcipal buildings
are the Perpendicular church of St. John the
Evangelist, the Londonderry Literary Insti-
tute m the Doric style (built in 1865 by the
3rd Marquis), the Masonic Hall, the Gothic in-
firmary, and the cupola-crowned colliery otfices.
The harbour contains wet and dry docxs and a
tidal basin and has a lifeboat station. At Sea-
ham Hall, in the vicinity, a seat of the Mar-
quis of Londonderry. Lord Byron was married
on January 2nd, 1816, to Anna Isabella, only
child of Sir Ralph Mil bank© Noel and Baroness
Wentworth. Pop. (1901), 10,163.

Sea-Sorse. [Hippocampus.]

Seakala {Cramhe marit'ma^^ a British sea-
side perenni^ plant belonging to the order
CrucifersB, with broad wavy glaucous leaves,
and white, honey-scented flowers. Though
used in ancient times and by inhabitants of
the coast, it was only introduced into the
kitchen garden in the early part of the 19th
century. It is earthed up, and the blanched
stems and ieaf-stalks are eaten boiled.

Seal, a die, or matrix, of gold, silver, bronze,
lead or other metal, or some other hard
material, such as rock crystal, cornelian and
sard, on which is engraved a device or motto
to be stamped either on paper or on clay, wax
or some other substance in a plastic state, to
denote the source from which a document pro-
ceeds; the word is also used to signify the
actual impression which is thus proouced. In
earlier times the seal was of exceptional im-
portance, since it indicated the validity of the
aocument bearing it. It was either j)laqui,
that is, impressed (the more usual form) or

endent. The ancient Egyptians frequently

ad seals attached to their rings, and the
p^ractice of sealing passed from mem to the
Romans. The hullie or impressions on lead
introduced by the emperors who succeeded
Constantine wefe likewise used as signatures
by the Popes, who fastened them to documents
with bands of silk or wool ; from the latter
ullage arose the use of the word “bull” for a
Papal charter. With a view to preventing
fraud, or improper use of the seal, the metric
(as in the case of that of the monastery dn
Mount Athos) was sometimes in four parts,
each being in the custody of a different person,
all united by the key-handle, which was en-
trusted to the keeping of a fifth person. In
such cases, therefore, the seal could only be
employed in the presence of five eeparat© per-
sons— an ample safeguard. The seals of "^e
French kings from the Merovingian period
downwards form an interesting ooflsction. In
England under the Norman kings a seal affixed
to a deed became a l^al proof of its authenti-
city. It is still required to give validity to an
instrument conveying real estate, bni os silb-


< )


li ike pmsm of eonl- on tlioin «t miiiiif nil tlie eiriln of

in^ In mroiy lormnl* C!or|»ofn^ maI* kme So ho bniAed the Wfito lor tho how Phrliilii^b

bflwn by towno nnd boiotiirho titioo the nnd oonoeaM 'tbe Seal. The Ozont Seal ;^i»

Otntnry. Tbo Great Seal ^ tho Gldted once aotually stolen. On the nis^i of ICaroh

Kingdom is the emblem of fovoveignty^ and k 24th, 1784, thieres broke into tho honke of

used Oft all eOlemn ocoaslons when the will of Lord Ohancellor Thnrlow in Great Ormond

the aoTereign is to be expressed. It is aery Street, London^ and stole the Seal. Ihey shiiit



ORSAT tXAL or BB^RT ▼. '


ornate, the Great Seal of Henry V. being pro- have consigned it to the melting-pot (it was

bably the most maiznidcent of the English iloyal of silver), for it wae never seen again. The

•eries. A new Groat Seal is provided by the Privy Seal is aifized to letters-patent for the

king in ootincil at the beginning of each reign grant of charters, etc., before they come to

or whenever a change is made in the royal the Great Seal, and to doonments of minor im-

arme or style, the old one bei^ publicly portance which do not pass the Great Seal at

broken. It was introduced into England by all. The office of Clerk or Keeper of the Privy

Edward the Confessor, who committed it to Sc^l, now called Lord Privy Seal, is of Norman

the care of the Chancellor. When the office origin. In the reign of Henry VIII. the Privy

of ^Chancellor was vacant through death or Se^ was made the warrant of the legality of

resignation, the Greet Seal was maced in the letters-patent from the Crown, and authorised

hands of a temporary keener, who gradually the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal,

came to exercise all the functions connected By the 47 & 48 Viet., cap. 30, however, a

with it# use. Since the accession of G€>orge warrant under the royal sign-manual, regularly

III. the office of Lord Keeper has been dis- countersigned, has taken the place of the Privy

continued. The Great Seal was also occasion- Seal as an authority for affixing the Great Seal,
ally placed in commission. By the Act of

union WiJ^ Scotland one Great Seal is used Saaly a general name (in many cases with an
for the United Kingdom in all mattefa of epithet) for any of the Pinnipedia or ITn-

public Import, hut the Act of Union with Ire- j footed Carnivora, with the exception of the
land oontained no similar provision. Although Walrus. All are aquatic and nearly all

extreme care Is always taken of the Great Seal, marine, but some enter large rivers, and two

it has not escaped the element of romance. species are found in inland lakes (Baikal, Cas-

Early on the morningof December 11th, 1688, pian Sea and Aral in Asia, and Ladoga in iln-

7*®Jf witt^Thitehall Pala^, carry- land). The limbs bear five digits united to the

ing the Great Seal in hishand. While he was extremities by a strong web, and are modifi^

ferried ^rM the Thames from Millbank to form powerful swimming organs. The tail

w Vaiixihall, he nung the Seal into the river, is always short. Seals are widely distributed,

wlience it wa# aocldentally fished up many but are most abundant in the cold and tem-

later and pst<^ to perate regions of the northern and aouthem

3^4 wt was i^ldith and spitoful, for probably hemispheres. They feed on fish, crustaceans

I^ ^ Macaulay;g toe^^ k oorrect. ••The and mollumjs. There are two familka— the

wrwt, ^ wrote rn hia ^ Mngtand, Otariidm or Bared ^als, forming a conneeting-

^leatofi himsrif wfto the tlmgiit that he link with the Land Camivm, and ike Pkwmm

mvew a ^people had or True Seals. In the Otaries there is a small

feen im|ialieat of hk despotism by indicting external ear, and on land the hind limbe are


( w )


dSipoled forwiurds^ ikm ^ting m sitpporii for
tlte hoAf; mile in t3io Trite S^als ItteT mre
4ifeote4 beekirerde. Tbe pelme eiid aolee of
iiie iBiiied Seele are naked ; tltbee of ike True
S^aie are covered with kalr. Tke SatM Seals
are natives of tke North Pacific and the Souik
Atlantic coaets, the Cape of Cood Hope, Aus-
tralia, and eome of the netghhourittg islands^
Ihey are popularly known as Sea-bears and
Sea^ions. according as they do, or do not,
possess the close undercut which forms the
^*eeal'Sk!n *’ of commerce. These animals form
herds. The males are always much larger than
the females, and are polygamous, l^ey are
now usually grouped in one genus (Otaria),
thoufl^ formerly broken up into several genera.
Of me Sea-lions, sometimes called Hair-seals
to distinguish them from the Sea-bears or Fur-
seals, the best-known and the largest is the
Northern Sea-lion (0. etelkri) from the North
Pacific. The natives of Kamchatka have a
curious mode of catching them. Salmon swarm
in summer off the mouths of the rivers and
the Sea-lions follow the fish. But the river
mouths haye been staked with strong nets, the
me^Ms of which are large enough to pass the
salmon, and the pursuing Sea-lions, becoming
tiopeleasl^ entangled, are despatched by the
Eamchatdales, v^o approach in flat-bottomed
boats and kill their victims with bone clubs.
The Patagonian Sea-lion (0. jubata) was first
brought alive to Europe in 1866. A French
sailor named Leoomte secured a specimen and
sold it to the Zoological Society of london.
When this animal died, Leoomte went out to
the Falkland Islands for otnei Hcuimens, one
only of which arrived safely. This animal ex-
hibited great docility and intelligence, and was
taught some amusing tricks by its keeper.
The existence of the mane from which the
animal takes its name has been doubted ; but it
is presumed that J. E. Forster, who also
named it after Captain Cook, with whom he
sailed. Cook's Otary, saw larger and more
rugged specimens than are now met with
which wore a shaggy mane, as he described.
Tbo Californian Sea-lion (0. calif orniana) has
frequenth been brought to Europe. The Fur-
seaf or Cfommon Sea-bear of the North Pacific
<0. urBina) has its chief home in the Prybiloff
Islands, where it breeds. These islands, situ-
ated in Bering Sea, to the north of the
Aleutians, were discovered in 1786 by Captain
Prybiloff and became a station for Buseian
fisiiers until they were ceded to the United
States. The adult male is from 6 to 7 feet
long, and the female about 4 feet. The breed-
ing-places are known as " rookeries ** ; the
** bulls*' come on shore about the end of May
or the beginning of June, and the mating
begins as soon as the females arrive, each
bnll securing as many mates as he can. By
the middle of September the young have
learned to swim, and the rookery m deserted
till the following breeding season. The Pijbiloff
Islands were acquired by America from Eussia
la 1870, and me assumption of sovereign


rights over the Bering Sea bf the United Statea
Cloveminent gave rise to compMoations with
dreat Britaiai Which were iiettw by the CJon^
vention of 1893. By thia take

of seals was regulated; but Mlling in open
sea prevails to such an extent that It is pro-
bable that in the near Inture the northern
Fur-seal will be as scarce as its southern con-
gener (0. pusUla), the Cape Fur-seal, which
IS said to be on the verge of extinction. The
Falkland Island Fur-seal . (0.
found not only on the islands within the Ant-
arctic Circle, but also on the mainland around
Patagonia and Cape Horn and the Chile
islands, furnishes one of the most valuable



THX COICMOS SSAL.
(Fhood vWlimi)


of the skins in the market. Even ashore their
agility is remarkable, but Captain Weddell,
who explored the region in 1818-21 in an ex-
pedition to the South Pole, explains the ridicu-
lous story of their throwing stones at their pur-
suers with their tails by me awkward trailing
gait of the animals, which, as t!h49y flounder to
the sea, scatter dihrla of rooks tp right and
left in their panic scamper. The males ate
from 6 to 7 feet long, the females sel-
dom exceed 4 feet. The True Seals consti-
tute the family Phocidm, and are much more
aquatic than tme Eared Seals. On land meir
hind-limbs afford them no assistance, and meir
progression is a series of jumps, aided iu some
cases, to a small extent, by the fore-limbs. But
however ungainly their movements itnuy be on
Shore, the animals are grace Itself ix their
native element. The Common Seal (Phoca
vittdina) is found on the Burcpeau and Ameri-
can shores of the Atlantic au| }n the North
Pacific. Bound the British ahd coasts





it i« I airly oommon all aaitabto localities^

fiNOijn wihicli it lias not been driren away by tbe
molestations of man.” Hie usual length is
from 4 to 6 feet; greyish-yellow in colour, mtb
darlc spots, on the upper surface, and lighter
below. The Creature m readily responsive to
musio, a flute, or even a whistle, bringing it to
the surface. Its docility has been observed
since the days of Pliny, and one kept tame
in Shetland even left the sea when called
by name by its owner. One day, however,
during a sudden snowstorm a number of wild
Beak appeaiisd and coaxed it to join them,
and it was never more seen or heard of. To the
same genus belong the Harp Seal (P. griBn-
landica), th© Binged Seal (P. hupida), the
Bearded Seal (P, mrbata), and the Seals of the
Caspian and Aral Seas (P. cagpica) and Lake
Baihal (P. gibirica). Most of them are hunted
for the sake of their skins, blubber (which
yields a valuable oil), and fleah. Sir W. H.
Flower put the take of Greenland Seals by the
Scots, Butch* and Norwegian sealing vessels
at SklO.CKX) annually, but such a catch is hardly
ever approached now. The Binged Seal, which
derives its other scientific name of Phoca
foetida from the strong, if not disgusting,
odoUr exhaled by the old males, or an inti-
mately-allied species. i» said to be found in
Lake Baikal and Lake Ladoga, but there is a
conflict of authorities on the point. Dybowski
and Nilsson maintain that P. gihirica and P.
nagpim are distinct species, while A. B. Wal-
lace, Tan Beneden and Dr. James Murie are
disposed to regard them as identical with the
Binged Seal, on the ground that they are de-
scendants of the animals that haunted the
waters of Bussia-in-Asia at a remote epoch in
the history of the globe, when there was pro-
bably direct communication with the Arctic
Ocean. The Grey Seal {Halichcmis grypue)^
larger than the Common Seal, seems to be con-
fined to the North Atlantic, and occurs on tho
British coasts. The Danes are trying to ex-
terminate this species on account of the harm
it does to their fisheries. The Monk Seals
{Monathug's inhabit the warmer seas. One
i^ecien (Af. albivmUr) is Mediterranean, and
M. iropimlig West Indian. It k the talking
fleh” of the showman, being of so teachable
a disposition tiiat it will “shake hands,” kiss
the spectator, utter sounds that a showman’s
imagination easily takes for speech, and go
through several simple tricks. The Common
Sea4eopard (OgrmorAlnuf leptonyx) and Wed-
delFs Sea-leopard (Pacilophoca weddcUi) inhabit
southern temperate seas and the antarctic
regions. The Hooded or Bladder-nosed Seal
(Cygiophora crisiata), a native of the Polar
seas, is remarkable for a dilatable sac on the
face of the male, which can be inflated at will,
and then extends backwards, covering Die
upper part of the head. The Blephant Seal
(MmerorMnus leoninm), from southern seas and
the coast of California, is the largest of the
family, adult males being nearly 20 feet in
length, while the females are much smaller. In


other genera there is little difference in the
sexes in point of size. The full-grown males
have the snout jproduced into a kind of trunk,
which can be dilated and extended at pleasure.
This animal is hunted for its blubber and sldn.

Sealed Orders are the orders banded to the
commander of a vessel or fleet sealed up and
not to be opened until he has reached a certain
point at sea, indicated before sailing. They
are seldom used excepting in the case of
manoeuvres or in time of war when it is neces-
sary to maintain strictest secrecy even from
the commander as well as from the enemy.
Such a contingency would scarcely ever hap-
pen now in the event of the British Navy, or
any 8C|uadron of it, being engaged in hostile
operations.

Sealing-Wax does not now contain any wax,
as its name would imply, though in former
days when sealing was in far more general
vogue and it was important the material should
be of the best quality, beeswax was an
ingredient. Coarse varieties are made from
resins, which are thoroughly melted and then,
in a molten condition, coloured with red-lead,
vermilion, or other pigment according to the
colour desired, the sealing-wax being cast in
moulds and allowed to cool. These inferior
waxes, however, can only be used for rough
purposes, such as the sealing of bottles and
the doing-up of parcels, as they are somewhat
brittle and are not very viscid when heated.
The better varieties contain shellac in place of
Die resin.

Sea-Lion. [Seal.]

Seal-Skin, All the Sea-lion family possess,
at least in their early years, under-fur, though
it is sparse in some and thick in others, be-
coming very abundant in the latter as age



SEAL-SKIN.

advances. If a seal-skin jacket be examined,
its rich colour, velvety softness and the dense-
ness of the fur will be obvious at once, but
these qualities are the result of treatment.
As imported, the dry skin is coarse, hard and
salted. In the living animal there are, ao to
speak, two growths of hair — a long, coarse,
oily-looking hair and a short, fine nair near
the roots of the other : the latter is the under-
fur. In the first stage of dressing the under-
fur is revealed after the following process, as
described bv Dr. James Murie, has been gone
through :~lhe skin having been washed ftee





fure plieiioiiiin* ^ mMam

fiwm to irnim itoi m 4wrt

i«» nawlaiw^ obnttitute m teiiwlcftM# mqumis0
df (dwits; a&d it i« ii<ii « littl#
t^At iliA nmemmim ili« TMil* idiidk pro*
4u€ 0 Aucli A protoimil iiii|>reiei«^ iiiwn
<^0 AVA AiiAceiitible ta ii^AiolciiAiA, ilMMild
oAiite no diicoiafort wIiAtAvef to ooftAla Ion-
titnAto p0fmm. During' long toyagoi/ wlion
toniiting fopeatodly oconta, a oonaitloii of c<4«
lapte fufomnea iwoli Inis in rare inntanooa
nwred fatal. On tlio otJber liand, somo pamona
IB Aintilair joircumatanooi only auftar diaMmfort
for a ahdii pariod, a state of tolerance of
tlie Unnsual conditions becoming establisliedi
Knmaffoua tbeoriea professing to explain the
oanse of ; sea-siolmeM hare Wn forsaulated.
One of the moat probable riews enunciated is
that which attributes the eymptoms to the
disturbance set up in the semicircular canals
of the ear by the morement of the ship. These
structures ard suppled to be concerned with
the notions entertained by the indiriduil ae
to his space relationships, and abnormal im-
pulses transmitted by them to the brain, and
thence reflected along the gastric fibres of the
vagus, may play an important part in the
cansatiott of the malady. 'Ihere is, moreover,
very little doubt but that many pereons, especi-
ally thoee of nervoue temperament, predispose
themeelves, so to speak, to an attack of sea-
siokness, by thinking almut it and ita torturee
even before the veesel has left port. If they
would school themselves to thinn of anything
clee but mal de rntr, it is possible they might,
if not at once, yet ultlmately« oomo to face a
sea trip not only with impunity, but with posi-
tive enjoyment. As regards treatment, in-
numeraole specifics have been recommended,
a sure indication that no one of them is com-
pletely efficacious. Probably the best plan to
adopt for thoee who are reluctantly oompelled
to undertake a short voyage is to eat a good
meal three or four hours before embarking,
and to lie down or sit still while on board. If
it is possible to remain on deck and near the
centre of the vessel so much the better. A
mixture of chloral and bromide of ammonium,
administered half an hour before the vessel
starts with a view to securing sleep, has been
recommended. In serious cases, with persistent
vomiting, this remedy may be employed, and
if oollapee is extreme, stimulants must be ad-
ministered, end medical advice procured. The
use of a tightly-applied abdominal belt, or of
an icebag to the spine, has been advocated, and
ths latter method h«e, It is said, produced
good results in prolonged cases.

ffiM-ffiMlDii A snake belonging to tbe family
Hydro^idas, from the Indian and Australian
aeas. The body is flattened, and the tail acts
as A swimming organ and rudder. Their
nostrils open outwaids and are closed with a
valve. These snakes, tome of which attain a
considerable sise-^according to Qfinther, some
ekemples attain a length of Ifi feht but the


lottgeat Sir Joseph Payrer ever sew did not
exceed fi ^ feet«r^re 'intensely / venomous,.*'' aitd:'
feed chiefly on fish. When cast on .shore, ^«jr
are helplm and nearly l^d, to this
would scein to be a oondition coneeqfuent oh
their change of element, since they pursue
and overtake their prey in ealt water» i^ioh
implies somewhat keen sight. In point pi fact,
the eyes are small, with circular pupils, and
contract to such an extent when the snake
is removed from the water that the animal is
practically almost blind. Thevi are occaeion-
allv seen in great numbers in to Bay of Ben-

f ai, their movements in the clear blue wato
sing agile, graceful and beautiful* Their bite
is extremely deadly. Fayrer mentions the case
of a fisherman who died within 76 minutes of
being bitten.

ilitaiOlti If the eaHh were to rotate about an
axis perpendicular to the plane of her path
rouna the sun, at any position which she might


1



3

BCASOHB.

occupy the whole of one hemisphere stretching
from pole to pole would remain for twelve
hours under the sun’s influence, and would
be turned away to the darkness of space for
the other twelve hours. Every day would be
exactly like every other day ; the equator
would always be the hottest portion of the
earth, since it would always have the sun
vertically overhead; and the poles would al-
ways be the coldest spots, as they would re^
oeive the most oblique rays. But the axis of
the earth’s rotation is not pei^ndicular to the
plane of her orbit (the ecliptic), but makes an
angle with it of 661® and remains pointing in
the same direction, or parallel to itself, all
toough the year. The above diagram may bo
taken to illustrate the position of the earth on
March fllst, June 21st, September 23rd, and
December 21st. In position 1 the radius a c of
the earth’s orbit is perpendicular to the axis,
n $, Light from the sun then falls vertipaily
upon the equator, e e, and every spot on the
earth enjoys equal day and night. This is the
vernal equinox. In position f the line a c Is
perpendicular not to n t but to a 6, a Une in-
clined at an angle of 23|® to a «, and to sun
is not vertically above to sqnator, but it over
c e, the Tropio of Cancer, a circle parallel to



MmAskwmi^n


(lei)


the eqiliator and 2a|® north of it. Every point
in the northern hemisphere is now havini^ a
day more than twelve noura long, is reoemng
more heat from the aun, and the summer sea-
son is in progress. If a circle, a a', be drawn
23|® from the pole n. it will be seen that no
point north of this circle is ever in darknees,
since every point rotates about the line n a.
At the summer solstice* therefore, there is per-
petual day within the Arctic Circle, as a a* is
called. It is to be remembered that the sun
is so far away that his rays light up a com-
plete hemisphere, the external rays touching
the earth round the circle a b. In position 3
the sun is again vertical to the equator, equal
day and night prevail everywhere, and the
earth is at tne autumnal equinox. Position 4
represents the earth at the winter solstice,
when we have the conditions of 2 reversed.
What was then true of the northern hemisphere
is now true of the southern, and vice versd,
s c is peri^ndicular to a h, but every point
in the Arctic Circle is now in permanent dark-
ness, while in the symmetrically-placed Ant-
arctic Circle, h b, there is perpetual day. The
sun is vertical to d d, the Tropic of Capricorn,
23^® south of the equator. In the northern
hemisphere, then, the rays are as oblique as
possible, the least amount of heat is received,
the nights are longest, and it is winter. It
might be thought that since the sun reaches
its most northern limit on June 2l8t, the longest
day, that that day would also be the hottest;
but this is not so. For some time after this day
the earth (in the northern hemisphere) is receiv- j
ing more heat during the day than it
loses during the night ; there is, there-
fore, a gain of heat during each twenty-
four hours, although the gain itself gets
gradually less. Hence it is hotter in the
months of July and August than in
June. It is to be remembered also that
the earth moves, not in a circle, but
in 9,n ellipse with the sun in one focus;
at one part of the year, therefore, the
earth is nearer the sun (in perihelion)
and is moving fastest, while at another
part it is in aphelion and is moving
most slowly. The latter occurs during
the northern summer, so that this is
longer to the extent of about eight days
than the northern winter. Being then
farther away, from the sun, summer in
the northern hemisphere is less extreme
than in the southern. This tends to
make both summer and winter more temperate
in the northern than in the southern half of
the globe.

8MtliWlit0f a valley between South-West
Cumberland and North - West Lancashire.
England. It is some three miles long, and
i* traversed by the Buddon. The scenery
is picturesque, but the district enjoys the
unenviable reputation of possesBing the heavi-
est rainfall in the British Isles, if not in
Europe. The average annual fall is 130 inches,

203— K.1S.




but there is a record of 160 inches in one
year. Near the village of Seathwaite, which
IS wholly situated in Latioaiihite« are the re-
mains of a plumbago mine, ono| of such value
that special regulations were adopted for its
management. An unsuccessful attempt to re-
sume operations was made in 1863. Seathwaite
Tarn, a mountain lake, lies in the hills about
six miles west of Coniston, and is commanded
by Seathwaite Fells, of which the highest point,
Greyfriara, is 2,o37 feet above sea-level.

Seattle! capital of King County, Washington
State, United States, on the eastern shore of
Puget Sound, an arm of the Pacific, 25 miles
N.N.K. of Tacoma. It has a magnificent situa-
tion, commanding gorgeous views of Mount
Rainier (14,530 feet) and other summits of the
Cascade Range to tne north, east and west and
of Mount Olympus (8,136 feet) and Mount
Constance (7,795 feet) on the opposite coast of
Puget Sound. Its harbour provides anchorage
for the largest vessels, and there is regular
communication by steamer with Honolulu,
Japan, China and the Philippines, while it is
a point of departure for the Yukon, Klon-
dike, and Nortn-West Canada. The industries
comprise shipbuilding, iron-founding, brewing,
engineering works, meat-packing, smelting and
refining, and lumbering, besides manufactures
of machinery, flour, bricks and tiles, boots and
shoes, carriages and furniture. It is the seat
of Washington University. Tlie commercial
quarters were nearly entirely consumed by fire
in 1880. Pop. (1900), 80,671.



OEMEaAL VIEW OF THE TEST OF A SEA-URCHm.

A, mott ol the epinee removed; B, portion ot lonee entar^; 1M»<1 of
•aoker with v&lvee open (C) nnd with voivoe oloeod (»).


Sea-Vrolim iEcMnu$, Latin, hedgehog '*)» the
common name for the members of the class
Echinoidea. Tliey are also popularly known as
Sea-eggs and Sea He^ehogs, the latter beinjg
the English of the French ourain, which
attempted to be Englished straight off in the
word ^‘urchin.** TTie body of the creature is
more o? less globular and symmetrical and
covered with spines, jointed on to knobs or
tubercles borne by the closely-fitting limestone
plates of the shell. Hie tnberoiM do not
cover the surface of the test or shell promiscu-




( m )




miilj, but are diapoaed in fire bi^ad acmes ex-
^nmag from pole to iiole of the globe and al«
temating witn five narrower zones bearing
smaller and fewer tubercles and pierced with
small holes arra^d in regular rows. I^ough
these holes the Urchin protrudes its tentacles
or tube-feet, which are provided with terminal
suckers, like those of the starfish, and are
largely used in locomotion, especially when the
animal climbs a steep slope. On more level
ground the spines, too, are employed for this
purpose, progress being made by a kind of
tilting action. Th© TJrchins are gregarious,
and those inhabiting coasts exposed to the de-
vastation of waves protect themselves by hol-
lowing out cavities in the solid rock, no matter
how iiard this may be. They chisel out the
rock with their teeth by constantly turning
round and round, beginning when young and
continually enlarging their habitation to allow'
for the growth of their test and spines. They
feed on seaweed, organisms of various sorts and
organic matter in deposits. Tlie “dead"' test
figures in many households as an interesting
ornament of the mantelshelf.

SeAweedi. [Au^,.^.]

SabaotOUfl Gland. Sebaceous glands are
met with in most parts of the skin, t^ing very
numerous in situations where there is abundant
growth of hair, but entirely absent from the
palms of the hand and soles" of the feet. 'They
secrete a soft ointment-like substance and
usually discharge into a hair follicle, the secre-
tion serving to lubricate the hair. Cysts some-
times develop in association with the blocking
of the orifice of a sebaceous gland. These
sebaceous cysts are frequently met with in the
scalp.

Sabastian, St., W'as born at Nnrbonne. in
France, in the 3rd century after Christ. His
parents were Christians, and, after being edu-
cated at Milan, and being made a captain of
the prietorian guard, he became a zealous mis-
sionary, which led to his condemnation by
Diocletian, Empror of Home, w'ho ordered him
to be shot witn arrows. He miraculously re-
covered, and interceded with the tyrant for the
Christians, and was then martyred, and his
body thrown into a sewer, whence it was ob-
tained and buried in the catacombs of Home.
His festival is JTanuary 20th. He is the patron-
saint of archers, because he was bound to a
tree and shot at with arrows ; of pin-makers,
for the quaint reason that the arrows stuck in
his poor body as thickly as pins in a cushion ;
of soldiers, for that lie was a centurion; and
against plague and pestilence, his cult obtain-
ing especial in the pest-ridden districts of
Italy. St. lidmund (841-870), the last king of
the Bast Angles, has been called the English
St. Sebastian, in reference to the manner of
his ^ath. After the defeat of his people by
the D^es at Thetford, he delivered himself
tip to them, hoping thereby to save them. But
refusing to abandon his faith and deny Jesus,


he was bound to a tree at Hoxne, in Bast Suf-
folk, and riddled with arrows. The great abbey
at Bury St. Edmunds was erected in his honour
and hiB remains were long kept in a shrine



“SIBA8TIAN CkOWXEO BY AKOELfl."


(Matteo lU Giovanni da Sietia.}

there. Th© martyrdom of St. Sebastian has
been a favourite sub-ject with painters, and in t
Alton Locke Charles Kingsley makes particular •
allusion to the fine picture, formerly ascribed i
to Guido Heni, in Dulwich Gallery. <

Sebastiani, Fran<?ois Horace Basttei| i
Count, soldier and statesman, was born at j||L.
Forta, in Corsica, on November 15th, 1772, iHp
claimed connection with the first Napoleflif^
with whom he soon became intimate. Joiulng
fhe army, he distinguished himself greatly in
Bonaparte*s Italian wars, and was at Areola,
Verona, and Marengo, as well as at Austerlitz,
where he was wounded, and served throughout
the Hussian catastrophe and the fighting in
Saxony. After Waterloo he spent a few
months in England, but having accepted the
new rigime, returned to France, and in 1819
was elected Deputy for Corsica. He held several
ministerial appointments, including the Navy
and Foreign Affaire. While badgered by the
Left, during a debate on the affairs of Poland,
he let drop a phrase the infamous significance
of which rendered it immediately famous.
**L*ordre,” he said (September 16th, 1831),
**r^gn© h Varsovie’W* Peace reigns at War-



^•teatiMio damornbo. (163) Mbillot.


saw/* tlbe Mnd of peace tliat prevails after a
country has been desolated and its people slain.

It was a saying worthy of being bracketed with
Tacittts^e SolUudimm faeiunt pacem appellant,
which Lord Byron adopted in Th^ Bride of
Abydos, “He makes a solitude and calls it—
peace *"). Sebastiani was ambassador at Naples
in 1834, and from 1836 to 1840 at the Court of
St James's, ^ere he was succeeded by Guizot.
He died in Paris on July 20th, 1851.

Sehastiaiio dlel Piombo, whose family
name was Luciani, painter, was born in 1485 at
Venice, whence he has been sometimes called
VaNKziANO. He first studied music,
but afterwards turned to painting,
studying under Giovanni Bellini
and Giorgione. His first consider-
able painting was executed for a
Venetian church, and so closely
adopted the method and style of
Giorgione that it was often taken
for the latter’s work. Luciani went
to Home in 1512, on the invitation
of Agostino Chigi, a distinguished
patron, for whom he did some
frescoes. He formed a friendship
with Michael Angelo, which is
said to have ripened into a part-
nership to this extent, that he
coloured the designs made by
Michael Angelo, who was sup-
jx>sed to be a perfect master of
technique, but weak in colour.

However this may be (for means
are lacking to test the truth
of the allegation), the pictures
ainted in pursuance of this
argain are stated to have been
the “Pietk,” at Viterbo; the
“^Transfiguration ” and “Flagella-
tion”, in the church of San Pietro
„in Montorio, Rome, and the mag-
l|f nificent “Raising of Lazarus,” one
of the notable canvases in the
' National Ghllery in London. The last-named
wgs painted in 1517-19 for Giulio de’ Medici
* .Mtorwards Pope Clement VII.), who placed it
SpNarbonn© Cathedral, where it was bought
^By in the 18th century by the Duke of
Orieans, at last reaching England in 1792 with
the Orleans collection. Soon after the acces-
sion of Clement VII. Sebastian© was made
keeper del piombo, or the leaden seal a}^endcd
to Papal charters and documents, and thus
acquired the name by which he is best known.
He painted several famous portraits, amongst
them that of Andrea Doria, but was a lazy
fellow and did no more work even in art than
he could help. He died in Rome on June 21st,
1547.

SolMUltopolf or Sevastopol, the chief naval
port and arsenal of Russia, in the government
of Taurida, on the Black Sea,, stands, at the
south-western extremity of the Crimea, on the
southern shore of the estuary of the Tcher-


naya, which, with a length of nearly 4 miles
and a breadth of over half a mile, affords
eecure anc^horsgs for the largest vessels. In
1854 the siege by the oombined forces of Great
Britain and France, which lasted nearly a year
and a half, reduced the city to a heap of
ruins. By the Treaty of Paris terminating the
Crimean War Russia waS forbidden to restore
the fortifications or to maintain a Black Sea
fleet. Theee obligations, however, were repudi*
ated in 1870, and now Sebastopol has recovered
its former prosperity and military importance.

principal Duildings are the cathedral of
St. Peter and St. Paul, modelled after the


famous Temple of Theseus at Athens, and the
Vladimir Cathedral. There are several monu-
ments to the soldiers slain during the Crimean
War. The town enjoys some repute as a mid-
summer holiday and health resort. It haa
varied manufactures and shipbuilding is
carried on. In classical times the district wa«^
known as Chersonesus, and in the 6th century
B.c. a Greek colony was planted there and
survived until it was absorbed in the kingdom
of Bosphorus, becoming afterwards tributary to
Rome. It subsequently passed into the posses-
sion of the Byzantine emperors, then into that
of the Greeks again, and finally was overrun
by Tatars, upon whose conquest in 1783 the
site was chosen by Catherine II. for the Black
Sea naval station and received its present
name (“the august city”). Pop. (estimated),
56,000.

¥

Paul, painter and collector of folk^
lore, was born in 1845 at Matignon, department



1 .


- ■■■■r.rM





%

A \

■ ■ ■■







MAPONKA AMD CHttD.

{Painted by Selasttano del Plombo.)



( 164 )


WBiiHiOiiiii'y nvfwnfiMa


of CM^tei-dii-Nord, France. He bifnit life oe an
art atndent in Faria« and anbfbited at the
3al<nta, between 1870 and 1883, aeTtrsd land*
ecapee and sea-pieces. In the meantime lie had
become acquainted with the old legends and
folklore of Brittany, and, the subject proring
of growing attraction, he ultimately gave up
painting and collected Breton atpriea and
traditions, which he gathered, after the fashion
of Sir Walter Scott, by ransacking the pro-
Tince even to ita remoteat nooks and crannies.
Ihesa raids and researches resulted in several
valuable bpoks, amongst which may be named
€mte$ papl$mr 0 $ de la Eaute Breta^ (1880-3),
JUtEratwre OfaU de la EauU Bretagne (1881),
TfodUipm et de la Hmte Bretagne

(1882), Bargantm dam lee traditime papulairee
{1283), Cmtee de terre et de mer (1888), &ntee dee
prmmee de ^ame (1884), LSgendee Chretiennee
de la Mawte Bretagne (1886), and Ligendee, oray-
meee et euperetitiane de la ner (1886-7).

BttekBTf Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury,
Waa bom at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire, Bn^
land, in 1693. He was educated at Tewkesbury
With a view to the Dissenting ministry, but,
being unable definitely to throw in hia lot with
Nonconformity, put aside theology for medi-
cine, which he studied at London, Paris, and
Lc;^en, where, in 1721, he took the deg^e of
M.I). By the influence of Anglican mends,
however, he was now induced to take holy
orders and was ordained in 1723. Almost im-
mediately he obtained the valuable living of
Houghtott-le-Spring in Durham. In 1732 he
was iippointeo chaplain to George II, and
became penma grata to Queen Caroline. In
1733 he was preferred to St. James’s, West-
minster, was nominated Bishop of Bristol next
year, and, in 1737, was trandated to the see
of Oxford. Whilst at Oxford he grew very
friendly with Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough,
and acted as one of her executors. In 1750 he
WHS installod Dean of St. Paul’s, and in 1758
was elected Archbisihop of Canterbury, holding
the primacy till his death iii Lambeth Palace
on August 3rd, 1768. He was pre-eminently a
** 8 af 0 ^ prelate, stood well with the Diseenters,
whom from early iiseociations ho understood,
advocated granting the episcopacy to the
American church, and agre^ with the Jaco-
bites whilst maintaining nie own staunch Han-
overian principles. His charges are valuable
for the light they cast on the condition of
the Church during his time.

SdOOlidf one-sixtieth part of a minute and
the unit of time which has been universally
adopted. It is fundamentally derived from
the time which elapses between two successive
transits of a star, this being the time taken
by the earth exactly to complete one revolu-
tion on its axis, the period being known as
on# sidereal day. Th# length of a pendulum
which beats seconds varies in different places,
owing to the variations of gravity. Hence, if
the standard of length were lost, it could
always be reconstructed. (TurnunuM.] A


second is also used as a measure of angles, it
being one-sixtieth part of one angular mtsuiley
which is, again, one-sixtieth of a degree.

Sacoadacy Battariagy Accimtr]:4.T0KS, ot
Stobaox Cxxiia. When an electric current is
passed from one metallic plate to another
through an electrolyte, th# electrodes are
polarised and, by suitably arranging matters,
a considerable amount of energy may be stored
up in this polarisation and subsequently b#
available as an electric current. In Plantd’s
original secondary cell two large sheets of lead
were immersed in dilute sulphuric acid; ou
connecting these to a source of electric current,
the anode becomes covered with a film of lead
peroxide, whilst hydrogen reduces any oxide
which may be present on the cathode. If now
the plates are disconnected from the charging
dynamo or battery, they will be found to fiffer
in potential by rather more than 2 volts, and,
if connected, will give a current which is in
the reverse direction to the charging current.

In discharging, the peroxide plate m reduced
and the lead plate is oxidised. Suoh a cell has
a very small capacity, which may be largely
increased by repeated charging and disdiarg-
ing, the polarity of the ^stes being revered
between each operation, ^is process of form-
ing reduces the surface of the plates to a
spongy condition, whereby their active area is ’
much increased. In order to effect the same re-
suit more easily, Faure coated the plates with ^
red lead, held in place by felt, which was
acked between them, and which was converted g
y the forming process into lead peroxide on "
one plate and spongy lead on the other. An
improvement on this plan was to cast the plates <
in the form of grids with many small noks,
and to fill these with a paste of lead oxide anel
sulphuric acid. Many methods have also been
devised for making spongy lead plates, the re- ^
suit to be aimed at in either case being a plate
exposing a very large area of active material
to the electrolyte. The chemical reactions
which occur in secondary cells are of an ex-
ceedingly complicated character. Commercial
accumulators usually consist of a number of
plates alternatively positive and negatiif^>
placed in glass boxes, suitable arraugemenll
being made for connecting similar and insula-
ting dissimilar plates. Such cells have im-
portant applications in electric lighting; in
private installations the machinery may be
run, say, one day in seven, as much energy
being then stored as is needed during the we^.

In supplying electricity from central Rations,
the demand is practically confined to a few
hours in the twenty-four, so that much less
plant is needed if the machinery is run continu-
ously, and the energy stored lu accumulators
for use when required; but, owing to the
initial cost and maintenance of, and losses in,
secondary batteries, it is as yet doubtful if any
real economy is attained by this means. When
in good order, the current efficiency of storage
cells ((hat is, the ratio of amphre hours of



MeottOftvy WMkm,


( 166 )


di«csliarfe to ampere hours of charge) is
about 0*85; hut« as the charging pressure
must always be in excess of the ^charging
pressure, the watt efficiency is only about
0*75. Accumulators are also used for the pro-
pulsion of electric launches, and haye been
c^ten tried for tramcars, but with doubtful suc-
cess in the latter case, for a variety of reasons.
Ihey add to the weight of the vehicle, have to
be replaced every few hours, and, owing to the
constant vibration, deteriorate in parts rapidly.
Sctme other forms of secondary cells, which are
practically reversed primary cells— such as
banieirs,— have been proposed, but are of small
practical importance.

Seoondary Bodes. [Mesozoic.]

Sooo&d Siglltv the name given to the power
of foreseeing events which was formerly believed
to be no uncommon attainment in the Scottish
Highlands. The most awful vision was the

wraith ” or “fetch “ (i.c., the shadowy image)
of a person about to die. The reputed seers
were commonly men of stern and upright
character, who through their elevation above
the things of sense were supposed to have ac-
quired peculiar insight into the spiritual world.
But second sight was not confined to events
of a solemn nature; jt frequently gave intelli-
gi&nco of the most ' ordinary occurrences of
overy-day life. A very full account of all its
varieties, given in Martin Martin’s Descrij^
tion of the Western Isles of Scotland (1703), is
xeproiuoed in a shorter form in Daniel Defoe’s
^ Life and Adventures of Duncan Campbell
, (1720). Numerous modern cases have been in-
investigated by the Society for Psychical Re-
searchni A very remarkable instance came to
^ght,'ilmo^ in the contemporary period, in
connection with the melancholy catastrophe of
the foundering of the Eurydice during a snow-
storm off Luccoml>e, on the south criast of the
Isle of Wight, on March 24th, 1878. The vessel,
when practically within sight of home, cap-
sized and nearly every soul on board perished.
That very day, at that very hour. Sir John
McNeill, eq^uerry of Queen X^ictoria, while on
duty at Windsor Castle, suddenly rose to his
feet, and, brushing his hands across hie eyes,
cried out, “My Gwi! she’s foundered,’’ having
beheld the calamity as in a vision. Sir John
was a Highlander of credit and renown, and
the circumstances of this experience of his
eecond sight appeared to bo unimpeachable.

8#Oir«tair3r Bird {SerpentaHm TeptMivorm)^ a
South African bird of prey, the sole species of
its genus, by some ranked with the Falcons
and by others made a distinct family. “No
one, however,” says Dr. Bowdler Sharpe, “who
has seen a l^cretary kill a rat and the pro-
digious force with which, by repeated blows of
his powerful 1^, sometimes springing into
the air and bringing both feet down at the
saitie moment upon his victim, he quickly re-
duces It to a shapeless pulp, would consider
him anything but a bird of prey. Standing


SMMtaxy


before a cobra which rises to attack him, the
Secretary spreads his wings put in front as a
shield to guard his body, and then from behind
this protection he strikes his enenyr down.
Sometimes,*’ Dr. Sharpe adds, “the ^oretary
does not win in the fight with the snake, for
a good observer has stated that on one occa-
sion he saw a bird suddenly leave off fighting
and run to a pool of water, where he fell down
dead. If the snake bites a feather, the bird
immediately pulls it out, but in the above in-
stance the reptile had drawn blood from the
point of the pinion. It is somewhat remark-
able that the Secretary sliould have such strik*



hecretary bird.


ing power in his legs, as they are long and
slender for the size of the bird, and are so
brittle that it is said that, if suddenly started
into a quick run, their legs will snap.” In-
sinctively both the bird and the snaxe know
that the ensuing battle will be a fight to a
finish, but the Secretary is something Of a
general for it retreats before a vigorous on-
slaught until the reptile, a little exhausted
with its own fury, exposes itself to a counter-
attack and is soon overpowered, a dislocation
of the vertebral column giving it the coup de
grdee. Then, as likely as not, the victor de^
vours the prey, beginning with the tail, bdt
smashing the skull. The bird is a voracious
and, as has been seen, not too delicate a
feeder. Bats, lizards, locusts, tortoises, and,
if opportunity offer, fowls and the harmless
necessary cat not coming at all amiss. Mrs.
Annie Martin, however, says, in her vivid
sketch of Home Life on an Ostrich Fa/rm^ that
the birds “are sometimes taught to be very
useful guardians of the poultry-yard, especially
against aerial enemies — thelong-legged, solemn-
looking creature stalking about all day among
his feeble-minded charges, with much con-
sciousness of his own imiHOftance. He is ac-
cused of now and then taking toll in the shape



( 166 )


mtwOXww WvfMfwUKm


Mme^iioey of fttelw#


oi' an occaeional egg or young chicken— tlie
latter beang, of course, bolted, anaconda
fanhion; but his depredatione are not ezten-
aive, and one tolerates them,’* because, on the
principle of setting a thief to catch a thief, he
takes good care that his master is robbed by no
one else. The total length is about 4 feet; the
general hue of the plumage bluish-grey, with
some black on the wings and tail. On the
head is an erectile crest, which, from its fancied
resemblance to pens stuck behind the ear, is
said to hare given the bird its popular name.
The Secretary Bird, because of its relentleas
enmi^ to venomous serpents, is protected at
the dape, and for the same reason has been
introduced into Guadeloupe and Martinique.

Storetajry of 8tato, an officer of State— in
the United Kingdom, of Cabinet rank — en-
trusted with the control and superintendence
of a particular department of Government. In
the British ministry there are five secretaries
whose duties are roughly indicated in the names
of their departments. These officers are the
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, charged
with the transaction of all inter^State business
with foreign countries, the negotiation of
treaties, appointment of ambassadors, and other
matters; tno Secretary for India, who ad-
minieters the affairs of that country, with the
assistance of a council of experts not neces-
sarily members of Parliament ; the Secretary
of State for the Home Department, who is con-
cerned with the domestic affairs of the United
Kingdom, such as the dispensation of justice,
the maintenance of peace and order, the super-
vision of prisons, the active control (in the
metropolis) of the police, the safeguarding of
public health and sanitation, the licensing of
vehicles and places of entertainment, the pre-
rogative of mercy, and numerous other sub-
jects; the Colonial Secretary, who is the re-
sponsible statesman for the protection of the
colonies and the promotion of their welfare
politicallv, and the Secretary for War, who is
entrusted with the management of all affairs
connected with the Army. John Mansol, or
Maunsell (d. 1265), keeper of the Great Seal,
appears to have been counsellor and secretary
to Henry HI., but probably his duties were
more akin to those discharged now by a
minister’s parliamentary secretary. Henry
VIII. introduced two State secretaries, and
Oueen Anne created a third (for Scotland) on
the union of the kingdoms (1707), but this
office was not retained. When there were only
two secretaries, both managed home affairs,
the one being responsible for those of the
northern department, the other for those of
the southern.

Seoretioily the process of separation from
the blood, by oertam organs of the body, of
materials which serve some further purpose in
the performance of the functions of the animal
ecpnoiny» or are discharged from the body as
being of no more use to it. The latter kind of
material is eomeUmes spoken of as excretion.


as distinguished from a true secretion which
has some further part to play in connection
with the body in which it is elaborated.

Secret Societies are of extremely ancient
date. The earliest written records of many
races prove that such societies existed, the
meetings, purposes and initiation ceremonies of
which were unknown to all but the members.
Among the Persians, the Hindus, the Egyp**
tians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and tne
Romans, as well as the races that inhabited the
Far East, secret societies were common, but
they were for the most part very different from
the modem secret society. They were usually
of a religious character, and were founded often
to bring their members in touch with the Being
whom they regarded as God. Indeed, it may
be allowed, that in later days, with the spread
of Monotheism, secret societies served a dis-
tinctly useful purpose in leading men away
from idolatrous worship. For simplicity’s sake
the subject may be classified according to the
ends which the societies sought to attain.

(1) Religious. Most of ^e secret societies
of the ancient world were of a religious char-
acter, such as the Magi of the Brahmins, dating
from before 6000 B.c. The initiation ceremonies
of this society were known only to those w^ •
had gone through them. Amongst other tor?
tures the candidate was made to fast partmiy
for 50 days, being meanwhile condemned*w
perpetual silence and solitary confinement in a
subterranean cave. Thence he passed to a den
of wild beasts, from which but few of the
initiates ever came out unscathed; after thi#
he was shown the horrors and tormei^^pf the
wicked in Hades, and, finally, ns of*

regeneration, a live serpent was thifflBf into ^||
his breast. To be a member of the 'ancient
Mithraic worship involved no less terrible
ordeals and Buddhist religions had secret cersi<
monies also, th© almost universal thought being
that to be religious it was necessary to enduro
some torture. In Egypt, as in India, Persife,
Mexico, and Peru, the usual place for the cele-
bration of initiatory rites was a subterranean
cave or the top of a pyramid. The myeteries
of Egypt, «nch as those of Osiris, of Serapis,
and of th© Phoenix were always accompanied by
secret initiations, as also was the Crata Repoa,
which was regarded as the highest type of
Egyptian mystery and had as many as seven ,
degrees into which a candidate might ulti-
mately be initiated. The early Greek and
Roman mysteries were moral and religious
secret societies, such as those of Orpheus and
Dionysus. Many of them sprang from the re-
ligioue observances attending the worship of
Jupiter, Ceres and Proserpine at Rome, In
many cases the Romans followed the doctrines
of the Greeks and th© secret mysteries and
ceremonies of the Roman period are much the
same as those of the more ancient civilisations.
To leave Classic days, it would be hard to say
which was the first secret society, but prece-
dence must probably be given to the Druids of



IfoeMt SoeietiM.


( W7)


Swawt SttoiwtiM.


Or^at Britain and Oaul. Their chief seat
Beems to have been in the Isle of Anglesey, and
their mystic ceremonies in many ways recalled
those of the Gymnosophists and Brahmins of
India. At Stonehenge, Avebury and Shap,
Cumberland, remains of their altars and
temples are still found in ruined masses and
enormous pillars of stone, and each year the
Society of Modern Bruids is said to perform a
eecret ceremony at Stonehenge, which is sup-
posed to have been part of the ritual of the
primitive Druids. Druidism was an elaborate
religion and philosophy ; the cliief deities were
a male and female, as in the case of the
Egyptian Osiris and Isis, and the iSoman
Bacchus and Ceps. In China and Japan reli-
gious secret societies were very common from
the earliest historical times, the Chinese for the
most part being like tliose of the Magi of the
Brahmins, while the Japanese resembled those
of the Mithraista, for during the ceremony
blood was poured on the earth to make it fer-
tile. But of all ancient secret societies and
ceremonies the most elaborate appear to have
been those of the Mexicans and Feruvians. In
them the candidate had to undergo the most
horrible of tortures. At times of great mysteries
and initiations the idols in their temples were
washed with human blood and all kinds of
lastly rites ix>ok place, which were supposed
fy sympathetic magic to bring about the hap-
*pupss of the novitiate. The Essenes, a sect of
the Jews, the Chasidim of the Pharisees and
I the Zadikim of the Samaritans and Sadducees,
were probably derived from Asiatic sources. In
them the Eastern element is iery strong, and
I* it is#|pr this reason that the Essenes and
L* Therj|||||t» are often confounded. But they
kar^J^HpIltinot ^cts, the doctrines and rites
Vbf tiflppmes rafner resembling the ceremonies
^ ef ZGf^isirianism, whilst those of the Thera-
#pentiB resembled those of the followers of

* Pythagoras. Both sects resided in Palestine,

♦ cfiiefly around the Bead Sea, from the 4th
•'Cjiitury of the Christian era, and were re-

, nowned for their moral and virtuous lives, no
one being allowed into the community until he
had served a probationary term of years, when,
. if he proved true to the secrets and objects of
the society, he was allowed to enter into what
was called the “grand secret” gradually. From
the Essenes sprang the Jewish Cabbalists, whose
secret doctrines were traditionally attributed
by its members to Moses himself. There were
two different kinds of Cabbala, the theoretical
and the practical, but each professed the same
doctrines. In the practical Cabbala there was
a belief in spiritualistic phenomena, but the
theoretical was dogmatic and literal, and
perhaps was better known as the Mishna
Society. The initiation ceremonies were usually
of the most secret character. From time to
time the Cabbalist doctrines have been revived.
In 1609 they were revived at Prague, and in
Poland in 1740, where the members called them-
selves the “New Saints,” a sect which is said
still to flourish. The mysteries of the Gnostics,


who had lodges in many of the Eastern countries,
may be said to have been doctrinally a medley.
They had a connexion with the philosophical
creeds of Plato, Pythagoras and Heraclitus,
mixed with the demonology had the spirit-
ualistic teachings of the Cabbala. The growth
of Gnosticism was doubtless due to the wide-
spread attractions which the dogmas contained,
but in their secrets they were more careful, its
members recognising each other by the slight-
est touch when shaking hands. The Templars
of the Middle Ages were a secret society in
the proper sense of the term, for their rites and
ceremonies were jealously guarded. Usually
their initiations took place at night in the
chapel of the Order, which only members were
allowed to attend. The candidate for initiation
had, among other things, like the Cathari and
Manicheans of Italy, to deny, curse, and even
spit at the Cross — not from disrespect, but
to show their inability to understand why
Christians sliould worship the Cross which
had been the means of inflicting punishment
on the Saviour. Again, in the same way they
never recognieed Peter as a saint because of his
denial of Jesus. In the history of the Eoman
Catholic Church there is one secret society,
the Inquisition, which, though it has com-
prised many great men, must yet be described,
m view of its record, as the blackest organisa-
tion ever founded. Though not permanently
established till 1248, persecution on more or
less organised lines had been a recognised
method of the early Catholic Church, and we
read of Priscillian being executed at Trfeves
in 386 for the crime of heresy. So ghastly was
the slaughter at the Colosseum that the Pope
on one occasion, to remind a heretic of his
doom if he did not repent, took up a handful
of earth from the floor and squeezed blood from
it. But in truth the Holy Office stands con-
demned at the bar of History by the chronicle®
of its judicial procedure, its diabolical torture
chambers, and its cruel auto-da^fi^.

(2) Social. The Alchemists and Bosicru-
cians may be said to be the first secret socie-
ties that were formed for purely social aims.

former, to whom chemistry is greatly in-
debted for valuable discoveries, led morbid, sad
lives, always going in fear of being seized and
put to death as heretics for their astronomical
and other scientific observations, and it was,
therefore, of necessity that they worked in
secret. The Rosicrucians might bo termed a
sect of T^eosophists. Before this sect was
founded Alchemy had sunk to the lowest depths
of disrepute and they became the spiritual al-
chemists of the time. The date of the found-
ing of these societies is uncertain. By some
authorities it is stated that they began in the
14th century, and by others in the 16th. In
addition to their spiritualistic propaganda, the
Rosicrucians took part in furthering the Re-
formation until they were put down by the
European governments. A Catholic sect, the
Blue Cross, was started iu opposition to them,
specially sanctioned and blessed by the Pope.


Mmm


(m r




ICIia BoiiGmeiaas liad lodjpas in uoftt^ Eatopean
caEtttrieft^ and iha rititiir and initiatory oere*
mony wera of tbo moat fieraraly atriot and
secret kind. Yet in spite of this Boman
Catkolics obtained access and betrayed tbeir
secrets, thus bringing about repressive measures
vrbicb practically ended in tbeir downfall.
From tbe Bosicrucians arose tbe Asiatic
Brethren, but only lews, Turks, Persians and
Armenians were allowed to become members,
and from tbeee, combined with the teachings of
the Templars, modern Freemasonry has arisen.
Freemasoni^ has been established in almost
every county. In the Neapolitan States there
is the Misrain, which is found also in Dalmatia
and the Ionian Islands. Among the negroes
of the Gold Coast and the savages of the
Pacific Islands secret societies exist, such as the
notoriously immoral Areoiti of Tahiti and the
mutual benefit societies of the Clobbersoll. In
India the Thugs of Mysore, the Carnatic and
the Balaghat District and the Polimus of Chit-
toor in all probability are offerings of the
Assassins. The Chauffeurs of France during
the religious wars of Henry III. and IV., the
Oarduna of Spain at the time of the Inauisi-
tion, the Camorra of Naples and its brancnes —
of which at least one, the Mala Vita, still
exists — ^were all semi-eocialistic, semi-political
secret societies.

(3) Political. The Illuminati, a united
political secret society, sprang up about 1776
at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, ancf qiiickly spread
over JEurope into England. Although its ob-
Twte and ceremonies had much in common with
Freemasonry, it was not long before it was
discovered to be political, its aims being
similar to those of the French Eevolutionaries.
From that time it was doomed, but from it
proceeded many organisations of kindred aims.
About this time the Carbonari of Italy sprang
up. It had no secrets, it had no dogmas, but
its ono great aim was liberty by constitutional
government and truth. It is said to have
been started by one called Maghella, and the
first authenticated proof of its existence was in
1814. The organisation of the Carbonari was
more simple than its forerunner, the lUu-
minati. The initiated were called the ‘‘Good
Cousins,** and those who did not join were
term^ “Pagans.” In their efforts to gain
constitutional government they incited the
people not to pay taxes. From time to time
constitutional rights were promised them, but
at length, after a serious revolution in favour
of the Bourbon Dynasty had been caused by
them, attempts were made to suppress them.
Many of their leaders were imprisoned and
executed, but eventually Murat, after his own
party had forsaken him after the battles^oC Ff
rara and Toientino, veered round and promiil^
the peoplo constitutional government i! they
irould help him. But it was too late: he had
already played fast and loose with their wishes
and the monarchy fell. After the accession of
F'erdinand I. in 1815, that king wavered be-
tween letting the Carbonari have their way


and exterminating them. Finally, in 1820,
having been cornered and pledg^ to keep
his word, he shamelessly called in the Aus-
trian army to crush the Carbonarists. The
Austrians reached Naples after defeating the
Carbonarists at Bietz, and Ferdinand, who in
the meantime had taken care to be in his
dominions south of the disturbed area, glutted
his desire for vengeance on the leaders the
society. But the sect was not to be thus
destroyed, and in 1825 it revived, ten years
later becoming joined to Young * Italy, whose
views were i&ntical with those of the Car-
bonari. By now, however, all Europe had
become a hot-bed of secret societies with
democratic, constitutional, and revolutionary
aims. In Prance the Philadelphians, The Rays,
and the Secret League of Tirol were opposed to
Napoleon, while the Illuminati (not to be con-
founded with the Illuminati already men-
tioned), the Black Needle, and the Knights of
the Sun were in his favour. In Germany the
Tungendbund and its offspring, the Burshchen-
schaft took an active part in frustrating his
designs, and from them Young Germany arose.
In Spain the Communeros, a society seeking
constitutional rights, was founded in 1816,
afterwards becoming Young Spain. In 1812
the Hctairia of Greece, similar to the Italian
Carbonari, was founded, and in Russia and
Poland the Omladina, the Modern Templars,
the True Poles and the Decabrists were
formed. The aims of the Camorra and the
Maffia of Sicily are alike, and their organised
lawlessness is more feared than the laws them-
selves. Their main object is to do away with
law entirely, and each member is bound never
to resort to law in any circumstance but to
punish an offender with his own hands, and it
IS for this reason that candidates alwaj^e have
to fight a duel at the initiation ceremony. The
Maffia is probably one of the largest law-
breaking sects in the world, and its criminal
purposes are furthered by its members no
matter in what part of the world they are living.
But for the most patently criminal political
secret societies we must look to China, for
these often resolve themselves into mere con-
federations of robbers with no aim but pillage.
Those whose main aims are political seem to
practiee the most revolting of crimes with per-
fect impunity. Of these the most prominent
has ever been the White Water Lily sect,
which hae played an important part in Chinese
history under many names, its first being
that of the Yellow Cap of the Han Dynasty,
A.D. 185. The Tien-ti^wuy is another great
political society embracing many small onea
and has members and lodges in every part of
the globe. There are also the Triad Society,
the Blue Lotus Hall and the famous Hung
League, the Ko-lao-Hui and the Taepings of
the 19th. century and their modern representa-
tives. Ireland since the Union has been a
fertile breeding-ground of political discon-
tent. The White Boys, dating from 1761, is
said to be the oldest, but the most notorious



m th« Fenians^ founded bj Jobn O’Maboney
and Micibael Bdhemy in 1848, the United
Iriflihnien, the Hearts of Steel, Bibbonmen,
Orangemen, aa well as the Oak, Bight, and
Peep-o’-Day Boys.

(4) Nihilists akd Akabghists. The Assas-
sins of Arabia and S;pia were amongst the
earliest, and their deeds were so daring as to
be scarc^ credible. With their foun&r and
leader, Hassan Sabbah, at their head they
terrified the kings of the earth, for their aims
seem to hare been partially political. At one
time they are stated to have been 70,000
strong, and so faithful that when the Sultan
of Egypt sent an officer to expostulate with
Haesan Sabbah for some gross outrage, Hassan
Sabbah called up two of his followers and
ordered them to commit suicide, one by pierc-
ing himself to the heart, and the omer by
throwing himself from a tower. His com-
mande were instantly obeyed and Hassan
Sabbah, turning to the astonished emissary,
said, “I have 70,000 followers, each of whom,
if ordered, would do as these have done.**
Thus having poured contempt on the Sultan*s
protests he dismissed the messenger. Many
great princes were in, league with the Assas-
sins for safety’s sake, but after Hassan’s death
they fell away from their allegiance. Their
territory was invaded by the Tatars and
Egyptians, and they were almost extermi-
nated, but some of them are still to be found
on the banks of the Ganges and around
Bombay, who call themselves Khodjas. The
Nihiliste of Buseia did not have a corporate
existence until 1870, but since that date they
have left an indelible mark on the world's
history. They have secret plans and aims, and
death is the penalty for the unfaithful. 'Ihey
have members in almost every country. The
Anarchists were first heard of in 1868 and
during the Paris Commune in 1871. In 1872
their party snlit up, one half, less extreme
than their fellows, calling themselves Social
Democrats, the others retaining their old
name. In 1879 the Anarchist John Most
founded an Anarchist paper in London, called
the Freiheitj but owing to its open approval
of the Phoenix Park murders it was suppres^
and Most emigrated to the United States. The
Anarchists were accused of the outrages at
Chicago in 1886, for which seven were put to
death, and it la said that they were respon-
sible for the aasaeeinations of President Car-
not at Lyons in 1894, of the Em-

0 press of Austria in 1898, of King
Humbert of Italy in 1900, and of
President McKinley in 1901.

SactOT is the space included
between two radii of a circle and
c the intercepted portion of the cir-
cumference. o A G B represents
such a sector* and its area is equal to that of a
tiiAiigle, whose base is a straight line equal to
the curved lino a o », and whoeb height is
to the radius o a.


SdCnlaarimii (Latld, wmium, present
world**), a view ol man’s social duties propounded
and named by George Jacob Hqlyoake (1817-
1906) about 1846. Secularists malilain that the
eummum donum — that which is tnost desirable
for mankind at large— is sufficiently known
from experience, and that, as vice results
merely from error, it needs only an adequate
training to make every citizen exert himself
successfully for the benefit of his fellow-crea-
tures. Theology and religion cramp and dis-
tort the mind by introducing considerations
which have no real bearing on the relation of
man to his surroundings in this present life,
the only one of which we have any knowledge.
The true ethical ideal, according to this school,

I i^ the wise employment of material agencies
for the good of the community, and the exist-
ence or non-existence of a Divine Being is a
matter of no importance at all.

Seounderabad (that is, ** Alexander’s town *’),
a British military cantonment in the Native
State of Hyderabad, or the Nizam’s Dominions,
India, 6 miles N.E. of Hyderabad city, of
, whi(ffi it may bo considered a suburb. The
cantonment, named after Nizam Sikandar Jah,

I is one of the most extensive military depfits in
Hindostan, the area occupied by the barracks
amounting to 20 square miles. European
soldiers are accommodated in two-storeyed
barracks, while the natives are housed in
comfortably-built quarters. The surrounding
country is undulating, with occasional ou^
bursts of granite, and, save for the trees lining
the roads in the cant^ment and clusters here
and there of date and palmyra palms, presents
a somewhat bare and unattractive aspect. Cul-
tivation is next to impossible on the more ele-
vated portions for lacx of soil, but in depres-
sions and valleys agriculture is pursued. Dur-
ing the Mutiny of 1857 thq fidelity of the
troops at Secunderabad was assailed in vain,
an attack on the Besidency was defeated and,
till the troubles were got under, yeoman ser-
vice was afiorded by hoik the Subsidiary Force
and the Hyderabad CJontingent.

Security^ some bond or other act which makes
the enjoyment or enforcement of a right more
secure or certain. It is either personal. Con-
sisting of a promise or obligation by the
debtor or another person, in addition to the
original liability or obligation intended to be
secured, or a security on property by virtue of
which the enforcement of a liability or promise
is facilitated and made more effectual.

Etedan, a town in the department of Ardennes,
France, on the right bank of the Meuse, 13
miles E.S.E. of Mezi^res, and surrounded by
hills. It was not definitely acquired by Franc©
until 1643, and then became a frontier fortress.
But for two centuries before it had belonged
to the La Marcks, a powerful family, i^o held
their own, despite the antagonism of the
Bishops of Li4ge and the Dukes of Burgundy
and Lorraine* and even adopted the designa-




( 170 )




t|oa of Prince of Sednn* Tthe last lieiress Eaateni France. It made its appearance in
btonglit Sedan and tbe ducby of Bouillon to | England in 1581, and was need 07 the Duke
Henn de la Tour d'Auvcrgne,


Tiicount of Turenne, but nmen
be asserted bis indenendence
Henri IV. captured tne place
after three days' siege. The
ae^nd duke (eldest brother of
the illustrious Marshal Turenne >
who was born in the town in
1611) having several times prac-
tically dehed Louis XIII., was
finally compelled to surrender his
duchy. But Sedan was destined
to acquire still more widespread
notoriety, for here, on September
1 , 1870, Kapoleon HI., with an
army of over 80,000 men, was
hemmed in by the Germans and
forced to surrender. In the vil-
lage of Bazeilles, to the south-
east, where the marines made
their heroic stand under General



Martin des Pallieres (1823-76),
the house that figures so prom-
inently in de Neuville’s “Les Dernieres Car-
touches” has been converted into a museum
of objects of interest associated with the
grand deddde. Cloth-making is a fiourishing
industry, which was founded by the Protes-
tant refugees in the 16th century, who ob-
tained the hospitality of the town, and there
are several cotton-mills and iron-foundries.
Pop. (1901), 19,349.



A.tr IKOUSH SSDAN CHilXR.
iOriffiml in Sofuik Kensington Museum,)


CBnlr, a covered chair for carrying a
single person, with a pole on each side. It is
borne oy two men, one in front of the chair
and the other behind it. The v^icle is said
to have been invented at Sedan in Korth-


ssDAN. Stevenson, Sedan.

of Buckingham in the reign of James I. In
1634 Sir Sanders Buncombe obtained a patent
for letting out these ‘‘covered chairs” in the
citi^ of London and Westminster. Sedan
ohaire were much used by fashionable ladies
and gentlemen in the 18th century. Those be-
longing to wealthy persons of taste were often
beautifully ornamented and decorated with
panel paintings of exquisite finish. In Edin-
burgh, where they were in constant use for
routs and assemblies and the theatre, the pub-
lic chairs were mostly carried by Highlanders,
who acquired a bad reputation for their ex-
tortionate charges and their fiery tempers,
which not infrequently provoked minor riots,
when a considerable number of chairmen hap-
pened to congregate in any one place. Ex-
amples of the Sedan chair may still be seen in
most of the larger museums.

SedativOi the term applied to a class of
remedies which exercise a restraining action on
certain of the animal tissues. For example,
respiratory sedatives prevent spasm of the
muscular tissue of the bronchi, and so relieve
cough. Cerebral sedatives, such as the brO^
mides, diminish excitability and over-activity
of the central nervous system. Cardiac seda-
tives comprise the drugs which exercise a re-
straining influence on the nervo-muscular ap-
paratus of the heart, and intestinal sedatives
tend to arrest the muscular movements of the
bowel.

Sedberfflif a town of the West Riding of Vork-
ehire, En^and, 10 miles E. of Kendal. It lies
in a valley, surrounded by fells and moors, on
the borders of Westmoreland, on the old coach
road between Lancaster and Kewcastle. The
principal buildings include the Late Norman
church of St. Andrew (restored in 1886L fhe
public hail, and the market-house. The Royal
Grammar S<^ool is an institution of 4eciaed





repute. It was established in the rei^ of
Henry Til. by Boger Iiupton^ Provost of Hton^
refounded ia I&52 by toward Yl.. and re-
organised in 1874 in accordance with a scheme
of the Endowed Schools Commission. The town
is an agricultural centre of some consequence
and some weaving ia carried on. Pop. (1901),
2,430.

SadMy a name applied to most members of the,
order Cj^eraoero, and especially to the genus
Carex. The order includes aiwut 120 genera
and 2,000 species, most abundantly represented
in temperate and cold regions. It belongs to
the series Glumiferae, of the sub-class Nudi-
fiorse, among Monocotyledons, and cousiets of
grass-like herbaceous plants, which have gener-
ally solid, jointed stems, often three-sided;
leaves, tristichous and furnished with a tubu-
lar sheath (not split, as in grasses) ; and spike-
lets of reduced, and often unisexual, flowers,
each in the axil of a glume. The perianth is
only represented by a whorl of hairs or by ad-
herent glumes forming the so-called utricle in
some pistillate flowers. The stamens, though
vaiwing from one to twelve, are usually three,
and have basiflxed anthers. The ovary is syn-
carpous, of two or, more commonly, three car-
pels, with a style divided above, and one
ovule. The embryo is at the base of the seed,
but is surrounded by albumen. Several species,
such as Carex arenaria, are valuable, as bind-
ing shifting sand with their creeping rhizomes;
others, sucm as the bulrush (Scirpus lacustrU)
are used for dhair-bottoms, mats, etc. ; the long
perianth-hairs of the so-called “cotton-grass”’
(Eriophorum) are used, under the name of
“Arctic wool,” to stuff cushions; and Papyrus
antiquorum, formerly abundant in the Nile,
yielded the papyrus or paper of the ancients.
5he foliar is, as a rule, too harsh for fodder,
and the albumen of the seeds does not improve
or increase noticeably under cultivation.

Sedg^UOOry a marshy district in the middle of
Somersetshire, England, 5 miles S.E. of Bridg-
water. It derives its name from the abundant
growth of the common sedge, from the decay
of which have been formed beds of peat that
have been worked at intervals since the Eoman
times. The area is bounded on the north-east
by low hills and on the south-west by the
Parret. It was formerly of greater extent, but
has been largely reclaimed. Virgin tracts, how-
ever, are yet covered with heather and bog
myrtle and traversed ^ reedy ditches. It is
utilised for grazing. Ihe remon is noted as
the site of the battle of July 6th, 1685, in which
the Duke of Monmouth’s raw recruits, notwith-
standing their undoubted pluck, were no match
for the trained Eoyal forces under Lord Fever-
sham. It was, says Lord Macaulay, “the last
fight, deserving the name of battle, that has
been fought on English ground.” The his-
torian describes the field as “a flat expanse,
now rich with cornfields and apple trees, but
then, as the name imports, for the most part a
dieary morass. 'When the rains were neavy#)


and the Parret and its tributary streams
rose above their banks, this tract was often
flooded. It was, indeeo, aacienlly a part of
that great swamp which is reiiiowned in our
early chronicles as having arrested the progress
of two successive races invaders, which long
protected the Celts against the aggressions of
the kings of Wessex, and which shmtered Alfred
from the pursuit of the Danes. In those re-
mote times this region could be traversed only
in boats. It was a vast pool, wherein were
scattered many islets of lifting and treacher-
ous soil, overhung with rank jungle and swarm-
ing with deer and wild swine. Even in the
days of the Tudors, the traveller whose journey
lay from Ilchester to Bridgwater was forced to
make a circuit of several miles in order to
avoid the waters. When Monmouth looked
upon Sedgemoor, it had been partially re-
claimed by art, and was intersected by many
deep and wide trenches which, in that country,
are called rhines. In the midst of the moor
rose, clustering round the towers of churches,
a few villages, of which the names seem to in-
dicate that they once were surrounded by
waves.” Macaulay refers to such names as
Zoyland, Middlezoy, and Chedzoy.

Sedgleyi a town of Staffordshire, England,
3 miles S. of Wolverhampton. Its prosperity
is due to the rapid development of its manu-
factures, which are those of the Black Country,
in which it is situated, and include nails, riveto,
chains, locks, and safes. The district is rich in
coal, lime, and ironstone. The principal public
buildings are wholly modern. Pop. (1901),
15,951; of parish, 38,170.

Sedgwick, Adam, geologist, was born at
Dent, in Yorkshire, on March 22nd, 1785, and
was educated at Dent, Sedbergh and Trinity
College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1816,
and in 1818, though knowing nothing of the
subject, he had the wit to stand for the
Woodwardian chair of geology and to beat his
opponent. He now set seriously to work to
master his subject and succeeded in becoming
one of the leading exponents and popularisers
of the science. He was elected fellow of the
Geological Society in 1818 and of the Boyal in
1839; became President of the former in 1831
and of the British Association in 1833. Always
interested in his university, he helped to estab-
lish the Cambri(^e Philosophical Society, and
in 1847 became Cambridge secretary to Prince
Albert when the latter was elected Chancellor
of the University. Nor did he miss clerical
preferment, for, though he declined the deanery
of Peterborou^, he accepted a canonry at
Norwich in 1834. He died in Cambridge on
January 27th, 1873. It is curious that his
name does not stand to a single complete work
on geology, but he contributed papers to the
learned societies on the rocks of Cornwall and
Devon, the New Bed Sandstone, the Lake Dis-
trict, trap dykes and rocks, “On the Structure
of Large Mineral Masses,” and the geology of
Wales. Sedgwick and Sir Boderick Impey




< 172 )




If iiillutfi if ''


Mttf4slilioii ia'mtig^ted the FrinoipaMty oon«
eaeii w<wiig in different aieae. and
a divergence of view, in wMch Sed|Wiclr ivae
rigfht, precipitated a permanent brea^ between
the old friende. Hie Woodwardlan Mueeum in
Oambzidge owed everything to Sedgwick.

Sffdiinilitiurj Boolai are rocka formed by
the deposition of materials previously held in
euspension bv water, and an aqueous origin
may always be sought for these layers. Clays
and slates examples of such rooks. Their
composition is frequently visible to the naked
eye, both in mass (as they lie in eitu in strata)
and in the piece. Often it consists of the
water-woi^ detritus of other kinds of rock, such
as volcanic, which has been eroded and borne
away by currents and deposited at some place,
possibly remote from its parent rock. It is, of
course, evident that sedimentary strata must be
made up of fragments of the crust of the earth,
or of materials recently erupted, or of older
sediments which have been disturbed, dis-
integrated and are once more in the process of
being deposited afresh. The particular interest
and value of the sedimentary rocks rest in the
fact that they are the only beds in which
organic remains are or can be found.

Sedleyi Sm Chablbb, poet and wit, was the
son of Sir John Sedley, and was born at Ayles-
ford, in Kent, in or al^ut 1639. After leaving
Wadham College, Oxford, he travelled abroad,
returning after the Bestoration, and becoming
a bosom friend of Charles II., whom he even
excelled in recklessness. On one occasion he
was fined ^6500 for a wild orgie in Covent Gar-
den. In 1661 he became M.P. for New Bomney,
and was married in 1657, at St. Gilee's-in-the-
Fields, to Catherine, daughter of John Savage,
Earl of Bivers, by whom he had one daughter,
Catherine. She afterwards, in spite of her
homely looks, became the favourite mistress of
James II. — “it cannot be my beauty, “ said the
lady, trying to account for the Duke of York’s
passion, “for he must see I have none; and it
cannot be my wit, for he has not enough to
know that I have any,” — who created her
Countess of Dorchester. Sedley’s parliamentary
speeches bore largely on the necessity for re-
trenchment! though after the death of Charles
II. he withdrew from London as much as he
could. He died on August 20th, 1701. His
reputation in letters must be pronounced, on
the whole, in excess of his deserts. He wrote
a few charming lyrics, such as “Phyllis is my
only joy ” and “Love still has Something of the
Sea.” Of his two tragedies— i4n^<my and Oleo’-
patra (1677) and The Tyrant King of Crete —
the second was nevar acted, and the first could
not hold the stage. Of his three comedies the
best, Bdiamira, or The Mietrus (1687), founded
on Terence’s Bunmhm, ie also the grossest.
His poems were oolleoted in 1701 and again in
1707, and there h^ve been later editions.

the fertilised ovule or maorosporocarp of

8p«na»|ilt7t» (Phan«rog*ii»i»>, ot it war


etdtntee the meet dlitiiiotive straotare. It I# e
peculiar modificatioii of a atruotnre oocamiiig
m lower plants (Pteridophyta), which encloses
a macrospoie (embryo^sac) with its embiyo
and albumen, and becomes, when ripe, detached
from the eporophyte. Its eeed<*ooans or integu-
ments being an outgrowth from the parent
sporophyte, the embryo-sao being an oophyte,
and the embryo an immature sporophyte, the
seed contains structures belonging to three
generations. When the structural and other
changes that immediately follow fertilisation
are complete, and the seed becomes “ripe,” it
enters upon what is generally the meet marked
period of unchanging repose in the life-history
of the plant, a period which may be of the
most varied duration before germination begins.
The typical seed consists of integument, em-
bryo, and albumen. The integument may con*
si^ of one coat or testa, or there may be an
inner one, the tegmen. The testa may be
smooth, ae in the Man or the horse-chestnut,
where it is marked by a large scar or hilum
at its point of attachment, or it may bear
wrinkles or tubercles, wings or hairs. The
seeds of firs and toadflax, e.p., are winged;
cotton is the hairs on the testa of Goesypium ;
and willows have a similar tuft of hairs or
coma. Such wings and tufts occur only on the
seeds of dehiscent fruits, serving, as do the
similar structures on the fruits themselves, to
disperse the seed beyond the shadow of the
parent. The testa is usually thick, leathery,
opaque, impermeable, bitter and indigestible,
and is more often brown than any other colour.
It serves to protect the contained embryo from
premature germination by' excluding damp, or
from the action of sea-water, or the gastric
juice of the animal stomach. The testa of lin*-
seed is mucilaginous, that of the gooseberry
and pomegranate is pulpy, and that of the
Brasil-nut notoriously is exceptionally woody,
whilst orchids have a testa reduced to one layet
of trammarent cells. Brightly-coloured testas
are confined to dehiscent fruits, as are also
the fleshy outgrowths from the testa known as
arils, "^^en present, the tegmen, or en-
dopleura, is usually a delicate, cream-coloured
coat, as in the almond, hasel, or walnut. In a
few seeds, no albumen is formed; but in the
majority of exalbuminous seeds, though fonn^,
it is absorbed by the embryo before the seed
ripens.

Seeleyi Sir JohkBobert, historian, was bom in
London on September 10th, 1834, and educated
at Stanmore, the City of London School, and
Christ’s College, Cambridge, where, in 1867,
he was the best scholar of his year. In 1859
he diopp^ into p^ry, producing a volume of
verse entitled David ana Samuel, For the foL
lowing four years he was chief assistaiit in
Class& at his old school, and in 1863 was
appmnted Frolessor of Latin in Dniversity
College, London. In 1866 he published ano-
nymously his book, Ecce Homo# which, dealing
with the person of Jesus on His human side



Cm>






0f^ly» pTOToked mucli conixmmj. la 1869 lie
sacGeeded Charles Kia^lef la the chair of
Modera History at Gaaibriago. -Heat year ap*
peated his and aad ia 1871 Tm

Fir$t Booh of Livy, aa edition which he did not

care to complete,
the task a|>pa-
rently being
antipathetic. The
Life and Times
of jS^ein (1878) ia
one of his most
valuable con>
tri but ions to
historical know-
ledge, and was
followed in 1882
by Natural JRe~
ligim^ which,
lacking the ele-
ment of human
interest, fell com-
paratively flat.


SIR JOHN B. SEELGV.

{PUio ; ElUoU & Fry, Ba3cer SL, W.)



JSnyland, pub-
lished in 1883,
proved to be his
most popular
book, and The
Growth of
British Folicy

(1896) was one of his most valuable works. At
the recommendation of Lord Eosebery he was
created K.C.M.G. in 1894, but did not enjoy his
honour long, dying at Cambridge on January 13th,
1895.


rovia, a province of Spain, formerly part of
Old Castile, bounded on the N. by Burgos, on
the N.E. by Soria, on the S.E. by Guadalajara
and Madrid, on the S.W. by Avila, and on the
H.W. by Valladolid. It occupies an area of
2,635 square miles. It is moetly a lofty table-
land, of somewhat monotonous appearance and
arid in summer, yet producing fine crops of
wheat. On the south-east the Guadarrama
range cuts off Old from New Castile. By the
Puerto or Pass of Somosiera Napoleon swooped
down on Madrid in 1808. The rivers Eresma,
€ega, Duraton and Eiaza, aided by sy^ematic
irngation, water the province well. The lead-
ing industry k agriculture, wheat, rya, oats,
barley, maize, peas, hemp, flax and vines being
the principal crops, while live-stock are raised,
ihcluding mules and asses. The manufactures
comprise potcelain, paper, leather, flour, oil,
and chalk, in addition to brewing and distilling.
Segovia k the capital. Pop. (1900), 159,243.

StgOTiAf capital of the preceding province,
Spain, near the point where the Clamores joins
the Eresma, about 45 miles N.W. of Madrid.
In ancient times a Koman pleasure resort, in
t4e Mddle Ages it was a centre of religious
influence and must rank aa one of .the d^plj
interesting places in the kingdom^ ; The AI^
oaaar, or lortresa, stands oh a rooky precipice.


Only the original facade remains, the struc-
ture having been $red in 1862 by a gang of
students aid nearly destroyed. , Local enter-
prise led to its being restored. Isabella of
Castile was crowned within its walls. The 16th-
century cathedral is an admirable example of
Late Gothic. Other churches present pic-
turesque features, but ar^ lapsing into decay.
The glory of Segovia is the colossal aqueduct
known as El Puente del Diablo. It was built
in the reign of the Emperor Trajan, and is
still in good order. The bridge across the
valley is 847 yards long and consists of a
double tier of arches, the three centre arches
being 102 feet high. Trade languishes, but
paper, flour, and earthenware are made, be-
sides dyeing and iron-founding. Pop., 14,692.

Sdgnr, Louis Philippe, Count de, diplo-
matist and author, was bom in Paris on De-
cember 10th, 1753. Though he was a soldier,
his love of liberty led him to cross the Atlantic
to assist the Americans in their War of In-
dependence. From 1784 to 1791 he was Minister
Plenipotentiary in Eussia, and went to Berlin
as Ambassacior in the latter year. He was re-
ceived so coldly that he fought a duel and
left. He retired into private life for a few
years, but returned to political animation on
Ms election as Deputy for Is^re in 1801. He
was ennobled by Napoleon before his downfall
and permitted to t^e his seat as a peer in
1819. He cordially supported the Eevolution
of 1630, and died in Pans in the same year on
the 27th of August. From his youth upwards
he had consorted with the men and women of
light and leading of his time, and was himself
author of several admired books, amongst them
being Pensies politiques (1795), Politique de tom
Us Cabinets de V Europe pendant les regnes de
Louis XV. et de Louis XvL (1801), Mistovre de
France (1824), and Memoir es on Souvenirs et
Anecdotes (1824). He was the son of a notable
Marshal of France, Philippe Henui, Mxequis
DE S^GUB, who was born on January 20th, 1724,
and died in Paris on October 3ra, 1801. He
lost an arm at Laufeld in 1747 and was
wounded and taken prisoner at Klostercamp
in 1760. He was appointed War Minister in
1780, and three yeans later became Marshal of
Prance. He had left the Ministry before the
Eevolution, but was imprisoned for a few
months in 1792.

Seidlits Powder. The spring of Seidlit*, ill
Bohemia, furnishes a natural a;^erient water,
the chief constituent of which is the double
tartrate of soda and potash. The pidvis sodas
tartaratCB tfenmeeni of the Pharmacopoeia con-
skts of this drug, together with some bicAvboa-
ate of sodium contained in a blue paper, and
some tartaric acid contained in a white paper.
The two powders are mixed in about half a pint
of water, carbonic acid k liberated, and the
draught is taken during effervescence. It is
a harmless and favourite remedy lor headache,
biliousness and constipation.








( 174 )


'M9bM§' ^ Ftaaoe, rioiog in the plateau

oi I^ngree, department of Cdte d'Or« 18 milea
N. W» of Dijon, at a point l«54d feet abofe the
level of the sea, the source being indicated by
the etatue of a nymph erected hj the city of
Paris. Although in a direct line the distance
from the springs to its mouth in the English
Channel is only 250 miles, in consequence of the
seri^ntine course it pursues, especially between
Paris and the estuary, the distance is increased
to no fewer than 4S2 miles. From the source
to Homilly its direction is mainly north-
westerly, bht there it bends to the west as far
as Montereau, where it resumes its general
trend towards the north-west. Its principal
tributaries are, on the right, the Ource, Aube,
Marne, Oise and Epte, and, on the left, the
Yonne, Doing, Essonne and Eure. The chief
places on its banks arei Chatillon, Bar, Troyes,
ttomilly, Montereau, Melun, Essonnes, Corbeil,
Paris and certain of its environs, St. Ger-
main, Mantes, Vernon, Elbeuf, Eouen, and, at
the mouth, Havre, on the right, and Honfleur,
on the left. It is navigable for vessels of
deep draught to Bouen, to Paris for passenger
steamers (with a frequent daily service on
both banks from end to end of the capital),
and ships of 10 feet draught, and for smaller
boats and barges as far up as Bar. The Seine
valley is almost everywhere extremely fertile
and the scenery of the lower reaches is very
picturesque, occasionally opening up vistas of
remarkable beauty, as at St. Germain. It is
noteworthy among streams for the regularity of
its flow, a feature which is due to the per-
meable strata absorbing the precipitation of the
atmosphere and restoring it to the river by the
means of springs.

Soina, the smallest, but most populous, de-
partment of France. It is surrounded by the
department of Seine-et-Oise, from which it is
divided in certain parts by the Seine, the Marne
and the Bi^vre, and has an area of 185 square
miles, of which the capital occupies at least
one-sixth. There are some wooded heights on
the left bank of the Seine and the surface
generally is pleasantly diversified. The Bois
de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes belong to
the area of Paris. The principal crops are
wheat, potatoes, oats, rye and vines, and some
live-stock are raised. Gardening has been car-
ried to a remarkable pitch of perfection in every
branch (vegetables, flowers and fruit). There
is abundance of building stone within the de-
partment, but no coal or other mineral. The
industries include, in addition to those charac-
teristic of Park, chemicals, textiles and many
others at St. Denis, tobacco and glass at Pan-
tin, chemicals at Aubervilliers, woollens, dyeing
and engineering at Puteaux, laundri^ at
wulogne, crystal at Cliohy, iron and engineer-
^ Ivry, porcelain, chemicals and oilcloth
at Qioisy-le-Eoi, leather and porcelain at
Montreuif. department constituted part of
th« Old province of Be de Franca, Park k the
capital. Pop. (1901), 3,669,930,


8el3ie«tt^llajni#f n department of France^
bounded on the K. by Oke and Aisne, on the
E. by Marne and Au)>e, on the S. by Yonne and
Loiret, and on the W. by Seine-et-Oise, and
having an area of 2,276 square miles, lying
wholly within the basin of the Seine. The
surface falls gently in a series of tablelands
from east to west, the highest point, 705 feet,
occurring in the north-east, and ike soil k for
the most part good, the pastures of the Brk
producing famous cheeses, whilst the southern
portion is noted for the white Chasselas grapes.
The fozests, including that of Fontainebleau,
cover a fifth of the department, and yield valu-
able timber. The chief streams, in addition to
the tidal-rivers, are the Yonne, Doing, Voulzie,
Yeres, Ource, and the Grand and Petit Morin.
The principal crops are wheat, oats, rye, barley,
potatoes, beetroot, vines, and pulse, "and there
are considerable herds of cattle and horses, flocks
of sheep and droves of pigs. Dairying is in a
prosoerous condition. Excepting quarries of
building stone and the clay which is in great
request for the potteries of the department,
there are practically no mineral resources.
Among the chief industries are paper-making,
pottery, sugar-refining, tanning, iron-founding,
and distilling, and the manufacture of bread-
stuffs. Melun (13,059) is the capital, Fontaine-
bleau (14,160), Meaux (13,690), and Provins
(8,794) being towns of importance. The de-
partment was formed in 1790 out of the district
of Brie and part of Gdtinais. Pop. (1901),
358,325.

Beine-et-Oise, a department of France,
bounded on the E. by Seine-et-Marne, on the
W. by Eur^et-Doir, on the S. by Doiret, on
the N. by Oise, and on the N.W. by Eure. It
encloses the department of Seine, and has an
area of 2,184 square miles, most of which is
arable land, though there are extensive woods
about Versailles and St. Germain, many vine-
yards towards the south, and good pastures, in-
cluding part of Brie. The chief streams are
the Yeres, Marne, Oise, Epte, Essonne, Juine,
Orge, Bkvre and Mauldre. The famous oorn-
growing plateau of Da Beauce extends into
the western portion. The principal crops are
wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes, beetroot
(for sugar and fodder), hay, oil-seeds, vines
and green stuff. Dive-stock are raised in con-
siderable numbers and bee-keeping is a feature
of rural economy. The leading forest trees are
oaks, chestnuts, hornbeams ana birdhes. Build-
ing stone, potter^B clay, peat, sand, plaster
and chalk occur. The factories for porcelain at
Sdvres, powder at Sevran, paper at Essonnes*
Corbeil, and Etampes, iron-founding at Cor-
beil and Argenteuil, employ many hands, and
there are large cotton- and silk-mills, sugar-
refineries, etc. Versailles (54,982) is the capi-
tal, and, besides the above-named, Pontoise,
Mantes, Enghien, and Bambouillet are im-
portant centres. The department was consti-
tuted in 1790 out of portion of the ancient pro-
vince of Be de Prance. Pop. U901), 707,325. ’





( n5)


Smmogi?s)#h.


tt«ixiO-X]|£ivi«W0, a department of France, supports would be a measure of tbe extent of

bounded on tbe N. and N.W. by tbe English tbe motion of tbe ground. A yery long pen-

Cbannel, on tbe N,E. by Somme, on tbe S. by dulum fulfils tbe conditions as ^cegards bori-

Eure and tbe moutb of tbe Seine, and on tbe zontal motions, but a more coi^enient ar-

E. by Oise. Ibe area of 2,448 equare miles is rangement, due to Professor Sir James Alfred

mostly a plateau sloping from tbe east, where Ewing, F.R.S., consists of two pendulums, one

it is 800 feet above sea-level, to tbe river and of which is inverted and placed vertically below

sea, where tbe clifis are broken by eroded the other. Tbe two bobs 5i.:e connected by a

valleys. The bills of Caux divide tbe depart- ball joint. Tbe combination of tbe stability of

ment, tbe southern half being made up cliiefly the upper pendulum with the instability of the

of pastures and forests, whilst arable farms lower one can give the required neutral equi-

prevail in the north. The surface is drained librium. A ^int, connected with tbe lobes by

by tributaries of tbe Seine and by such coast multiplying levers, records tbe motion on a

streams as tbe Bresle, Yeres, Arques, and plate of smoked glass. By allowing tbe pen-

Saano. Tbe chalk cliffs of tbe shore have an dulums to swing freely in any direction, a corn-

average height of from 300 to 400 feet, and at plete record of tbe horizontal tremors is obtained,

the points where their white line is broken while the motions in

have been laid out the fashionable watering- any given direction

places of Tr^port, Dieppe, ^ tretat, Fecamp, may be observed by

St. Valery, Yeules, Yport and St. Adresse, giving the pendulum

some of which, like Treport, are in
perennial favour with the Parisians,
while others, like Dieppe, enjoy a
large English custom. The breeding
of live-stock is vigorously pursued,
the horses being in good repute.

Butter and cheese are exported in
enormous quantities, and dairying
otherwise flourishes. The chief crops
are wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes,
pulse, beetroot, oil-seeds and fodder.

Apples and pears are cultivated with
especial care for cider and perry. The
prevailing trees are oak, pine and
beech, but there are great tracts
of barren, sandy waste. Industries
flourish, for Rouen is the Manchester
and Elbeuf the Leeds of France, and hobizontal pendulum: pbop. john milnb’s new seismograph

there are engineering works at Havre recorder.

and Rouen, tobacco factories at {Photo: Pictorial Agency.)

Dieppe, whilst sugar, flaxen yarn,

lace, glass and other manufactures are pro- freedom in that direction only. By the latter

duced at other places, and the fisheries are of means the horizontal vibrations may be re-
permanent ii^ortance. Rouen (115,914) is the solved into two components at right angles,

capital, and Havre (130,196) the busiest of the and recorded on a disc of smoked glass rotated

harbours on the Channel. There is daily com- by clockwork; from the diagram so obtained

munication by steamer between Dieppe and the motion at any moment can be ascertained.

Newhaven in England. The department was An instrument for measuring vertical tremors

formed in 1790 out of certain districts (Vexin, may be constructed on the same principle.

Bray, Caux and Roumois) of the old province In Ewing's arrangement a horizontal lever,

of Normandy. Pop. (1901), 853,883. pivoted at one end and weighted at the other,

IS supported by a spiral spring, the position of
Seisniograpll, or Seismometeb, an instru- the point of attachment being so arranged that

ment for recording movements of the earth’s the necessary neutral equilibrium is obtained,

surface, which, if sufficiently pronounced, be- A style moved by multiplying levers is pro-

come earthquakes. These motions are of two vided to make a record on smoked glass. These

kinds — quick vibrations and slow tiltings of the instruments would not be affected by a slow

surface. For measuring the quick tremors, a alteration of level of the earth’s surface, for

heavy body is suspended in ench a way that it the measurement of which other appliances are

hm freedom of motion in one or more direc- needed. The simplest arrangement is tb place

tions, and is in a condition of nearly neutral two spirit levels on the spot to be observed^

equilibrium — ^that is to say, if it is displaced, and to watch their bubbles with microscopes,

it has hardlj any tendency to return to its A rough-and-ready eeismometer consists in

original position. A body so suspended would an earthenware bowl partlv filled with a

remain stationary, or nearly so, when its sup- viscid fluid, like treacle. C)n being thrown

porte moved in consequence of earth-tremors, against the side of the bowl by an earths

and the relative motions the body and its shock the treacle leaves a visible record and










iiny


IMmUml.


plakts li^om Boedtoes deetmdtiOB nBd tiie pro*
tection of places and objects of antiqnMian in*
terest or natural beauty.

0Blb7i a town of tbe West Biding of Yorkshire,
Englana, on tbo ngbt bank of tbe Ouse, wbicb
here separates tbe Bast and West
Hidings, 15 miles S. of York. It
is famous as tbe seat of the Bene*
dictine Abbey of St. German,
founded by William tbe Con-
queror in 1070. In the course of
time it acquired so much wealth,
power, ana privilege as to rival
the chapter of St. Peter *b Cathe-
dral in York, its Superior being
one of the only two mitred abbots
north of the Trent. Henry I.
was born within the precincts of
the abbey, which to this event no
doubt owed royal favour* Of the
magnilicent fabric the sole relic
is the church of St. Mary and St.

German, which suffered severely
in the fire of October 20th, 1906,
which gutted the building. It
has a length of nearly 300 feet
and a width of 60 feet. Of its
many fine features the most note-
worthy is the choir, erected be-
tween 1320 and 1350, which
is a beautiful example of the
Decorated style. The nave ranges
from Late Norman to Early English. Traces
may yet be made out of the cloisters which
stood to the south of the nave, and part of
the tithe-barn yet exists. Selby is the centre
of a fertile country and its agricultural trade
is important. The leading industries include
n ax-scutching, rope-making, the building of
boats and barges, tanning, brewing and malt-
ing, and iron-founding, with the manufactures

of netting-
twine and
boot and shoe
laces as a spe-
ciality. Pop.
(1901), 7,786.

Seldexif

John, Eng-
lish jurist and
antiquary,
was bom at
Salvington, in
Sussex, Eng-
land, on De-
cember 30th,
1 5 8 4, and
educated at
Chichester
and Hart
Hall, Oxford.
He was called
to tbe bar in
JOBK BXLDXH. 1612, but even

(JVkmii the p&rtfoM hif tht before this

S04— N.B.


had given evidence of industijr, research and learn-
ing in his books^7 JnnI Fmm (161b),

EpmomU (1610) ' SingU

Com6ae (1610), and others. In |612 h» anno*
tated, at the author’s request, the first eight^n
cantos of Michael Drayton’s PoigolUotif which


was followed by his Titles of Honour (1614)
and his History of Tythes, which last he had
to apologise for. In 1623 he became M.P. for
Lancaster, espousing the popular side, and was
returned for different boroughs in several sub-
sequent Parliaments, his legal acumen and
judicial mind being of the greatest service to
the leaders of the Commons in their contest
with Charles I. Ever since 1617, when he had
published Be Diis Syris, dealing with Syrian
mythology, he had shown an intermittent In-
terest in Oriental studies, on which he brought
out several volumes, amongst them the Mar-
mora Arundelliana (1624), in which he gave
an account of the collection of the marbles and
other antiques of Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl
of Arundel. Selden’s Mare Clausum up-

holds the right of the English to certain marine
territory, but his argument has never beeli
seriously accepted, and the work is not worthy
of his nigh reputation. In 1640 he published
De Jure Naturali. By this time he was justly
celebrated as one of the greatest men of his
age, and in 1643 he was appointed Keeper bf
the Records in the Tower. He was very popu-
lar, and in 1644 the Government voted him
.£5,000 for his public services. He died in
Lcndon at Carttiwite House on November 30th,
1654, and was buried in the Temple Church.
His Table Talk, a deeply intereeting work
compiled by his secretary, Richard Milward,
appeared thirty-five years alteV his death.

fi^leotioilf Kathbal. [Dabwinism.]



i^hoto] SELBY ABBEY. . Nctpjpyt Stlby,




t 178 )


Falkirk.




MlMtf in Greek mytbolog^r, the goddess
of the moon, the Latin Luna. She was the
daughter of Hyperion and Theia» and therefore
fiieter of Helios (the Sun) and Eos (the Dawn).
Ihus she also hears the name of Phoebe, as
fiister of Phoebus, the Sun-god. She was en-
amoured of Endymion and sent him to sleep
in order to kiss him. She is represented as
very beautiful, with long wings and a golden
diadem. She rode across the sl^ in a <3iariot
drawn by two white horses. In later times
she was identified wifli Artemis, but though
the worship of the two was combined, they
were always treated independently in works
of art, the figure of Selene being shown fuller
and rounder, less tall, and clothed in a long
robe, her veil forming an arch over her head,
with a crescent above it.

BelenitOj the translucent crystalline variety of
gypsum, so named from the resemblance of its
pearly lustre to moonlight. It crystallises in
the Oblimie system, often in flat rhomboid
forms, ana is in swallow-tailed twins. The crys-
tals are sometimes large, very symmetrical, and
laminated parallel to the largest faces, and
they may be bent. They are 2 in the scale of
hardness. Selenite forms rapidly on the sur-
face of clay from the decomjposition of iron
pyrites and calcareous fossils m moist air.

S^ldllilUlL (symbol, Se; atomic weight, 78*9),
a rare non-metallic element, occurs to a email
extent in certain iron pyrites, and, owing to its
presence in this source, sometimes in deposits
in the lead chambers used in the manufacture
of sulphuric acid. It was in these deposits in
Fahlun, in Sweden, that the element was first
discovered by Berzelius in 1817. In most of
its chemical properties selenium resembles sul-
phur, and is capable of existing in two allo-
tropic forms. One of these is obtained as a
reddish-brown powder by the reduction of the
oxide of selenium, and is soluble in carbon
disulphide. If melted and kept molten for
eome time, being allowed to cool very slowly,
a cryetalline variety is obtained. This form
is insoluble in carbon disulphide, has a specific
gravity of 4*6, and mel^ at 217® C. If
strongly heated in air selenium bums, forming
a dioxide SeOg, with a strong and peculiar
odour. This oxide condenses to form needle-
shap^ crystals, and dissolves in water to form
selenious acid, from which, by oxidation, a
powerful acid (selenic acid) results. This acid
IS remarkable as being the only single acid
which is capable of dissolving gold. It forms
salts, known as the selenates, which in most
points closely resemble the sul]^ates. With
hydrogen, selenium forms a compound, SeH,,
which is a combustible colourless gas, with a
most wnetrating and very disagreeable odour,
powerfully attacking the throat and eyes. It
m easily soluble, ana resembles the correspond-
ing sulphur compound, producing, in solution
of most metallic salts, precipitates of metallic
selenides. It was so-called from sehne, *‘the
moon,*^* because in many respecte it resembled


tellurium (which had been named from tdlm»
“the earth*').

Selenodont. [Bunodont.]

Selancia (QTeek,Seleuk€ia), the name of several
towns famous in ancient times, which owed
their origin to the Seleucidm. One of theee,
on the left bank of the Tigris, founded by
Seleucus I., attained great splendour, and at
the height of its prosperity and supremacy
supplan^d Babylon and is believed to have
maintained a population of 600,000. Of this
superb city only a few ruins (25 miles S.E. of
Baghdad and 40 miles N. by E. of Babylon)
are the sole memorial. Seleucia Pieria, another
city of the same date and founder, stood near
the mouth of the Orontes, and was the port of
Antioch, with which also, Apamea and Lao-
dices, it constituted the Syrian Tetrapolis.

SnleucTlS, founder of the Macedonian dynasty
of the ^leucidae, was born about 368 b.c., ana
was surnamed Nicator or the Conqueror. He
was a notable warrior under Alexander the
Great, and served in Persia and India. Be-
ccming satrap of Babylonia in 322, he fell into
difficulties, which led to his flight into Egypt,
whence he returned in 312, and, recovering
Babylonia, assumed the title of king. He
obtained enormous power, founded Antioch,
Seleucia, and other cities, and gained great
victories over Demetrius (286), and over
Lysimachus (281). He was assassinated in 280.

Self-Induction, in electricity, is a property
of electric circuits which causes electricity in
some cases apparently to possess inertia. When
an electromotive force is applied to a circuit, a
magnetic field has to be created, and work must
beaone. This results in a back electromotive
force, which, as it were, draws back the cur-
rent, so that it only rises gradually to its steady
value. The reverse effect occurs on breaking
the circuit, as the lines of force, in closing up,
generate an electromotive force which tends
to keep the current flowing for a short time.
Self-induction has an important effect on the
action of alternate current apparatus.

Selim III. (1761-1808), Sultan of Turkey, was
the son of Mustafa III., and when he ascended
the throne in 1789 great expectations were
excited by his known admirable qualities. He
was, however, hampered by the Janissaries, who,
defeated his efforts at reform, and finally de-
nied him in favour of Mustafa IV., who caused
him to be stranded. He had contracted al-
liances with the British and French at differ-
ent times, and on Napoleon's successful in-
vasion of Egypt it was the former who restored
it to him.

Selkirk, the county town of SelJditkBhiret
Scotland, about 6 miles S. of Galashiels. It is
beautifully situated on high ground some 2
miles below the confluence of tne Ettrick and
Yanow, and 3 miles above the point where the
Ettrick falls into the Tweed. It derives its
name from the rude kirk among tha shielings



Mkivlu


( 179 )




nMcli was raised wlien fh& district was first
conrerted from paganism and preceded the
Tironensian abbey wbicb David 1. transferred
to Kelso in 1126; The early Scots kings had a
hunting-lodge here, but scarcely any trace re-
mains of the ancient castle. In those remote



SELKIRK.

(Photo: A. It. Edwards, SeVcirk

times the town was famous for its brogues, or
single-soled shoon, and tradition has steadily
maintained that in the disastrous battle of
Plodden (1513) the “souters,” or shoemakers
of Selkirk, bore themselves with conspicuous
valour. The principal manufactures now are
tweeds, tartans, plaids and shawls, and leather,
in addition to wool-spinning. The chief struc-
tures are the town hall and county buildings.
Burgh courts are held in the old town hall, in
which was the room where Sir Walter Scott
used to preside as “Shirra,” or Sheriff. There
is a monument to Sir Walter in the Market
Place, and one to Mungo Park, the African
traveller, in High Street. Mungo began life
as a surgeon's apprentice in the town. The
quarters occupied in Selkirk by General David
Leslie on the eve of the battle of Philiphaugh,
two miles westwards on the left bank of the
Yarrow, when the Marquis of Montrose suffered
somewhat ignominious defeat (September 13th,
1645), are still pointed out. Pop. (1901), 6,292.

SeUdrk, or Sslcbaig, Alexander, the alleged
prototype of “Eobinson Crusoe,” was born at
Largo, JPifeshire, Scotland, in 1676. He was a
seafaring man and had made several voyages
before the fateful one in which, owing to a
dispute with his captain, Stradling of the
Cinque Porte, he elected to be put ashore on
Juan Fernandez, a lonely Pacific island, some
distance off the coast of Chile. This was in
1704, and it waa not till 1700 — four years and
four months afterwards — that he was rescued
by Captain Eogere. He did not return home
till 1713, when only his mother recognised him.
It has been doubted whether Daniel Defoe knew
of Selkirk's unique experiences, but there is in-
herent probability that so wideawake a man


must have been familiar with what was per*
fectly notorious both through i^oounts pub-
lished in London and %o talh ^f the town.
But there is no question that Selkirk was the
theme of William Cowper’s noble poem, “I
am monarch of all I sujwey.” Some relics of
Selkirk still exist, such as the cup he used on
the island, his firelock and his seaman's chest.
Ho seems to have bought a house and garden
in Largo, but the rover’s blood was in his
veins, and in 1717 ho rejoined the navy and
died in foreign parts, a lieutenant oi The
Weymouth, in 1728. A monument to his
memory has been erected in Largo.

Selkirk Mountains^ a range of mountains
in the south-east of British Columbia, North
America, extending northwards from the
United States boundary as far as the great
loop of the Columbia Eiver. It has, on the
east, the Purcell Eange, and, still farther east,
the main stem of the Eockies, and, on the
west, the Gold Eange, and, between this and
the Pacific coast, the Cascade Eange. Among
the highest peaks are Mount Dawson (10,800
feet). Sir Donald (10,645 feet). Mount Donkin
(9,700 feet), and Mount Macdonald (9,440 feet).
The scenery almost everywhere is sublime,
varied as it is with primeval forest and glaciers.
The Canadian Pacific Eailway crosses the range.

SelMrksliiref a southern inland county of
Scotland, usually considered on© of the Border
counties, bounded on the N. by Edinburgh-
shire, on the N.E., E. and S.E. by Eoxburgh-
shire, on the S.W. by Dumfriesshire, and on
the W. and N.W. by Peeblesshire. It covers an
area of 267 square miles. Its surface is hill
and dale, being mountainous in the west and
south-west, where heights of from 1,500 to
nearly 2,000 feet are numerous, while a few
exceed 2,000 feet. Dun Eig reaching an eleva-
tion of 2,433 feet. The chief rivers are the
Tweed, which traverses a few miles of the
northern district, and the Yarrow, which fiows
out of St. Mary's Loch and falls into the Et-
trick, a few miles above the latter's confluence
with the Tweed. The Ettrick rises close to
the Dumfriesshire boundary and pursues a
mainly north-easterly direction to the Tweed.
It and the Yarrow are the distinctively Sel-
kirk streams. St. Mary's Loch and the Loch
of the Lowes, in the west, are the only lakes of
any consequence. The shire was formerly de-
signated the Sheriffdom of Ettrick Forest and
its greatest Sheriff was Sir Walter Scott. The
men of the Forest were famous fighters and did
yeoman service for their country at Flodden
in 1513, when the ‘'flowers </ the Forest were
a’ wede awa'.” The Eomans left few tracsee of
their occupation, but of the first inhabitants;
there remain vestiges of the singular rann>art
or road called the Catrail, or Piets' Work,
which began at the Cheviots and ended at Tor-
woodlee, near Galashiels. Much of the soil is
under cultivation, but the uplands afford ex-
cellent grazing-ground and pasturage for sheep
and cattle,. §ie sheep-walks especially being




iliifilf •toektd. Chmiillt mi iiiiisitoiM m
otMurrM, but ilitrv »» viiittall/ m tthimki.
TlMi iiiaiiitfiietitrM wooUttii sud #tlier

tttttllM, li<}ti«f7| Mtd b«iid«i tlwi df«M-

inf ibnep ana lanib tkini# niid iOiiie nnfinenr-
iMg And f»Ac]ilnni 7 irorlcA* Asmmg well-lniown
mtivm wer 0 Jamm Mogg tbe Bttnok Sbepberd,
Muago jPnrb and Williain liAldinw. T&e bill
coiinlrj inninf with, tmmorim. oi tbe Corenan-
tom, and tbo Manquia of Montroae waa defeated
at Fbilipbattfb in 1616. Pop. (1901)« 23,366.

or SAL6BA, that is, Seolfl’ Island, In
evidence of the time when these animals fre-
quented the spot, a parish on the coast of Su€h
mx, England, 8^ mites of Chichester. It is
historically interesting as the original seat of
tho see ol Chichester, St. Wilfrid, to whom it
was granted, having built a cathedral here.
The site was probacy found too much out of
the way and too exposed, for the see was trans-
ferred to Chichester, its present seat, in 1072.
'Phe locality, however, is extremely healthy,
and there is a line stretch of sandy beach.
Tlio fisheries, especially of lobster jrawn, and
crab, form the only industry. The seaward
face of the promontory is known as Selsey Bill.
Pop. of parish (1901), 1,268.

jNltinv WatOTf a natural water which
contains, together with certain quantities of
mineral salts (e.g., chloride of sodium and sul-
phate of magnesia), a large amount of dis-
solved carbonic acid gas, which gives it its
sparkling properties, it is found at the springs
OI Niederselters and Oberselters, two villages
in Hesse-Naasau, Prussia, whence it derives
its name. A water somewhat resembling the
natural water may be prepared artificially by
dissolving the salts in water and impregnating
with carlx>nic acid gas under pressure, as in
the various arrangements for tne purpose sold
under the names of seltzogenes, etc.

8olW3r2if Gborge Augustus, first Bishop of
New Zealand, was bom at Hampstead, London,
on April 5th, 1809. and educated at Ealing,
Eton and St. John^s College, Cambridge. He
took holy or4er3 and in 1833 became curate of
Windsor. In 1841, when the episcopacy was
extended to the British colonies, he obtained
the see of New Zealand, being consecrated in
the same year. He acquired a working know-
ledge of Maori during the outward voyage and
was thus enabled to begin an active ministry
as soon as he landed. He won the confidence
of the natives, and, in six years, having ex-
haustively visited the whole of his vast see,
set out (m 1847) to visit the Pacific Islands,
which by a clerical error had been in-
cluded in his diocese. The result of his voyage
was the creation of the see of Melanesia. On
his visit to England in 1854 he obtained home
rule in diocesan affairs and power to consecrate
^ North and two to the
^uth Island, becoming himself primate of
New Zealand. In 1867, while attending the
Pan^Auglioan Synod in England he waa trans^


lemd to the eee of whiiii lio |i«M

till hii death in that city op April, llthr ISM.
His Verbal Anolptis of tm Mdg Bieie appeared
in 1855, and several volumes el his sernume
have also been published*

HonMltoro (Greek, ** sign-bearer **). In the
days beme the invention of the electric tele-
graph, A system of signal etations wae erected
from point to point along important routes by
means of whim messages were conveyed b*^
tween distant towns with incredible celerity.
The stations were strong towers built in com-
manding situations so that, with the aid of
powerftu telescopes, the sisals displayed at
the neighbouring station on either side could
readily oe deciphered and pissed on. On the
fiat roof of each tower was raised the system of
codes, at first consisting of two sets of shutters
which, closed and opened in various combina-
tions, conveyed the message, the shatters being
operated inside the tower by winches. This
cumbersome apparatus was afterwards replaced
by a mast and arms, resembling the railway
semaphore now in vogue. Biehard Lovell Edge-
worth (1744-1817) is credited with the invention
of the semaphore which, of course, was aban-
doned (save for use on railways) as soon as
telegra^y was perfected. Though it seems a
crude method of signalling, at the same time
the operatives were so vigilant and expert that
it is said a message could be sent from London
to Portsmouth and back in a minute.

SemuioleSf North American aborigines, a
branch of the Muskhogean family, formerly



SEMixoLB nmuir mr,
(Vrm CatlM Jmerican




ptywerliil in FloriiiA sad aeiflibauiiag districts,
tmt aaw muntliertag seme H,B/0O, isdadiaf
slmat 500 ia Soatlieni Florida, dl tlie rest
hsriag beta remored to the Uaioo Ageacyi
ladisa l^rritory. Tbe Seaiiaoles do aot sp*
pear to bare li^a tbe primitiTe iababitimts
of Flomds, wbiob was arat held by Ttmo*
qasasa tribes; bat alter tbe expuleioa of tbe
Aj^lacbi by tbe Britiab ia 1702^, tbe Semi-
noles, with tbe Idadred Yamasi, were tbe only
aatires ia oocnpatioa of tbe peainsala. Here
they were gradually compelled by tbe progrees
of wbite settlemeat to give up agriculture aad
take refuge in tbe watery district of tbe Ever-
glades, where they lived by tbe chase and fish-
ing till removed to Indian Territory.

gtmipalatingl:# a province of Russia-in-
Asia, belonging to tbe Governor-Generalship of
tbe Steppes, bounded on tbe N. and N.E. by
Tomsk, on the E. and S.E. bv the Chinese

S roviace of Chuguchak, on the S. by the
luseiaa provinces of Syr-Daria and Semirye-
chenak, and on the W. by Akmolinsk. It oc-
cupies an area of 178,320 square miles. The
surface is largely mountainous, portions of the
Altai system (10,000 feet high) being found in
tlie east, and of the Tarbagatai (9,(w feet) in
the south, with vast stretches of steppe be-
tween. Tie Irtish is the principal river and
Zaisau the chief lake. The whole country is
undergoing rapid desiccation and the climate is
very trying. Agriculture is the prevailing in-
dustry, wheat, oats, millet, potatoes, rye and
barley being the leading crops, while great
flocks of sheep, droves of cattle and horses, and
herds of cam<d8 are raised. The mineral wealth
comprises gold, silver, salt and coal. The in-
dustries are of small account and include dis-
tilleries, tanneries, iron-works and flour-mills.
The capital is Semipalatinsk (26,353) on the
right bank of the Irtish. Pop., 688,657, pre-
dominantly Kirghiz.

SmPOdrainiBf Queen of Assyria, reigned four
mnerations before Nitocris, according to Hero-
dotus, but she was probably a mythical person-
age. Diodorus of Sicily tells a remarkable
story of her being deserted whilst a child by
her mother, a godaess, and kept alive doves.
She is supposed to have founded, with her
husband Ninus, Nineveh and other cities and
monuments, and to have lived 2,000 years be-
fore tbe Christian era.

IBtomirygelltlUll^ a province of Turkestan,
Bussia^in-i^ia, bounded on tbe N. by Semi-
palatinsk, on tbe E. and S. by tbe Chinese
provincee of Chuguchak, Kulja, Aksu, and
Kashgar, and on 3ie W. by tbe Russian pro-
vinces of Fergana, Syr-Daria and Akmolinsk.
It covers an area of 144,550 square miles. In
the east and aouth the surface is mountainous,
embracing parte of the Ala-tau and Tian-sban
systems, Init much of the rest Is steppe and
d^rt. Tlie country is drained by tme Hi,
many streams flowiw norlb.wards to Issik-kul
end other rivers. Tne lakes include Balkasb


1400 miles long by 55 ntilea wide), teik-kul and
Ala^kni Agmnltiire Is tae leading industry,
wheat, oats, millet, barlCYi riioni.and potatoes
being the chief crops, but ^-plants, flax, be^,
popj^ea and other plants are cultivated. The
raising of live-stock is a pursuit of pre-eminent
importance, there being vast flocks of sheep
ana great herds of horses, cattle, camels and
goats. Fruit is grown in fertile, sheltered
valleys, and bee-keeping is also general.
The industries comprise dlstiUeries, tanneries,
flour-mills and tobacco factories, but weaving,
saddlerjf, metal ware, felt goods and other
domestic trades are pursued. Vyernyi (24,798)
is the capital. Pop., 988,182, of whom the
great majority are Kirghiz.

Semitic LtmgVMBgf a conventional name
given by Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1762-
1827) to a linguistic family, which Ernest
Renan calls the Syro-Arabic, from the extreme
northern and southern members of the group.
There are four well-defined branches: (1) As-
syrian of the cuneiform writings, extinct pro-
bably before the Christian era; (2) Aramaic,
comprising the Syriac of Syria and parts Of
Palestine extinct since the 9th or 10th centuw
of the Christian era, and the Chaldean, still
spoken by a few Nestorians and other religious
communities in Mesopotamia and West Persia ;
(3) Canaanitish, comprising the Phoenician of
the Palestine and south- west Mediterraneau
(IPunic) coast-lands, everywhere extinct pro-
bably since the 5th century of the Christian
era, and the Hebrew of the Israelites and Jews,
which as a vernacular rapidly merged in the
Aramaic after the Babylonian Captivity; (4)
Arabic, comprising the Arabic proper of the

g reater part of Arabia, tbe language of the
oran, now current throughout the whole of
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt,
and most of North Africa, and the Himyaritic
tongue of South-West Arabia f Yemen) and
Abyssinia, all but extinct in Arabia, but sur-
viving in more or less corrupt forms (Tigrina,
Amharic, Harari, etc.) in Abyssinia. Although
recent research has gone far to prove tne
original unity of Semitic and Hamitic speech,
the relations are so slight, and go back to such
a remote epoch, that Semitic must practically
be regarded as an independent form of speech,
belonging to the inflecting order, but fund^^
mentally distinct from all other Inflecting lair-
guages. It is distinguished^ as might be ex-
pected from the mental temperament^ of the
Semitic race, by great stability andpersistetoce;
so much so that tbe various nranches ninj nl*
most be regarded as little more tban dialects
of a long extinct Semitic mother-tongue. Cer-
tainly these branches differ far less from each
other— Hebrew, for instance, from SyriSb, or
Assyrian from Arabic— than do rnaHY members
of the different Ar^an branches from each
other^Engli^, for instance, frbm Old High
German in the Teutonic, or Hindi from Sans-
krit in tbe Indio brandh. *^Oli oomparing,*'
remarks Eenan, ** the Chaldean of the frag-





(182 )




ineiitA of Bsdriis, repiesenting tli« Aramaic of
th© fitli ceaturj b.o., with the Syriac still writ-
tun in our day, scarcelv any ofiscntial differ-
ences can be discovered between teats composed
at so long an interval. Between these two
limits Aramaic may be said to have varied no
more than the language of Cicero from that
of Ennius/’ The most striking features of
Semitic speech are: (1) The strong phonetic
system, with several aeep guttur^s (M,

</A, etc.) unpronounceable by Europeans, yet
preserved fpr thousands of years in the hottest
inhabited rfegion of the globe; (2) the tri-
svilabie verbal roots, consisting mainly of
three consonants (triliteral, with a few
biliteral, quadriliteral. and pluriliteral),
“moved" by vowels, but never changed in
sound or sequence in any of the branches.
Thus from root gf/ »= “kill," Arabic qatala,
Hebrew q&tal, etc., “he killed"; (3) the re-
markablo verbal process, without analogy in
any other language, by which from this tri-
literal root were developed, chiefly bjy internal
vowel change and prefixed servile letters
(4. /, n, «), as many as 16 thematic forms
(intensives, reciprocals, causatives, reflexives,
iteratives, etc.), in the Semitic mother-tongue,
of which 12 or 13 are preserved in Himyaritio,
11 in Arabic, 5 in Hebrew, and more or less
in the other branches. Thus Arabic, qatala,
qdtala, haqtala^ taqatcday hinqaHhu, Imiaqtalay
etc., each with active and passive voice, per-
sonal endings, participles, gender, but two
tenses only, the complete ana incomplete; for
acta are thought of by the Semitic mind, not as
taking place in past, present, or future time,
m they are thought of by the expansive Aryan
mind, but as either done absolutely (past) or
as not complete at the time of fact last men-
tioned, the incomplete or “imperfect" thus
vaguely answering to the English present and
future. The verb also incorporates both the
direct and indirect personal objects; but in
other respects Semitic inflection is poor. De-
clension is restricted to three cases (subjective,
possessive, and objective), feebly marked by
nasalisation; there is little adjectival change;
the dual is confined to the noun ; there is no
neuter gender and no optative and no word-
building by prefixes or other process. Peculiar
to the Arabic branch are the so-called “broken
plurals " on which, being really singular col-
lectives, secondary plurals may be built.
There are over thirty typical . forms, such as
JaMhaty ‘‘a gem/* « jewellery ** ; amir,

** prince,** iinmard, ** the aristocracy ** ; qarihy “ a
relation,** oqHhd, “kindred**; khahar, “news,**
akUir, “tidings’*; “unbeliever,** knfar,
“the infidel.** Several of these or analogous
forms survive in the cognate Himyaritic, but
the principle on which they have been de-
veloped hae disappeared from all the other
members of the Semitic family. All the Semitic
languages except Assyrian are written in vari-
ous forms of an alphabet attributed to the
J^csnieians, and ultimately traceable to m
hieroglypltic (Egyptian or Babylonian) uonroe.


Ihis graphic ^stem runs from right to left
and makes originally little provision lor the
vowel sounds, exoe]^ in the Himyaritic of
Abyssinia, which reverses the order and de-
velops a full vocal eeries by a uniform modifica^
tion of the consonants. Apart from the As-
syrian now being revealed by the decipherment
of the cuneiform writings, Semitic literature
has been successively cultivated, first by the
Jews (Hebrew perm closing with the 6th
century b.c.), then by the Aramssans (from the
6th century b.c. to the 7th century after Christ),
and, lastly, by the Arabs (from the 7th cen-
tury down to the present day). The two first
are mainly religious, the third religious and

f eneral. (Renan, Histoire Oinirale des Langues
imitiques.)

Semitio Aaoe, a main division of the Caucasic
stock, whose original domain was confined to
the south-west corner of Asia — that is, the
region comprised between the Iranian plateau
and the Persian Gulf on the east, and the Red
Sea and Mediterranean on the west, wBjk nd
clearly-defined limits towards the north. From
this relatively narrow territory the Semites
spread in prehistoric times to the Ethiopian
highlands (Abyssinia), and along the southern |
shores of the Mediterranean, and in historic ^
times to nearly the whole of North Africa,
to the East African coast-lands beyond the
Zambesi, and to parts of Persia, India, and
Malaysia. The name is purely conventional,
being taken, for want of a better, from Sem |
(Shem), their assumed progenitor, although ^
the Biblical genealogies make no claim to
scientific accuracy. Apaft from the doubtful
Hittites, there are five great historical groups :

(1) The Assyrians of Mesopotamia; (2) tjm
Aramaeans (Syro-Chaldeans) of Syria, parts « j
Palestine and the Lower Eui^ratesi (3) the
Canaanites (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Carthagin-
ians and others) of Palestine and the
Mauritanian seaboard; (4) the Arabs of th^*
gieater part of the peninsula named froni^
Oiem ; (5) the Himyarites of south-west Arabia
(Yemen) and Abyssinia. Of these all but the
Jews and Abyssinian Himyarites have either
disappeared or else been a^imilated in speech
to the Arabs, who may be said to have jib-
sorbed nearly all other members of the Semitic
family much in the same way that the Latins
absorbed all other members of the old Italic
family. The type, as best represented by the
Assyrians of the ancient monuments, by the
Jews and Arabs, offers considerable diversity
in the details, but is essentially Caucasic in its
main characters, being distinguished by perfectly
regular and expressive features, fin© oval lace,
large and often aeiuiline nose depressed at the
root, small pointed chin, forehead straight but
not high, black almond-shaped eyes, moaerately
dolichocephalic head, glossy jet-black hair, full
beard, skin fair but easily bronsed by exposure,
stature rather below tne average European.
This type approaches nearest to ^e Hamitio,
at least ai represented by the Berbers, and



( 183 )




m linguktio And ot]ier reasons lor as*
sliming a primitiTe Hamito-Semitic race, whoso
original home maj have been either in North
Alnca or South-West Asia, whence the two
branches diverged long before the oldest Baby-
lonian and Egyptian records. Compared with
the Aryan, the Semitic intellect may be de-
scribed as less varied, but more intone©, a con-
trast duo to their monotonous and almost
changeless environment of yellow sands, blue
skies, flora and fauna limited to a few epecies
ani mainly confined to oases and plains re-
claimed by irrigation from the desert. Hence
to the Semites mankind is indebted for little
philosophy and science — though such excep-
tions as can be made to this generalisation are
extremely strong ones — but for much sublime
poetry associated with many profound con-
ceptions of a moral order, resulting in the
three great monotheistic religions of the
world — the Jewish, Christian, and Mohamme-
dan. Expansion and progress are the domin-
ant characteristics of tne Aryan, concentration
and immutability of the Semitic, intellect.

Semler, Johann Salomo, theologian, was born
at Saalfeld, in Saxe-Meiniugen, Germany, on
December 18th, 1725. He was educated at
Halle University, and became its professor
of theology in 1751, which post he retained
till his death. He was alip director of the
theological faculty at Halle. He died at
Halle on March 14th, » 1791. His writings are
chiefly interpretations of the Old and New
’Deetaments, and, though slightly rationalistic.
Are considered of much importance. He re-
jected the dogmas of the equal value of both
the Old and the New Testament, of the uni-
form authority of all parts of the Bible, of
authority of the traditional c&on,
* Pfcnary inspiration and the identification of
revelation with Scripture. Among his works
^ere J>e JDamoniacis (1760X Selecta Capita EUtoruB
^f^letiastwa (1767), Ahhandlnng von freier Un»
des Kaitont (1771), Apparatus ad
^miheralem Navi Tettavhenii interpretatioT^em (1767)
Veieris Tettamenii (1773).


Smnninrixigf a mountain and pass on the
borders of Styria and Austria, 45 miles S.W.
of Tienna. The railway from Vienna to Trieste
rid Grata has been carried across these Alpine
summits by a series of remarkable engineering
exploits. The Semmering section (constructed
at a cost of J2,000,000) begins at Gloggnitz in
Lower Austria, and ends at Miirzzuschlag in
Styria, a distance of 25 miles. Between these
points the permanent way pierces 15 tunnels,
IS conveyed over 16 viaducts (some of which
are most imposing structures), and climbs in
many curves up the mountain sides only to
steal down in similar serpentine fashion on the
ot^er side. The Semmering tunnel, where the
greatest altitude (2,940 feet) is made, is 4,692
feet long* The scenery of the whole region is
of surpassing beauty, and Viennese especially
resort to the district alike for health and holi-
day.


Semolinay a farinaceous food, consisting of the
large hard parts of wheat, which remain in
the bolting machine when the fine flour has
disappeared. It is used for nraKlhg puddings
and soups.

Saupachi a town in the canton of Lucerne,
Switzeiland, on the south-eastern shore of the
email lake of Sempach, 8 miles N.W. of
Lucerne. It is memorable for the victory of
the Confederated Swiss, 1,600 strong, over 4,000
Austrians, under Duke Leopold, on July 9th,
1386. Yet it seemed as if the mountaineers
were doomed to defeat, for they could not
pierce th© wall of pikes which hedged their
hated foes, when Arnold von Winkelried of
Unterwalden, heroically grasping as many
pike© as he could hold, plunged them in his
breast, and through the breach thus formed
his bravo fellow-countrymen poured and played
I havoc with the mail-clad Austrians. Leo|x>ld
Ij and 263 of his followers were left on the field.

A column surmounted by a lion was ©recced in
. 1886 on the 600th anniversary of th© victory,
and about a mile and a half to the north-east
of Sempach stande the chapel which marks th©

I spot wnere the Duke fell. Soventy-on© years
I earlier (November 15th, 1315), at Morgarten, in
the canton of Schwyz, the Confederates had
won their first victory, when another Duke
Leopold, uncle of the present one, was defeated,
i These triumphs led up to the independence of
Switzerland,

Semper, Gottfried, architect, was born
at Altoiia, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, on
November 29th, 1803. He studied law at
Gottiugen, but speedily abandoned it for art,
which he sedulously cultivated, giving par-
ticular attention to architecture and aesign,
at Berlin, Dresden, Munich and Paris, also
visiting Italy and Greece. An accomplished clas-
j eical scholar, his sympathy with tn© spirit of
the highest examples of the ancient masters
was profound, and, an equally able mathemati-
cian, the laws of perspective, form, and pro-
jection came to him with consummate ease. He
was appointed Professor of Architecture in
Dresden in 1834, and had many opportunities
for the practice of his art. Apart from Royal
cojpmisBioDB, he designed the op©ra-hous© and
the new Pinakothek. Hie etay in Saxony was
abruptly ended in 1848, for his active support
I of the Revolutionary movement provoked tlk
I king's anger, and led to hie exue. He ulti-
I mately came to London and acted as an ad-
viser to th© Prince Consort in connection with
the Great International Exhibition of 1851.
Two years later h© was called to Zilrich as
professor of architecture, and designed several
buildings in that city. After spending a few
months in Vienna in 1870, where extensive
building operations were contemplated at th©
Ring, h© Was summoned to Dresaen next year
to prepare designs for a new opera-house, th©
former edifice having been burned down.
Semper died in Rome on May 15th, 1879. He
was a fervent advocate of polychrom© and


CiW)


ftppradiilMl mittltAl inltvii^itd-

KagHiTB Cmmm% tiiA

fmrnet, was born in tbo I^oiiileOcy ol Bongal^
India, on Korember 19tb. 1838. Attracted hj
th» dooidneg oi ike Btaiiim Qopnj ,(Bindn-
thokp), lonndod by Bammolimn Eoy i)i 1880,
be joined tbe Society at tbe age of t^^enty
and goon became an eloquent expounder of
its tenets. In course of time, boweirer, be



xasBCB CBunnxa sm.


erinoed a tendency to mingle with it Christian
inodes of thought and expression and to trans-
late it into a species of Christian Unitarian-
ism. In 1870 he visited London, where he
preached in South Place Institute and held
a great meeting in St. James's Hall, at which
many distinguished men and women were pre-
sent. According to Moncure B. Conway's Mv
PUpimOfe to im Wise Mm of the East, which
has all the interest of autobiography, the im-
pression he created was not wholly favourable,
and it appeared as if **he had come to England
to teach, not to be taught, which wae what he
needed,** He even seemed to hold **some vague
Meesianio theory of his mission'* and, when
criticised because he did not prevent certain
followers from kneeling and worshipping him,
said "he did not like to stem the flow of devout
religious feeling.** After his return to India
his views departed farther away from their
original stanapoini and, in 1878, he headed a
secession church, which was named the Sad-
haran f Universal) Bridimo Somaj. His mys-
ticism, however, grew upon him, and in liter
years his influence declined. He died in Cal-
cutta on January 8th, 1884. He wae infirm of
purpose and his conviotionB therefore lacked
stability, and his reform work suffered accord-
ingly. "I had some hopes of him,** writes
M, ll, Conway, ** when he led hk people into the


movement lor the snppfessioii of inlattt miil^
'**^riages, but in the midst of it all he gave Ms
own infant dau^ter in marriage to a little f
0 i title {a Hindu maharajah] and


sonafie o€ title [a Hindu maharaj
was fatal to his general influeiice.^'


HdiuuoiCM!rart liTiBKKU PrvsBT m, romanliolst,
was born in Paris in November, 177jp, and was de-
stined by his parents lor the priesthood, but he
ran away, and, gmng to Switserland, married
there, i^andal embarrassment drove him
back to Paris, where he began to write lor a
livelihood. Bnring the reign of Louk Philippe
he was granted a pension. His principal works
are his Obernumn (1804) and Z*Amour con-
sidM ikins lu lois rielles (1805), which have
been often reprinted, although tne former was
ignored for several years after its publication
and it was not till 1830, when Sainte-Beuve and
George Sand took it up, that the book became
the rage. This probably encouraged the author
to pr^uce a sequel, Isabelle (1833), which,
however, met with comparatively little suc-
cess. He was much influenced by Eousaean,
end wrote eeveral sentimental reveries of a
deistical nature. S4nancour died at St. Cloud
on January 10th, 1846.


SenatOf a deliberative assembly of tbe citizens
of a State who are vested with a share in its
government. In old Borne it was at first com-
posed exclusively of patricians, but latterly
wealthy plebeians were admitted to member-
ship. Its power was supreme in matters ap-
pertaining to religion, law and foreign affairs,
but by the period of the republic and empire
it was stripped of most of its authority, except
as a judicial tribunal and in certain adminis-
trative functions, chiefly fiscal. Under the
patricians it numbered 100, which gradually
increased till it exceeded 1,000 after Hie assas-
sination of Julius Ceesar. Augustus reduced
it to 600. The decree of the Senate of ancient
Home sitting as a high court of justice was
called JSenatus consultum. The Upper House,
or Second Chamber, in the United States,
France and Italy is designated Senate. In
the United States it consists of two senators
from each State, who are elected by tho
State legislatures, sit for six years, and are

E lided over ^ the Vice-President of the
ublio. In France the Senate numbers
and is elected by an electoral body,
225 for nine years and 75 for life. In Italy
the number is unlimited and election is for
life on the nomination of the Sovereign,
with tho proviso that membership shall be
strictly reserved to men who have distingiliiihed
themselves in letters, science, art, or some
branch of the public eervioe. In some uni-
versitiet, m the lour Scottish ones and 0am-
bridfs, the governing body is known as Senate
or oenoltK oondemicu#.

a town In the proytnee of Blkusen, In
Hie island of Hondo, Japan, not far from a bay
its own naiOe on the east ooast, 170 niilee N.

’ by H. of Tokyo. It has manufactures of silk






(IW)




And llhoqner and «lrm» an actiw trade ^ronfb
its pari al SMwogama, with which it aammuni*
cates by tramway. Pop. (1003), 100,330.


Smacftt Lucius ANK^asus, philosopher and
man of letters, was born at Corduba, in Spain,
about the beginnings of ih# Christian era, and
was taken to Borne at an early age. He be*
came an advocate of some note, but in aj>. 41
was banished by Claudius to Corsica for several

S tars on a charge brought against him by
essalina of scandalous fame. Agrippina, after
her marriage with Claudius, procured, in 48,
Ms recall, and he was appointed tutor to her
son Nero, with whom he became a great favour*
ite. He acouired enormous riches, and these
were probably the cause of his downfall; for
it is believed that the charge of conspiracy
brought against him by Nero in 66 was merely
a pretext for obtaining his wealth. He was
ordered to destroy himself, and succeeded in
doing so after some trouble. He was a Stoic
and a sage, but he did not exert himself in
inculcating virtue in his pupil, and he even
excused Nero’s murder of his mother. He
wrote much, and his works have often been
reprinted, notably De Consolatiom, De Ira, I>e
V%ta Bmta, Dt Animi TranquUlitatt, and
Pr(mdmtia. Some tragedies, which are arti-
ficial imitations of Greek models, are also
ascribed to him, probably with good warrant,
but they accentuate all the defects of his style
at its worst.

There are two preparations made
from senega root (Poly gala Senega) in the
Pharmacopoeia: an infusion and a tincture.
They are often administered alone or in com-
bination with other remedies in bronchitis and
other lung affections, with a view of increasing
mucous secretion and promoting expectoration.
The drug is said to have been used as an anti-
dote for the bite of the rattlesnake by the
Iroquois Indians, who were called Senecas,
which is held to be the same as Senega. Crude
petroleum is sometimes styled Seneca oil, be-
cause it was first gathered and used by the
Senecas in their religious rites.

Sanwnlf a river of French West Africa, rising
in the highlands of Futa Jallon, and formed by
the confluence (in 13® 60' N. and 10® 60' W.)
of the Bafing (Black River) and the Bakhoy
(White River), It flows north-west as far as
Mafu, and then, turning west and south-west,
enters the Atlantic at St. Louis, after a jour-
ney of some 1,000 miles. In its upper reaches
navigation is repeatedly interrupted by falls
and rapids, but vessels of moderate drau^t can
asoend from the ocean as far as the cataract of
Pelu, south-east of Kayes, up to which point
there is regular communication by steamer. It
receives the Faleme on the left and the Kolimf>
bine on the right.

Silliigid, a French colony In West Africa,
vhich takes its name from the Hver Senegal,
bounded on the N, by the French Civil Terri-
tory of Manritaine (constituted in 1004 and


comprising the Traraa, Brakna, Gorgd and Gui-
dimaka tribes of tbs coast hinterland north cf
the Senegal), on the B. by the Flench colony of
TTppr Senegal-Niger, on the S. Portuguese
Guinea (excluding the British Gambia), and on
the W. bjf the Atlantic. Its area is indetermin-
ate, but has been put as high as 200,000 square
miles. The surface is diostly low-lying and
much of it is infertile and desert, but the
valley of the Senegal is well wooded and pro-
ductive, yielding oil-seeds, castor beans, ground-
nut, sesame, cocoa-nut, maise, millet, rice,
acacia gum, kola nut and rubber. Live-stock
are raised in fair numbers, and this industry
is one that will repay attention. The minerals
include gold, silver, quicksilver and copper. The
natives are occupied to some extent in weaving,
brick-making, pottery and the manufacture of
jewellery. St. Iiouis (24,070) is the capital,
Dakar (18,447), a fortified naval station^ is the
seat of the Governor-General of French West
Africa, and other towns are Rufieque (12,446)
and Goree (1,660). A railway connects St.
Louis, Dakar and Rufisque. Pop. (estimated),
2 , 000 , 000 .

the name given to the tract of
country in West Africa which is drained by tho
Senegal and the Gambia rivers. Its limits are
still undetermined, but the Atlantic bounds it
on the W., the Guinea states on the S., the
Soudan on the £., and the Sahara on the N.
The whole area may roughly be estimated at
400,000 square miles. The seaboard, especially
in the south, is flat, swampy, and covered with
rank vegetation, but the wuntry rises inland
to a mountainous ridge having an elevation of
three or four thousand feet, is watered by many
rivers, and is fairly fertile and healthy. Millet,
rice, maize, sugar, indigo, tobacco, cotton,
oranges, figs, and other tropical jplants are
grown, but only for home use. The French
colonies of Senegal and Upper Senegal-Niger
occupy the bulk of the area, to which phy-
sically, though not politically, the British
Gamoia and rortuguese Guinea may be said to
belong. The population (roughly estimated at
7,500,000) chiefly consists of negroes, with an
infusion of Berbers of Arab blood, Europeans
being very few. In 1902 France had constituted
thw Territories of Senegambia and the Niger,
but two years later they were reorganisea as
the Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, the
old Senegal Protectorate being restored to
Senegal. The new area was bounded on the
N. by the Algerian sphere of influence in the
Sahara, on the W. by the Faleme, on the S,
W the northern frontiers of the Ivory and other
Guinea Coast tribes and Northern Nigeria, and
on the B. by a line drawn northwards , from
Lake Tsad. Bamako on the Niger is the Capi-
tal. Pop. of colony (estimated), 4,000,000.

Hilllor, NA80ATr William, political economist*
was born at Compton Beauchamp, Berkshire,
on September 26th, 170(h and educated at Bton
and Mag^len College, Oxford. He was called
to the bar in 1819, but, owing to a weak voice.


(186)


Bmmsdiivili.


hinifell to comreyancmg and diamber

E tiee. He found in political oconoi]^ a life*
Jtobbj. He joined the Political Economy
in 3823, was ^pointed firat Henry Htum-
mond Profesior of Political Economy at Oxford
from 1825 to 1830 (occupying the chair again
from 1847 to 1852), prepared for Lord Mel-
bourne a report upon trade combinations, was
a member of the Poor Law Commission of
1833, and wrote the famous report upon which
the Poor Law of 1834 was based. He accepted
a Mastership in Chancery in 1836, retaining
the post till the office was abolished in 1866,
but he varied his labours by sitting on the
Factory Cbmmission (1837), Hand-loom Com-
mission (1841), Irish Poor Law Commission
(1844), and tne Education Commission (1857^.
He was the intimate of the literary men of his
time and on the friendliest terms with Count
Oavour, Alexis de Tocqueville and other emin-
ent Continental statesmen. He died in london
pn June 4th, 1864. Besides publishing numer-
ous lectures and letters on his favourite subject,
he published An Outline of the Science of
Pohticcd Economy (1836), American Slavery
(186^, Biographical Sketches (1863), and Essays
on Fiction (1864), and there appeared post-
humously Bistorical and Philosophical Kasays

S , Journals t Conversations and Essays re-
j to Ireland (1868), and volumes of his
Correspondence and Conversations with de
Tocqueville, Thiers, Quisot, and other great
men.

Banlaoi the hilly ground flte miles north-west
of Hasting, in Sussex, where on October 14th,
1068, Wilfiam the Conqueror defeated the Eng-
lish under Harold. It is now occupied by the
pleasant little town of Battle, where are the
ruins of the abbey erected by the Norman vic-
tor in commemoration of his triumph. It was
a sore point with E. A. Freeman, the historian,
that he could not induce folk to designate the
fight the Battle of Senlac instead of the Battle
of Hastings. No doubt the change will be
effected gradually, and it certainly seems in-
evitable, for it would lie just as correct to call
Bannockburn the battle of Stirling, or Cullo-
den the battle of Inverness, as it is to call
Senlac the battle of Hastings.

Benlis, a town of the department of Oise,
France, on the right bank of the Nonette, a
tributary of the Oise, 26 miles N.N.E. of
Paris. It is a place of great antiquity, dating
back to the Boman Occupation, when it was a
stronghold of the Silvanectes. Its old walls,
23 feet high and 13 feet thick, are the most
perfect in the country. Its interest archasologi-
cally and its beautiful situation adiacent to
the forests of Chantilly, Halatte, and Ermenon-
ville make the town especially attractive. The
principal buildings are the cathedral of Notre
Bams, begun in the 12th century, the ool-
legiate church of St. Frambourg, also of the
12th. century, the episcopal palace, the eccle-
aiaetioal college of St. Vincent, St. Peter’s
Church (now put to other than sacred uses).


and the town-house. The ruins of the castle
and remains of the Boman anmhiiheatre should
be mentioned. Market-gardening flourishes,
and tanning, brick- and tile-making and dye-
ing are carried on. Pop. (1901), 7,115.

Seimaf the leaflets of various species of the
leguminous genus Cassia, ooutaining a nause-
ous volatile oil and a purgative principle known
as cathartic acid. The plants vary in size, but
their leaves are pinnate, and the leaflets are
distinguishable from adulterants by being
slightly oblique at their bases. C. acuiifolia
and C. angustifolia are shrubs, the one, known
as Alexandrian or Nubian Senna, native of
tropical Africa from Timbuctoo to Nubia; the
other, known as Bombay or Tinnevelly Senna,
native of Somaliland, Arabia, and the Punjab.
C, marilandica is the source of American
Senna. In addition to a cathartic acid, the
leaves contain oxalic, tartaric, and malic acids..
The principal preparations of senna are the
syrup, tincture, infusion, confection, and the
compound senna mixture, or “black draught.’*
The dose of the last named is 1 to 1]^ fluid
ounces. The action of senna is to stimulate the
muscular coat of the intestine, and black
draught is one of the most commonly employed
among purgative preparations.

Bannaar, or Sennar, a district of the province
of Khartum, Anglo-Egyptian Soudan, lying be-
tween the White Nile, which divides it from
Kordofan and the Blue Nile, which separates
it from the territory adjoining the western
borders of Abvssinia.* Its area has not been
determined, ft belongs to the moist zone of
the Nile Valley and is knbwn to the Arabs as
the island of Sennaar. Much of it is fertile, and
there are great patches of forest. In the rainy
season the heat is almost insufferable, and in
the dry season it wears an arid and uninviting
look. Under cultivation the soil, largely
alluvial, yields fine crops of maize, pulse, cot-
ton, tobacco, sesame and durra, and among
the trees are the baobab, the tamarind, several
palms, dyewoods, ebony, ironwood and acacias.
The fauna includes the rhinoceros, hippopota-
mus, crocodile, lion, various antelopes and
babi^ns. Iron, silver, gold and copper are
said to exist in the hilly region to tne east
and south-east. The natives carry on weaving,
pottery, saddlery and metal work, but the rais-
ing of live-stock and tillage are their leading in-
dustries. Sennaar, on the left bank of the
Blue Nile, is the capital. The population has
not been ascertained.

Be]mac]iori.l>, King of Assyria, son and suc-
cessor of Sargon, ascended the throne in 706
B.c. He had almost at once to resist the at-
tempt of Merodach-baladan, king of Babylonia,
whom he signally defeated, bnt who had haa
such a hold upon the people that the country
had to be laWiously reduced, city by oity
and tribe by tnbe. He then setBel-ibni, as a
vassal king, upon the throne, though he p^ved
faithless or incompetent, and was replaced by



8«u.


( 187 )


8«Bsltiv« Vlanfe.


SennacheTib's son, Asur-nadin-eum. Wben his

conquest was complete, ihe great king next
turned Ms attention to tke nations on kis
Western frontiers and proceeded to ravage
Syria and Palestine. By 700 he had subju-
gated all his neighbours and proceeded to carry
war into parts of Asia Minor His career
of triumph continuing unbroken, he next
embarked on a great expedition to Elam
(Khuzistan), which its king countered by a suo-
CH'saful aeoault on Babylon, which he captured
and where he made his own son king (693).
This nerved Sennacherib to a supreme effort,
and the Assyrians and Elamites met in 691 at
Halule on the Tigris. Apparently victory de-
clared for neither side, but two years later
Sennacherib again attacked Babylon, which he
captured, sacked and almost razed to the ground,
turning the waters of the Euphrates over its
site. Of the last years of his reign no facts
are known, though there is reason to believe
that he led an expedition into Arabia and pos-
sibly undertook a second expedition into the
West. He was assassinated in 682 bv hie son
(or sons), who were jealous of the favour he
showed to his (or their) younger brother
Esarhaddon, who succeeded him. He wae the
maker and magnifier of Nineveh and his ob-
ject in humbling Babylon so thoroughly was
probably to exalt his ow city still more e'ffectu-
ally.

SeiLBf a town of the department of Yonne,
France, on the right bank of the Yonne, near
its confluence with the Vanne, 62 miles S.E. of
Paris. Its name preserves the fact that it was
the capital of the Senones, one of the most war-
like tribes of old Gaul and among^ the very
last to accept the Roman yoke. ITic citizens,
after their conversion, held" out just as strenu-
ously against the Goths, Saracens and Nor-
mans, the last of whom captured the place in
886, after six months* siege. It became the
seat of several ecclesiastical councils, at one
of which Bernard vented his venom on Abe-
lard in 1140, and afterwards was noted for its
attachment to the Church. In 1622 it was made
an archbishopric, and although reduced in
1791 and suppress^ in 1807, the archiepiscopal
rank was restored in 1807. It was occupied by
the Germans in the war of 1870-1. The
cathedral of St. Etienne dates from the 12th
century, but was raised on the site where St.
Savinian built a small church to the Virgin at
the close of the 3rd century. The portals ex-
hibit remarkably fine architecture, and the two
remaining bells are famous in campanology —
La Savimenne weighing 16 tons 7 cwte., and
La Potentienne 13 tons 13 cwts. In 1234 Louis
IX. married Marguerite of Provence in the
oathedral, and five years afterwards deposited
here the Crown of Ihonis— a relic the custody of
which was no doubt responsible for the per-
fervid zeal of the townsfolk. Other notable
structures are the church of St. Savinian, who
converted the Gallic tribe settled here, the
archbishop's palace, the public library, the


antiquarian museum, and the Bauphin'a Gate»
the only city gate remaining, Pop, (1901),
14,962.

S6]isatio]i« a state or modification of conscious*
ness, supposed to be caused by a stimulus act-
ing on the nervous system and transnlitted to
the brain through the aterent nerves. Sensa-
tions fall into three classes: (1) those which
are attributed to the impact ox some external
object on the special organa of sense ; (2) thoee
which fall under the head of general sensi-
bility, such as the comfort or discomfort at-
tending the action of the digestive organs; (3)
those which accompany muscular activity, the
stimulus being apparently derived from the ad-
iiistment of the muscles, tendons, and joints.
Ihe Association psychologists commonly speak
as though each sensation were a separable unit
assignable to some one cause or agent, but
against this view there is a twofold objection.
In the first place, the single simple sensation is
a mere ideal; practically every sensation con-
tains representative elements, i.e., elements de-
rived from past experience; and, secondly, the
interaction of the various factors whicn pro-
duce sensation is much greater than is com-
monly supposed. Thug there can be no doubt
that in sensations of taste a tactile or olfac-
tory element is frequently present. Again, the
changes in quality which accompany the in-
crease or decrease of the stimulus applied to a
special sense point to a mysterious complexity
which lies altogether beyond our present means
of analysis. lliie observation may be extended
to the sensations of pleasure and pain which
arise in connection with those communicated
through the sense organa. The correct view
would therefore seem to be that sensation is a
complex whole, the segregation of which into
parts is due to reflection rather than intuition.
On this ground it may be maintained that the
phenomena of consciousness presented by the
special senses are merely modifications of a
fundamental mass of general sensation, but as
yet we possess no clue which would enable us
to trace the differentiation.

Sensoif popularly . defined, ^the organs by
the nerves of which various impressions are oon-
ve'yed to the brain. It is commonly said there
are five senses, those, namely, of hearing,
sight, taste, touch, and smell. Some physio-
logists have contended for a sixth sense, the
muscular apart from touch, and Aristotle main-
tained there was an inner sense, common sen^,
which, however, shows extraordinary agility
in eluding definition. It has been assumed
that there are seven senses, for the whole seven
have been spoken of as representing conscious-
ness in its totality.

Swiudtiwo Fl&nt {Mlmom pvMea\ a branch-
ing South American annual beloi^ing to the
sub-order Mimoseae of the order LeguminossB,
now naturalised in many tropical countries and
common in hot-houses. The leave? are bipin-
nate, with two or three pairs of pinnie, each


( 188 )


Wt9gfmLt


vi443i 111 w ntntbtr hi sniiiU piniiutoB. 11ie«e
are iiicewiigly JMiAtitiire to aMtusisg

the noctiiniM position iminediately on heing
touched. [SuuBP xir FLJkirfs.] The aeat €fi the



tlBSSiTivs nANT (MHnoM pudtoay
(Pholo: E. J. WattU.)


and petiole, and the movement is produced by
an influx or efflux of water in the cells of one
Bide Of theso Btructures. The conduction of the
stimuluB is effected by the continuity of the
protoplasm through the cell-walls in the pul-
vini. The leaflets fold together down their mid-
rib*< (conduplicate), each pinna then falls to an
oblique downward direction, and then the main
petiole falls similarly. Sudden variations in
temperature or in intensity of light, electric
and chemical stimuli, produce the same effects
as contact.

Sfloiilf or Beitl, the capital of Korea, on tne
right bank of the Han, 30 miles E. of Che-
mulpo, its port on a bay of the Yellow Sea.
It is surrounded by a wall from 20 to 80 feet
high, and withih the enclosed area are two
granite peaks, of which Puksan, on the north,
is some 1,300 feet high, while Namsan, on the
south, is of lesser elevation. The principal
buildings are the Homan Catholic Cathedral,
the Im^rial Palace, aid the Legations. Most
of the native houses ate built of adobe, or
sun-dried mud, (diatehed with straw, and many
of the streeti look mCan and dirty. The former
law vestricling the erection of temples has been
repealed. There are several schools, including
one for teaching English, two hospitals, and a
few newapai^. Tramways (eleotric) have been
laia down in some stress, the teleifltone is
m use and railways connect the city with
Cromulpe. Pusan aid o^tr places. Pop. (I^),

SayiL [OAm.]


brown pigment prepared from the
deep orown secretion of the sac, or “ink»‘hag/'
of the cuttle-fish {Sepia pffieinaih). The agents
of artists’ colour-men nsually visit the districta
(as, for instance, the southern counties of Ens^
land) where cuttles are caught and collect the
dry ink-bags. Henry Iiee says he saw in one
famous establishment in London thousands of
raW bags, the contents of which were to be
manufactured into sepia. Beal sepia cannot be
made from any other substance,' and though
lamp-black may be used as a sub^itute, it is a
subetitute and not sopia. If the Newfoundland
fishermen when Squid-jigging would but take
the trouble to keep the ink-bags intact, Lee
had no doubt they would find them a profitable
perquisite. It is a natural pigment of unique
excellence, since it admits of remarkable even-
ness of tint, whether the shade be light, dark,
or medium, and consequently many drawings
have been made in sepia alone. The drawings
with which Cuvier illustrated his Anatomy of
the Mollusca were executed with the ink which
he had collected while dissecting many speci-
mens of Cephalopoda. Even in wman days it
was used for writing, for which purpose Cicero
employed it. The cuttle discharges its ink on
the smallest provocation and with astonish-
ing rapidity, while the quantity of water the
secretion will obscure is wonderful. Henry Lee,
who still remains the principal authority on
aquarium management, often saw a cuttle com-
pletely spoil in a few seconds all the water in a
tank with a capacity of 1,000 gallons. The
mollusc uses the ink to facilitate its escape
from its enemies, a habit quaintly described by
Hu Bartas: —

For, when she sees her sclfe within the net.

And no w^ay left but one fh:>ni thence to get,

She suddenly a certaine ink doth spew.

Which dyes the waters of a sable hew.

fflwpOTv O' Hindoo or other Indian foot soldier
drilled oy a European officer and wearing the

3^ ; X TA j -


originally meant a horse soldier. The word
was in use in Southern India before British
rule began in the peninsula, and the theory is
that it was introduced into English from the
Portuguese. Since the French conquest of Al-
geria, in Africa, spahi, a variant of the word
from the same root, though under another form,
has become current. The spahi differs from the
sepoy, however, in being an irregular horse-
man. The word comes to the I^nch from the
Turks, among whom the spahi was always a
horee soldier.

Stpte (plural of the Latin sepfvm, ** a wall
a tenn employed to describe the plates of
calcareous or fleshy material which divide the
bodies of certain animals into more or less well-
separated chambers; thus they occur bet^eu
the body-segments of worms and also forih the
radiatinjr plates which divide the cavity of corals
iatoseri " ‘ ' **


chambers or loculi.







(i»9)


conoretioiuurf nodnles of Qlft]^4fOD-
iiono or impure MinoBtone^ im wMcli iho* inner
firat4<^med parte liare contraoted more than
the outer« producing croeeing series of cracks
mrhich have afterwards by infiltration

with cryetallino calcite. The clay-ironstone
septaria occur in the shales of the Coal Mea-
sures, and the calcareous ones in many clays.
Those in the London Clay, known to quarrymen
m 'Hurtle stones/' are often of a grey earthy
texture, traversed by lemon-yellow septa, and
are cut and polished as table- tops. They range
from six inches to several feet in diameter.
They are largely collected in Sheppey and
dredged up off Harwiclr for the manufacture of
Boman cement.

HmtembOTi originally the seventh month of
the Boman year and hence the name (Latin,
scpfem). When the Calendar was readjusted
by Julius Csesar, it was allotted the place of the
ninth month, with the same numMr of days
(30) that it had possessed from the first. It is
the harvest month of the Saxons, is the month in
which harvest homes or festivals are still most
commonly celebrated, and corresponds partly
to the Fructidor and partly to the Vend^mx-
aire of the French Bepublic. The chief Church
festivals belonging to it are the Nativity of
the Blessed Virgin (8th), the Exaltation of the
Holy Cross (14th), St. Matthew the Apostle
(21st), and St. Michael and All Angels (29th).
The Michaelmas Quarter-day also falls on the
latter day.

Bepteamial Act. In 1641 triennial parlia-
ments were established by law, but after the
Bestoration the Act was repealed. It was re-
placed on the statute book, however, in 1694,
and remained in force until 1716, when, prin-
cipally to avoid frequent appeals to the country
during the ferment of the Jacobite intrigues,
it was superseded by the Septennial Act, which
is still operative, and in virtue of which no
parliament may last longer than seven years
from the date on which it is first summoned
to meet. In actual working it is found that
parliaments seldom endure for their full legal
term, and, in point of fact, even the few that
run their apparent time do not last for more
than six years, since the period occupied by the
dissolution and the consequent General Elec-
tion are considered to form portion of tbe
septennate.

Septicabmia. [PYi&MiA.]

Septuatfilltf The, or Alexandrian Version of
the Old Testament (from Latin septuaginta,
seventy), is a translation of the Hebrew Scrip-
tures into Hellenistic Greek, probably under-
taken during the reign of Ptolemy (II.) Phila-
delphns (284-247 b.c.). The name is doubtless
due to the legend related in the Letter of
AriMem, a forgery of early date, the anthor of
which represents himself as a contemporary of
Bing Ptolemy. According to this account,
Ptolemy, in his ®eal for learning, sent to Pales-
tine for Jews to translate the hwks of the Old




Teitament. llie leventy-two (net « wnty ; the
Compaiiy, to Adept the moaern word# oompriaed
sp men from each tribe) leertpl men oommia*
sioned to execute the task were peoed in seclu-
sion on the island of Pharoe, iu Alexandria, and
at the end of seventy-two days the version on
which they had agreed was dictated to the
librarian Demetrius. Internal evidence, fur^
nished by the Septuagint itself, shows that the
details of this story are fictitious. It was Cer-
tainly translated hr Alexandrian, nOt Palestin-
ian, Jews, and differences of stylo and treat-
ment show that it was the work of independent
translatorsj^separated by considerable intervals
of time. The Septuagint furnishes valuable
materials for Old Testament criticism; fot
differences in the arrangement of the books, as
well as various omissions and additions, show
that it was translated from a different text
from that which has been preserved. It even-
tually supplanted the Hebrew Scriptures in
Palestine itself, and from it are taken the quota-
tions of Jesus recorded by the Evangelists, Tbe
Septuagint has much literary value as the great
monument of Hellenistic Greek. It is, how-
ever, essential to bear in mind that, strictly
speaking, it is only the Pentateuch to which the
term Septuagint is applicable. Ihe extension
of the word to the whole of the Old Testament,
however, if unhistorical is convenient, and since
the usage dates from the time of Origen, who
died about the middle of the 3rd century after
Christ, it is sanctioned by a long period of pre-
scription.

S^quardf Charles Edward Brown-, pby-
siolo^st and physician, the son of Edward
Brown, a United States sea-captain, and Mdlle.
S^quard, a French lady, was born at Port Louis,
Mauritius, on April 8th, 1817. He studied
medicine at Pans and gave early proof of
his skill and independence in research and in-
vestigation. He took up especially the whole
question of the nervous system, including, of
course, the spinal cord and brain. Amongst
the academic appointments he held were the
chairs of Physiology at Harvard (1864),
Pathology in the ECole de M^decine, Paris
(1669), and Experimental Medicine in the Col-
lege de France, Paris (1878), in succession to
Claude Bernard, in addition to posts on the
staff of such hospitals as the Hospital tor
Epilepsy and Paralysis, London (1869). J0le
was a Fellow of the Koyal Society and mem-
ber of the Institut. He died in Paris on
April Ist, 1894. He wrote and lectured with
equal facility in French and English, and
published a large number of extremely valu-
able works, amongst which may be mentioned
Phyiioloffie de la moelle ^pinUre (186^,
wnA Paithol&gy of the Central Nervmm Bystem (I860),
But le dia^ostie ft le tToMemmt des prindpaUs
formes de paralysies des memhres (1864),

Diagnosis and Treatment of PmnMtmckl Nervous
Affeotiam (1868), Dual dha^uoter of the Brain
(1874), and on the Mereditarry frfmmissim of
Effects of Certain InjwHes to the Kervorn Bystm




(190)


Itovliliif.


(197S> He wai the loaoder of the d$ la

de Vhmmaat des mimmm (1858) sod,
sloog with Charcot sod Yulpisn, of the Afekl^t de
JPkyei&hgie (1868).

St^nelie (Latin, conaeqnencee a term
employed in medical writingg to describe symp*
toma or morbid conditions liable to follow par-
ticular diseases eren after the diseases them-
ielves have been cured. ITie normal course of
the majority of complaints is towards re-
covery, but there are a few diseases which
require to be carefully watched, even during
the stages of convalescence and early recovery,
not m much for relame as for cx>mplication
through tho access of other disorders. In-
fluenza, unfortunately, is a too common in-
stance of the type of disease the after-effects
of which may be much more serious than the
dlseane itself. For example, pneumonia fol-
lowing influenza is a sequela of the most
critical description. Other examples of seqnel®
are kidney trouble after scarlet fever, paralysis
after diphtheria, and heart affections after
acute rheumatism. All such complications are
so momentous that it is hardly necessary to
emphasise the necessity for extreme precau-
tion during convalescence when seemingly
everything is going on satisfactorily. Im-
atience to get about again, especially after
isease has been apparently subaued, may be
natural, but has too often led to the loss of
life.

a section of dead bone or car-
tilage which separates itself from the living
surrounding bone or cartilage.

flloquia, or Zbcohiko, a gold coin of Venice,
mint^ first about 1280, and issued until the


Nevada, and reaches over 1,000 years of age,
considerably exceeds 300 feet in height^ and
100 feet in circumference. It was discovered
in 1850, and introduced into England in 1853.



CALIFOBNlAif BIO TBEB, SHOWING TUNNEL THBOUGH TBEK.

(Photo, d>pyrlght 1892, hy W, H, Sau, PhUaddphia.)

It grows well in deep clay soils on high
ground. The Redwood has a wider range in
latitude as a wild tree, and reaches 300 feet in
height. It has shaggy, reddish bark and very
darlr foliage. Its wood is of good texture, but
monotonous in grain. It is used to some ex-
tent in cabinet work, but is especially valu-
able for such purposes as fencing, telegraph
poles and the like, since it is very durable in
contact with earth. Fossil species of Sequoia
occur in the Gault of Folkestone, the leaf beds
of Mull (Eocene?), the Oligocene of Switzer-
land, and the Pliocene of Italy.



San^flio properly means any enclosure (Italian
serraglio from serra, “a bolt”), but its mean-
ing in I^lish is now identical with that of
harem. The word has been confused with the
Turkish serni, a palace.” The Seraglio (Eshi
Serai) at Constantinople, including mosques,
the harem, etc., is now no longer the Sultan'^
residence.


fall of the Benublic. On the obverse was a
design of St. Mark blessing the banner of the
Republic held by the kneeling doge and on the
reverse the figure of Jesus. Its value was rather
more than nine shillings.

a genus of Oonlfene named after
a remarkable Cherokee Indian (Sequoiah or
Sequo Yah, otherwise George Guess), who gave
his tribe a written syllabic alphabet of eignty-
six characters, and died in New Mexico in
1845. The genus is characterised by peltate
cone scales, each bearing from five to seven
seeds. There are only two living species, both
natiyea of Western North America, S, mganim
(the Wellingtonia of botanical gardens, or
Big or Mammoth Tree of Americans), and S.
Mmpirvirem (the Californian Redwood). The
Mammotih Tree is a native of the Sierra


Serainf^y a town in the province of Li5ge, Bel-
gium, 5 miles S.W. of on the right bank

of the Meuse, opposite to Jemeppe, with which
it is connected oy a suspension-bridge. It was
formerly the abode of the Prince^ishops of
Li4ge, whose palace was acquired in 1817 by
John Cockerilt (born, at Haslingden, Lanca*
shire, on April 30th, 1790), by whom the site
was utilised for the stupendous iron-foundry
and locomotive works which, after his death,
on June 19th, 1840, at Warsaw, was carried on
by the Soci4t4 Cockerill. William I. of the
Netherlands lent this concern all the support
he could, and was a partner in the business
until 1835, his share of the capital amounting
to j 8100,000. In 1871 a statue of John Cockerill
was unveiled in Seraing. The great coal- and
iron-fields of Belgium are in the immediate
proxiiiiity of the town. Pop. (1900), 37,845.




ffemunipiur.


(191)


SiirilllVlurf ^ town of Bengal. India, on the
right haul of the Hoogly, opfM>site to Barrack*
pur, 13 miles N. of Calcutta. It was formerly
a Danish settlement, but in 1845 it was ceded.








k i® 'iV i I


r'*::




«Ss£5f


THE THRONE-ROOM IN THE OLD SERAGLIO, CONSTANTINOPLE.


along with the other Danish possessions in
India, to the East India Company for .£125,000.
It is noted as the scene of the labours of the
Baptist missionaries William Carey, Joshua
Marshman and William Ward. The mission
prospers and has founded a church, college,
school and library. The Friend of India, the
well-known weekly paper of Calcutta, was origin-
ally published at Serampur. There are manu-
factures of jute, paper and mats. Pop. (1901),
44,451.

SaraOf Matilde, novelist, the daughter of an
Italian father and Greek mother, was born at
Patras, Greece, in 1856. She began life as a
schoolmistress in Naples, but soon attracted
notice by her short stories. The promise they
held out was more than fulfilled by her first
novel. Fantasia (1883). She resided in Borne
between 1880 and 1886, and her novels and
tales published during this period are vivid
pictures of Boman life and character. She
then essayed journalism, founding the Corrierc
di Foma, which, when she removed to Naples,
became the Corriere di Napoli. In 1902 she
also established II Mattino, which acquired a
large circulation in Southern Italy. Meanwhile,
however, she was still busy with her novel-
writing, her later works including 11 Paese di
Ouec^na ('"The Land of Cockayne ”), AIV Erta,
SentineUa (“ On Guard, Sentinel ”), and “ In the
Country of Jesus."'

, Soi*ap]li]ll are mentioned in the Bible only
ih the vision of the prophet Isaiah (vi. 2-6).
They have six wings — a pair covered the face,
ano&ier ^r the loins and a third pair were
used in night, — but otherwise their attributes
Aro human. Th^ are seen hovering on either


side of the throne of the Almighty, pro
claiming the t9i$a§im in antiphonal chorus-^
"Holy, holy, holy, is the I^ord of hosts; the
whole earth is full of His gloryi^’ Their voices
were so strong that the door-posts
shook. Then one of the Seraphim
flew to Isaiah with a " hot atone ’*
from the altar and touched the pro-
phet’s mouth with it, in token of
the purification of his lips. Jewish
commentators regarded them as an
order of angels, and were followed in
their interpretation by the Christian
Church. The word means " consuming,*"
and is used in Numbers xxi. 6 of a
poisonous kind of serpent. The idea
conveyed is probably the "devouring
fire ” {cf. Isaiah xxxiii. 14) of the
Almighty, suggested by the thunder-
storm.

Serapit, Sarapis, or Osarapib, an
Egyptian deity, whose worship was
introduced from Greece by Ptolemy
(I.) Soter. He was identical with
the Greek Hades, the ruler over
the underworld. The name is said
to be contracted from Osiris -Apis
—i.g., the dead Apis, worshipped
as Osiris. In Egypt, according to Professor
Flinders Petrie in The Religion of Ancient
Egypt, "the bull was sacred in many places,
and his worship underlay that of the human
gpds, who were said to be incarnated in him."
Figuratively tho animal possessed a twofold
symbolism — that of the fighting and that of
the reproductive power. “ The most renowned,"*'
adds Flinders Petrie, "was the Hapi or Apis
bull of Memphis, in whom Ptah [the Creator^
was said to be incarnate and who was Osiri-
fied and became the Osir-hapi. This appears
to have originated the great Ptolemaic god
Serapis, as certainly the mausoleum of the
bulls was the Serapeum of the Greeks.*" The
Egyptians who had remained unhellenised^
however, refused to acknowledge the new god
or to allow Serapea (temples of Serapis) to be
built within the walls of their cities. The
worship of Serapis gradually spread throughout
Asm Minor, ana in a.d. 146 was formally estab-
lished at ]^me by Antoninus Pius, but only
to be abolished soon afterwards by the Senate.

Serbs (Srb, Sorb), the collective name of
the Southern division of the Slav race (Yugo-
slavs), whose original home was the repon of
the Carpathians. Here many survived till the
9th or 10th century, and in Alfred the Great's
time the Surpe (Surfe) were still seated on the
Oder (Orosius i. 12); but the great bulk of
the nation had already, in the 7th century,
passed south of the Danube, where they rapidly
overran a largo part of the Balkan Peninsula,
penetrating almost to the southernmost ex^
tremity of Greece. Later, through pressure of
the Byzantines on the east, ol the Bulgars on
the north, and of the Albanians on the west.



t}i« S«rb domtln ims fra^tiallj to

ibi limiti, til# iiM« of

Sfltini^, Boiiiiat Hcm|wiriii4» CmMbi Bltl^
niatiii* Hofltenefraf ' aim art oi . 'Ibttia#..' 'With
a €oilaotiT6 ppulation eMseedingr 8^000,000 in
naiubei*. Although politioally diaineiiiberedt the
Serb race preserToa a strong national senti-
jnent, which must form a potent factor in the
future reconstitution of the Balkan Peninsula.
This fellow-feeling is largely duo to a com-
munity of, traditions, usages, and especially
lanffuago and literature, which present great
uniformity throughout the whole of the jSerb
domain. Barbo • Croatian, as the common
language is called, is the softest and most
harmonious of all Slavonic tongues. Its well-
preserved phonetic system gives it an import-
ant place in the family, and its literature Is
Oipedallj rich in national songs. A great
number of these pjesma, as they are caUed,
have been collected and published; many are
undoubtedly very old, and the form in which
they still eaist shows how little the language
has changed during the course of centuries.

a twilled worsted fabric with a rough
surface, though there is one variety with one
side woolly and the other smooth. The
longer wool is used for the warp, the shorter
for the woof, the former also being more
twisted. The material is usually employed for
women's dresses, children's clothes, and sum-
mer suits of the clergy and others. The stuff
takes dye extremely well and can be made
waterproof by special treatment. Navy serge
is a thicker, heavier, and more durable quality
made at the Government factory for the use of
the British Navy. It is dyed a dark blue, which
is so permaneuT that no amount of exposure to
rain and wet will discharge it.

8«rg«iillt (Old French iergimt, from Latin
«f miens, "serving"), a non-commissioned officer
next above a corporal in rank. His chief
duties consist in maintaining discipline, teach-
ing drill, and commanding small bodies as
escort, etc. Sergeants have the overseership
of the barracks, and arc assistants to their
officers in the field. Every company of in-
fantry contains four sergeants, the senior being
denominated the colour-sergeant. The sergeant-
major, who ranks above the sergeants, does
not hold any separate command, but is respon-
sible for the general discipline of the corps.
Serjeants-at-Law were barristers of superior
degree having precedence over junior barris-
ters. The status, however, has been abolished.
Serjeant Ballantine was one of the last and
few characters in humorous fiction are more
familiar than Serjeant Buzfuz, who "led" for
the plaintiff in the came ciUhre, Bardell t\
Pickwick,

thb smallest state in Brazil, bounded
on the N. by Alagoas, on the W, and S. by
Bahia, and on the E. by the Atlantic. It oc-
^pies^ an area of 15,090 equare miles. The San
Francisco is the principal river. In the fertile


liimlerland of Hie ooaet ootton, eneani
cane, manioq, tobacco, miUet, rice and lb|c
are cultivatea, and in the higher country in
the west live-stock are raised. Aracajn is the
capital and sugar and rubber are the chief ex-
ports. Pop. (estimated), 400,000.

flesrien, in algebra, is any expesslon in which
consecutive terms are liHrmea in agreement
with some regular law. Series are either finite
or infinite, according as the nqmber of terms
is limited or not. In a finite series of it terms,
the sum of these n terms is always some func-
tion of n, and has a certain definite value, but
the sum of an infinite series may or may not
have a definite value, according to the form of
the series. The series is said to be conve^ent
when its sum cannot exceed a certain de£lite
value, however many terms we take ; and it is
said to be divergent when its sum can be made
greater than any number w© like to name,
provided that w© take a sufficient number of
terms. If we can actually find the sum of n
terms of an infinite series, we can at once dis-
cover whether the series be convergent or
divergent by giving n an infinite value. For
instance, the sum of n terms of the series

1 + » + + is .

1 — X

If a; be less than 1, this fraction becomes — J ,

1 —

when n is very great ; hence the series is conver-
gent. If a? = 1, the series becomes 1 + 14-1 + .,.
to n terms, and is therefore divergent. If ir to

greater than 1, the fraction can bo written

and can to made as large as we please by
taking n great enough. The series is there-
fore divergent. In many cases, however, we
cannot easily find the sum of n terms of an in-
finite series, and then special devices have to
be used to determine whether the series be
convergent or not. For these, the reader is re-
ferred to books on algebra. Series may be
formed in accordance with various laws; hence
different methods must be employed in their
summation. A series of numbers in arithmeti-
cal progression, or in geometrical nrogression,
can be summed by means of tne general
formulae, and a series partly geometrical and
partly arithmetical will generally admit of an
easy solution. Some series can b© referred to
other series, involving sums of the powers of
the natural numbers, special meth^s Wng
used for these. Many series can be reduced
to the form of a binomial expression and so
summed at once; others can be formed which
yield exponential or logarithmic series after
judicious treatment. There are other series of
more general forms which need stocial treat-
ment, and it may to said that tne difficulty
of summing any series lies chiefly in determin-
ing the tost method to use rather than in
applying the method when found.

(that is, ** Vishnu’s city”X
once the capital of the native state of Mysore,



( m >


X&d|»i on m Iplaad of tiie same namo
ia idle KaTori* 10 mike K«B. of Mysoie, X&e
name la derlYed from Bri Baiiga, one of tBe
forms of the god Yishnu, to whom there is
a temple here. Ijocal tradition says that
Gautama Buddha worshipped at this ehrine.
^o fortress was erected in 1454, but was
practically rebuilt by Tippw Sahib, who was
thrice besieged by the British. In 1791 Lord
Cornwallis was ooliged to retire for want of
supplies; in 1792 he was victorious in battle,
whereupon Tippoo made terms, and in 1709 the
fort was stormed by General Harris and Tippoo
himself was slain. After the Rajah removed
his headquarters to Jlysore U800) the place fell
into decay, a process that was accelerated by I




tecture of an Indian shrine i Instead of the
nucleus being the Unset pa^ the structure,
it IS the meanest, whilst tbe |otal effect has
been marred by absence el a ieneral design.
*'lf its principle of design could be reversed,**
he declares, “Brirangam, which is certainly the
largest, would be the finest temple in the South
of India.*’ The enclosure nest to the original
shrine contains the hall of 1,000 columns (really
960), an instance of misapplied ingenuity and
misspent labour, since the hall being low-
pitched and the pillars (each a single block of
granite, elaborately carved) not more than ten
feet apart from centre to centre, the coup
(Vail IS the reverse of striking and magnifi-
cent. Seringham was the residence of the Hindu



GREAT PAGODA OF BBaiNGBAM.


the malaria which infests the district. The
natives ascribe the deadliness of the climate
to the destruction of the sweet flag, which
had extraordinary virtues as a febrifuge. The
island measures three miles from east to west
and one mile in breadth. The fort stands at
the west end, commanding the river ; and at
the east end is the Lai Bagh, or Red Garden,
containing the Mausoleum built by Tippoo for
his father, Hyder Ali, and where he, too, lies.
Both tombs fire maintained by Government.
Rico and sugar-cane are grown on the island.
In Tippoo's time the population numbered
150,000. It is estimated now at 12,000.

Soviaifliaiiif or SniBANoaH, a town of the
Presidency of Madras, India, on an islani) of
the samo name, formed ^ a forking of the
Kaverin 2 miles JST. of Trichinopoly. B is
famous for its immeuae temple to yishuu, town
and temple being virtually coterminous, since
meet of the houses have beeu built %ithin the
tempie walls. James Fergpsson ia^es it as the
outstandiug example of a misfit in the archi-

205«>»k,x.


reformer Ramamiia, who worked out here
the system of Vishnuism, which he preached
throughout Southern India. He flourished in
the first half of the 11th century. Pop. (esti-
mated), 23,000.

Serous Membrane. The membrane which
forma the lining wall of the various serous
sacs which are met with in different parts of
the body. These serous 8at» are the pericar-
dium, the pleurae, the peritoneum, and the
serous sacs which envelop the testes.

Sorponts a powerful bass musical wind-lnstrn-
ment, now almost obsolete. It consists of a
wooden tube about 0 ft. in
length, gradually increasing
in diameter from the mouth-
piece to the open end, and
twisted so as to resemble a
serpent. It is covered with
leather, and has a mouth-
piece resembling that of a bom or trombone, ft
was invented in 1590 by Edmd Guillaume, a
canon of Auxerre in France,





•iffflttktiJi#.


( tW)


Wmppmt ' Wovtliip.


a bydroos silicate of magnesia
and lion, 3(MgFe)0,2Si0a,2H|0^ of a dull
gfeen, leddkli or brownian colour, sometimes
with spots resembling tbe skin of a serpent,
with specific gravity 2*5 to 2*7, and baraness
8 to 4. It occurs as an alteration-product in
olivine, or, less frequently, hornblende and
augite; and, aa tbe eerpentinisation of these
minerals proceeds along their cleavage planes,
it presents distinctive structures — that from
oU^ne being irregularly-meshed; that from
augite, rectangularly-netted or bladed, and
that from hornolende, latticed, with blades in-
tersecting at angles of 124®. Serpentinite, or
massive serpentine occurring as a rock, is dull
green and red, mottled and veined with fibrous
ohrysotile and white eteatite, and is easily
scratched with a knife. Many serpentinites
occur in dykes and veins, and are undoubtedly
formed from the hydration of olivine-basalts
fperidotites), and others from diabase, gab-
oro, or hornblendio rocks. Serpentine also
occurs, however, disseminated through lime-
stones forming ophioalcites, which have been
supposed to be altered dolomites, or marine
deposits, but are probably neither. Serpen-
tinite occurs at the Lizard in Cornwall, in
Anglesea, Aberdeenshire, and Connemara, and
is used for ornamental purposes. Serpentine is
not adapted for purposes of exterior decora-
tion, since it is apt to lose its polish on ex-
posure to weather and eventually to disinte-
grate.

[Snakes.]

Serptiit WoriMpf or Ophiolatry, is one

of the most widespread of all the religions of
the ancient world, a fact the more singular
having regard to the repulsive nature of the
reptile demed. Throughout all the mythologies
of the East, in Italy, Greece, Mexico, Peru,
the United States and in Northern Europe,
whether it be in mysterious stones or align-
ments, temples or earthworks, in one place
intricate, in another crude, symbols of the ser-
pent are ever to be found. iSdoreover, it is re-
markable that whether it bo in southern climes
and torrid zones where this reptile, through
its strength or venom, is an object of terror,
or in the northern countries and colder lati-
tudes where its power for harm is infinitely
smaller, the snake has been alike regarded with
superstitious fear and reverence, as well as
wim repulsion. But it must be borne in mind
that all its associations are not those calculated
to raise antipathy. Thus there was a holy
snake belonging to Minerva, goddess of Wis-
dom, which lived within the Acropolis at
Athens, a city dedicated to its mistress. Then,
again, the serpent depicted as wreathed round
the rod of iEsculapius, god of the healing art,
was an emblem of the wisdom and foresight
e^ntial to physicians. On an island in the
Tiber, where a hospital now stands, the Bomans
Ttlsad a temple to JEsoulapius, in memory of
Ilk having appeared there in the form of a
•erpent among^ the reedr when he delive]:ed


the city from a pestilence, and snakes were
fed and held in honour iu his temples through-
out both Italy and Greece. According to
Eusebius, the celestial and terrestrial systems
of our world were, in the theology of Zoroaster,
symbolised by the figure of a snake. Through-
out the world the serpent has been pnt forth
as a type of all the greater elements of
spiritual and earthly life, representing wisdom,
strength, and also the principles of good and
evil, as well as reproduction. The yearly cast-
ing of its skin may possibly have gone far to
strengthen the association of the serpent with
this last, which attained special prominence in
India, and, indeed, forms a subject of special
separate study. In addition we constantly find
the Pagan world depicting the snake with its
tail in its mouth as an emblem of eternity.
According to a Rabbinical tradition, Lilith, the
first wife of Adam, whom he had repudiated,
assumed the form of a serpent as the most
beautiful and alluring of creatures, in order
the more successfully to bring misery and death
upon her rival Eve and the latterk descen-
dants. But, on the other hand, when we turn
to the traditions of hell as we find them
throughout the religions of the world and note
the terrible part that serpents play in the
tortures of the lost, when we consider the evil
reptiles which figure so conspicuously in the
mythologies of the peoples of such diverse
countries aa India, Persia, Scandinavia, and
Mexico, it is clear that the serpent, as a
venomous, death-dealing reptile, has been more
generally worshipped as an emblem of the
terrible and repulsive than as the symbol of
life and learning which has been referred to.
The worship of we snake appears to have had
its rise amongst the people of Chaldaea, who
erected the city called Opis and later Antiochia,
on the Tigris, where they appear to have
practised their religion to "a considerable ex-
tent. Thence, in course of time, the cult
entered Egypt, where the snake was received
with homage under the name or title of
Canoph or Kneph, the god who was depicted
as a serpent holding an egg in his mouth,
and known to his priests as the ‘^Architect
of the Universe. " Canoph appears to have
been identical with Ob. Basilicus, or the Regal
Snake, and his worship obtained to an extent
deemed extraordinary, even amongst contem-
pora^ nations conspicuous for their idolatry,
figuring as it did in the ritual of almost every
E^ptian god, and specially in that of Isis.
According to another tradition Thoth, or Taut,
was its originator, teaching the settlers in
Egypt a theology having as the divine spirit
the god Kneph already referred to. This drity,
symbolised by a serpent, he described as “the
original eternal spint pervading all creation.”
Thoth, the Egyptian Mercury, was represented
leaning on a stall entwined by a snake in
manner similar to the Roman Mercury, or
Greek Hermes, whose emblem was the
caduoeus, a rod round one end of which two
serpents wears coiled. Bracelets in the form



8«CP«Bt W<inbip,


( 196 )


S«rv«it Wondiip^


4 ji serpents were so popular amonget tlie women
of Greece in the time of Clemens Alexandrinus
(a.|}. 206) as to evoke from him a stem rebuke
at their wearing the chief symbol of the devil.
A very early history of ser^nt worship is at-
tributed by Eusebius to Sanchuniathon, a cer-
tain ancient PhoBnician writer, said to have
flourished a few years before the Trojan war.
In this, the snake is referred to as Ophion, and
its worshippers as Ophionidm, the title of the
book being Ethothion or Ethothia. In con-
nection with this it is of interest to note that
the ancient worshippers of the serpent were also
termed Ophitae, whence it is held by some the
Ethiopian derive their name, their colour being
merely a coincidence, which ultimately led
people in the past to apply the title of
Ethiopia to all countries inhabited by a dark-
skinned race. From these names, and others
similar, such as Ophis, Ophionia, Ophiodes,
etc., which we find applied to various colonies
and towns of antiquity, it is easy to trace
where the worshippers of the serpent settled
and spread their belief, in the civilised world
of Greece and Rome. Herodotus refers to two
small serpents held sacred to Jupiter, in the
famous temple of the god at Thebes, whilst
the Serpent Column from Delphi, which is to
be seen in Constantinople at the present time,
testifies to the importance of the s^bol in the
temple of the Pythian Oracle. The serpents
forming this column now are lacking heads as
well as tails. The absence of two of the former
is ascribed to the Patriarch John VII. in the
9th century. It is said that he secretly broke
them off at midnight under the belief that
the column was possessed by an evil spirit.
Thereupon, the chronicle continues, Constanti-
nople was visited by a plague of serpents due
to the desecration of tnis Delphic relic, and
the patriarch was in consequence compelled to
restore the heads in order to appease the anger
of the p^pl® and the offended god of the
oracle. The third head was struck off by the
Sultan Mohammed II. as an expression of his
abhorrence of idolatry when he learnt that the
column was still an object of superstitious
reverence even amongst the Christians of the
city. In considering the subject in America
the Aztec mythology especially demands atten-
tion. Here we find one of the chief deities,
Tonacatlecoatl, and his wife, Cihwacohuatl, dis-
tinctly referred to as the male serpent and
the female serpent, which no doubt explains
why the symbol of the snake is so prominent
in the carvings and on the frescoes of the
temples dedicated to this religion possessing
rites exceptionally grim and horrible when the
god was worshipped in his capacity of de-
stroyer. In connection with this it is of interest
to note the parallel with Siva, the destroyer,
to whom the most sanguinary sacrifices in
the whole of India's ritual were made, whilst
corresponding to the Mexican deity typified
hy the female serpent may be adduced Kali,
the war goddess of India, girded about with
SAftkes receiving the homage of those who


deluged her temples with gore on important
occasions. In India divine honours are still
paid to snakes as in the past, and^ indeed, they
play an important part throughout the Hindu
pantheon. According to one legend the ser-
pents in their desire to lick up the drops of
a divine beverage spilt by the god Garuda, so
lacerated their tongues on the sharp-pointed
grass that they became permanently forked.
With this misfortune, however, there came to
the snakes the compensating gift of eternal
life from such of the nectar (amrita) as they
had swallowd. The god Garuda, the mes-
senger and instrument of Vishnu, in form half
man half bird, figures conspicuously as the
destroyer of snakes, being placed as guard of
the path to the Hindu paradise to defend its
entrance against all serpents. Turning to the
Hebrew race, although we find the snake was
generally an object of aversion amongst them,
they, nevertheless, clung to the worship of
the brazen one (probably that erected by
Moses), to which they offered incense habitually,
under the name of Hehustan, until it was de-
stroyed by Hezekiah. This, no doubt, was the
practice referred to by King Solomon in the
Book of Wisdom, wherein he denounces “the
foolish devices of their wickedness, wherewith
being deceived they worshipped serpents devoid
of reason,” and ihad been in use for many
generations previously. However, notwith-
standing the denunciations of kings and
prophets in the Old Testament, we find the
disciples in the New Testament exhorted to
imitate the sagacity of the snake — “Be yo
therefore wise as serpents.” The veneration
for snakes which obtains at the present time
amongst savage races may generally be attri-
buted to Totemism, i.e., the belief that there
is an actual living relationship between the
savage and the objects of that particular class
of things which constitute his “totem." Thus
in Senegambia those who hail the scorpion
and its kind as their totem, declare no snake
will injure them, provided they in turn rever-
ence and respect it, whilst many members of
this totem assert they are able to cure by
ersonal contact those who have been bitten
y snakes. Here it may be pointed out that
PlinV mentions a similar power being possessed
by the Ophit® of the past, who lived in
Cyprus, Italy and Africa, and to whom refer-
ence has already been made. It must, how-
ever, be borne in mind that Totemism is by no
means confined to reverence for snakes alone,
though probably in this form it was originally
most general. Ophiolatry appears to have ex-
isted, at least to some extent, in Britain in
the earliest times, one of the Druidic titles of
honour being, it is said, “ Gnadr," or “Serpent,"
from which possibly “adder” may not un-
reasonably be considered as derived. Again,
th© chariot of the goddess Ceridwen was drawn
by snakes, whilst it has been held by some that
the interesting earthworks and stones at Ave-
bury, in Wiltshire, point to the former existence
of a vast temple in honour of the serpent. Be




( 196 )




tliii AS it iikiiy» thtte is mo doubt tbmt« lifom
certain bardic referciicts, from tbo soj^stitioms
roTcreiics for snabestones as ammMl'(itiO0t pro-
bably tbe “ai^uinuin" of Hiiiy)^ and from
dsticos suggestive of serpents on certain mem-
bers» the serpent was certainly formerly rever-
enced in Britain, though by no means to such
an extent as elsewhere «

SompnJcliomy a town of the government
Moscow, Buisia, on the Kara, near its junc-
tion witl^ the Oka, 56 miles S. of Moscow city.
Its maiiulaotures include cottons, woollens,
paper, leather, furniture, pottery and porce-
lain, and it is also an important distributing
centre. It is one of the oldest towns in Mos-
cow principality and in the 14th and 15th
centuries was several times invaded by Tatars.
By the 16th century its system of fortification
was so complete that it was enabled to with-
stand an invasion of the Mongols on the grand
scale. Pop. (estimated), 28,000.

a genus of marine worms belonging to
the class Chsstopoda, the sub-class Polychseta,
and the order Tu bicola. It lives in a strong
calcareous tube attached to shells, rocks, etc.
This may be straight, sinuous, or tortuous.
There are eight living British species.

Strvftiio y Domi&giimSf Frakoisoo, Dure
BE ul Toebe, marshal and statesman, was
born at Leon, Cadiz, Spain, on December 17th,
1810, and was educated at Vergara. He entered
the army and saw much service during the
battles of the first Oarlist rebellion. In 1839
he was elected to the Cortes for Malaga and
thenceforth became one of the leading actors
in the political intrigues and insurrectionary
movements of Queen Isabella’s reign, holding
twic^e the portfolio of war before he withdrew
for a period to his estates in Andalusia. Shortly
after nis return to the political arena he was
made marshal (1856) an4 from 1859 to 1862
acted, not without siiccess, as Captain-General
of Cuba, being created Duke de la Torre on his
return to Spam. He received the Order of the
Oolden Fleece in 1866, and in 1868 joined the
conspiracy which led to the overthrow of the
Bourbou dynasty. Then he was placed at the
head of the Provisional Government, and re-
ceived the title of Begent (1869). On lie ac-
cession of Amadeus (1870) he became com-
ma nder-in-ohief. and during the following vears

f ained several successes against the Carlists.

[e withdrew from Spain on the proclamation
of Alfonso XIL. but returned to Madrid in
1876 and took his seat in the Senate as a
marshal. He died in Madrid on November
26th, 1886.

Sertoriiis. Quintus, the celebrated Boman
statesman and general, was bom at the Sabine
village of Nursia, in the Apennines. He sermd
under Marius in the victory over the Teutones
at Ac}u» Sextifls (102 b.c.), and joined that
statesman as leader of the democratic party
against Sulla (88), altbo^ he diaapproved of
his personal character. He was not respcmsible


for the earnage wionght by Marina and Oman
in 87i but enowed dealre to Oheck it by
putting to death several hundred blood-stained
eiaves. On the return of Sulla from the Bast
in 83, he withdrew to Spain, where he main-
tained the Marian cause in a deiultory but
vigorous fashion, taking part in the Mediter-
ranean expeditions of the Cilician piratee and
conducting a successful campaign in Mauri-
tania. It was his aim to establish a strong
government in Spain and to introduce the
]^man type of civilisation among the natives,
and by hm statesmanlike and equitable rule
he won the confidence both of the Spaniards
proper and of their westerly neighbours, the
Lusitani. He was assassinated at a banquet in
72, through the instrumentality of his sub-
ordinate and rival Perperna. He had a happy
knack of conciliating ruder peoples, and liis
popularity ie thought to have been promoted
by his making a pet and companion ox a white
fawn, which accompanied him on his walks and
attended him on all occasions.


Surfenlariang, [Sea-Fir.]

[Blood.]

Serval (F^Us 8erval)f the Bush-cat of the Dutch
colonists at the Cape, is found throughout the
greater part of Africa, especially in the southern
half of the continent, but extending as far
north as Algeria. It aftecte grassy pmins and
uplands where antelopes and other game, upon
which it preys, abound. Its legs are much
longer ana tne tail is much shorter propor-
tionally than in most of the true Cats. It mea-
sures ^rty inches in length and the tail about
sixteen inches. The ground-colour of the skin
i« tawny, sometimes lighter, sometimes darker,
and spotted with black. On the flanks the
epots are elongated lengthwise, and, along the
back, merge into distinct bands continued on
to the forehead. This running together of
spots into longitudinal stripes ie characteristic
6f many of the Cats. The tail is ringed with
black. The fur, though coarse, is handsome,
and haa a commercial value.


Seryettuh Michael, or Miguel SBitvETO,
physician, savant and theologian, wae born at
Tudela in Navarre in 1511. After studying at
Saragossa and Toulouse, he travelled in Italy
and in Germany, where he became acquainted
with the Befomers. From 1635 onwards he
lived chiefly in France. He succeeded the
famous anatomist Vesalius, and is said to have
been extremely skilful in dissection and had
an unrivalled knowledge of Galen. He also
studied geometry, astrology, theology and
Hebrew. He practised medicine from time to
time and seems always to have had a taste
for theological i^culation. The Soeinian ten-
denciee of his De Triniiatu Erroribm (1631)
excited the animosity both of Catholic and Pro-
testant divines, and his unfortunate eJlorts to
maintain a friendly correspondenoe with John
Calvin resulted in hie min ; for it was pto-
bably through the latter's instigation that he


Mrvii.


( 197 )


was seised at Lyons in 1653 (ostensibly for
the heretical opinions avowed in his Chrmian-
umi reeiUuiio, published in that year). He
escaped firom prison^ hui, four months later.



MICHAEL 8EKVETUB.


was captured whilst passing through Geneva,
and, alter a trial of two months, condemned
and burnt at the stake at Champel, a suburb
of the city, on October 27th, 1553. This exe-
cution throws a lurid light on the fanaticism
of which some of the Reformers were capable.
Servetue is stated to have discovered the pul-
monary circulation of the blood.

86rviaf a kingdom in the Balkan Peninsula,
bounded on the N. by Slavonia and Hungary, on
the E. by Rumania and Bulgaria, on the S. by
Turkey and on the W. by Bosnia. On the
north the Save and Danube, on the north-east
the Danube and on the west the Drina are
natural boundaries. The country occupies an
area of 18,630 square miles. The surface is for
the most part mountainous, the highest eleva-
tion being Mt. Kopaonik in the south (7,000
feet). WlxHis clothe the hillsides, and the
valleys and low grounds besides the rivers
Morava, Nissava, Drina, Save and Danube fur-
nish excellent pastures, and yield crops of
maize, wheat, barley, oats, flax, hemp and to-
bacco. Fruit is abundant, the national drink
Hivoviha beiilg distilled from plums. Horses,
cattle, idieep, swine and goats are raised in
great numbers, and bee-keeping is a general
custom. Iron is profitably worked at Maidan-
pek; gold, silver, copper," lead, sulphur, zinc,
arsenic and antimony, coal and lignite are met
with, but the mineral wealth remains com-
paratively unexplored. The climate is warm
m summer, but very severe in winter on
the uplands. Manufacturing industries are yet
in their infancy and comiprise flour-milling,
brewing, sugar-making, weaving, tanning, pot-
tery, bwtmaking and iron-working. Belgrade
(99,7p9) is the capital* other towns being




Nisch (24,573)i Kraguyetat* (16,686), Lesko**
vats (13,6W* Foiarevat* (12,900), and Shabats
(11,084), tlw Government is a eonstitutional
monarchy, assisted by a council of eight minis-
ters, responsible to the nation. The legisla-
tive authority is the National Assembly, or
Skupshtina, of 130 deputies elected on what m
practically manhood suffrage. The State re-
ligion is the Greek Orthodox, but there is un-
restricted freedom of conscience. Elementarj
education is free and compulsory. Servia firert
appears as a distinct principality in the middle
of the 12th century. Two hunared years later
it was conquered by Turkey, and never re-
covered freedom until the revolt under Kara-
George in 1801. A troublous period ensued,
and m 1820 the Porto recogniHod Alexander
Milosch (I.) Obrenovitch as hereditary prince,
but the country was the scene of perpetual
disorders. In 1868 Michael Obrenovitch was
murdered by the opposite faction, and was suc-
ceeded by Ills cousiu Milan, wbo was proclaimed
king in 1882, having previously married Natalie
Keschko, a Russian lady. An ill-advised war
with Bulgaria might have ended in utter dis-
aster, which was averted by a treaty in 1886.
The Austrian sympathies ol' the king and the
Russian proclivities of the cnieen led to a
divorce in 1888, but next year Milan was com-
pelled to abdicate in favour of his son Alex-
ander, a boy of fourteen. A triumvirate of
Regents was instituted, but in 1893 the young
king suddenly declared himself of age and dis-

S laced the Regents, who were supporting the
overnment of a minority. Soon afterwards
Milan was allowed to return, a reconciliation
being effected with Queen Natalie. In 1900
Alexander married a lady very considerably



his senior and alienated the sympathies of both
his parents. In 1901 Milan died. On July 11th,
1903, a revolution took place, and both Alex-
ander and Queen Draga were murdered, and
Prince Karageorgevitch was elected king. He
Was crowned ae King Peter in 1904. Relations






(198 )


JM.


witli tjbe tJ&itod Kingdom# interrupted by the
aseaeeination, were resumed in June, 1906, alter
the eompuleory retirement of the regioides and
a pledge that they would not be reinstated.
Pop. (1900), 2, 492, *2. [SnEBS.]

flnrficn-Tmni n tree, I^rui (8arbv$) domestica^
belonging to the same genus of the Kosacese
as the apple, pear, and rowan. It grows from
20 to 60 feet nigh, and is wild in France and
Italy, but doubtfullT so in England. It lives
to a great age, proaucing a hard, heavy, fine-
grained wood, susceptible of a high j^lish,
much in request in France for cogs, screws,
rulers, etc., and suitable for coarse engraving.
Its leaves are imparipinnate and serrate; its
eream-coloured fiowers small ; and its fruits
less than an inch across, either apple-shaped
or pear-shaped, greenish-brown with rusty
specks, and austere, requiring blotting like
tiiose of the medlar. The allied British species
(P, torminalii) is known as the Wild Service.

ttfflinit {8e»amum indicum), an Indian herb
belonging to the order Pedaliacew, allied to the
Labiniae, the numerous seeds of which yield
40 to 44 per cent, of a tasteless, straw-coloured
filed oil, known as gingclly oil, the seeds them-
\selves being known also as til seed. It is the
oil of India, and is used instead of, or as an
adulterant of, olive oil, or. when of a very good
<inality, of oil of almonds. It is itself adul-
terated with ground-nut oil. The plant in now
cultivated in southern Europe, and the seeds
are largely used in soap-making, being chiefly
crushed at Trieste and Marseilles. Tlic seed
contains 76 per cent, of olein, together with
stearic, palmitic, and myristic acids; but the
oil is apt to Ijocome rancid. In India it is used
in cooking, for lamps, and as an unguent. In
large doses the oil is laxative and. when
macerated, the leaves yield a mucilaginous
preparation employed occasionally in dysentery
and cholera infantum. “Open Sesame w’as
the charm at the utterance of which the door
of the robbers' cave in the Arabian NitjhfA
etory of “AU Baba and the Forty Thieves”
flew open.

StaiUllOid BoMt a small mass of bone,
developed in the substance of a tendon; the
patella, or knee cap, is an example of a sesa-
moid bone.

StiOttriii a semi-mythical king of Egypt,
who according to Herodotus and other Greek
historians, extended his rule over the whole
known world. The legends concerning him are
sopposed to have been based on the achieve-
ments of Eameses II. and eeveral other
monarchy

Stteioil, COtJRt OF. In England sessions of
the Psaoo are sittings of the magistrates or

i ttstices of thej>eace for the exercise of their
urisdiction. They are of three kinds: petty,
m>ecia], quarter or general sessions. (1) Fetty
Bessions is an occasional meeting of two or
sno^ justices for the transaction of business in
which more than one justice is required. (21


Special Sessions is a meeting of two or more

i ustioes held for a epecial purpose, such as the
ioensittjg of an alehouse, etc. (3) Quarter or
GeneraF Sessions is a Court of Eeoord held
every quarter for execution of the authority
conferred on the justices by their Commission.
Formerly they had jurisdiction to try coses of
treason, murder, manslaughter, etc., hut in
1888 many of their functions were transferred
to the County Councils, and their jurisdiction is
now restricted to comparatively petty offences.
In Scotland the supreme court in civil causes
is called the Court of Session. It was estab-
lished in 1532 on the model of the Parlement
of Paris (modified after the Union) and sits in
Edinburgh. It consists of an Inner House, in
two Divisions, each with four judges, and an
Outer House of five judges, the CJourt compris-
ing thirteen judges in all. The First Division
of the Inner House is presided over by the
Lord President, and the Second by the Lord
Justice Clerk, the judges of the Outer House
being called Lords Ordinary. Appeals may be
made from the Lords Ordinary to either Divi-
sion of the Inner House, or to all the judges
of the Court of Session; and an ajyieal from
the Court of Session to the House of Lords.

Sestertius (literally, “ that which contains two
and a half,” from semis (= semi), “half,” and
U rtius, “ third "), a Roman coin, which origin-
ally contained 2i asses, being a quarter of the
denarius, which contained 10 asses. When the
denarius was made equivalent in value to 16
asses, that of the sestertius
became 4 asses. The sester-
tius was worth about 2d.
of English money. The
sestertium, a money of ac-
count, was equal to a thou-
sand sestertii.

Set, or Setesh, the god
of the prehistoric inhabi-
tants of Egypt before the
coming in of Horns, the
hawk-god. He was the god
of the Asiatic invaders
who broke in upon the
primitive civilisation of the
Osiris worshippers of the
Delia and upper Egypt.

“He is always shown,”
according to Professor
Flinders Petrie in The
Efh^lon of Ancient Egypt,

“with the head of a fabu-
lous animal, having up-
right square ears and a
long nose. When in en-
tirmy animal form he has
a long upright tail. Hie
dog-like animal is the
earliest type, as in the sir.

second dynasty; but later
tbe human form with animal head pre-
vailed,” Occasionally the crocodile was identi-
fied with him and, much more rarely the





JMoii*


( 199 )


SttulMiL


hippopotamus was his emblem. His wor*
ship experienced singular vicissitudes. At
one period he was the great god of all
Egypt, but his worshippers were gradually
oustM by the tribes who worshipped Horus.
Then Set appears in the second dynasty, the
last king of which, says Flinders Petrie,

united the worship of Set and Horus. In
the early formulss for the dead he is honoured
equally with Horus. After suppression he
appears in favour in the early eighteenth
dynasty; and oven gave the name of Sety I.
and n. of the nineteenth dynasty.^’

Sotoilf a piece of foreign material, such as a
skein of silk or a gutta-percha tube, threaded
through the skin, or inserted into a sinus, with
a view to setting up counter-irritation, or pro-
moting suppuration. This method is practi-
cally obsolete.

SottOTf a breed of siwrting dogs that formerly
marked game by “setting or crouching down.
This was at the time when birds were netted.
Since the introduction of firearms setters have
been broken to mark like the pointer. Spaniels
were orginally used as setters, and the Eng-
lish breed probably sprang from a cross be-
tween the spaniel ana the pointer. Youatt,
however, says the setter is tlie large spaniel,
“improved to his peculiar size and beauty, and
taught another way of marking game.” In a
document, dated 1685, a yeoman binds himself,
for a consideration, “fully and effectually to
teach a spaniel to sit partridges and pheas-
ants.” Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, is
supposed to have been the first systematically
to break-in sitting do^ (1335). The Englisn
setter is generally white, marked with red or
ticked with black ; but tliere is great diversity
in the coloration. The coat should be soft and
wavy, the limbs thinly and the tail deeply
fringed, and there should be a good growth of
hair between the toes. The Gordon setter is
derived from the English setter crossed with a
collie bitch, broken to set, and is black and
tan, with a head somewhat like that of a blood-
hound. The Irish setter, of unknown origin,
is less stoutly built, and generally red. Dr.
John Kaye, or Caius, physician to Edward VI.,
Mary and Elizabeth, wrote a brief treatise in
Latin on English dogs about 1550. This was
translated into English in 1576 by Abraham
Fleming. Caius* description of the action of
the “ setting^dogge ” is vivid and lifelike: —
“When he hath found the byrde, he keepeth
sure and fast silence, he stayeth his steppes and
wil proceede no further, and with a close,
covert, watching eye, layeth his belly to the
grounde, and so creepeth forward like a worme.
When he approcheth neere to the place where
the byrde is, he lays him downe, and with a
marcke of his pawes, betrayeth the place of the
byrdes last abode, whereby it is supposed that
this kinde of dogge is called index, setter,
being indeede a hame inost consonant and
agreable to his quality/*


SettUf a town of the West Biding of York«
shire, England, op the left bank ol the Bibble»
14 miles N.W. of Skipton. It is attractively
situated near the base of a precipitous lime»
stone hill, called the Castleberg, because, seen
from a distance, its features present some resem-
blance to an ancient castle. The principal
structures are the church of the Holy Ascension
in the Early English style, the Public Buildings
in the Elizabethan, the Institute, the Victoria
Hall, and the Craven Assembly Booms. The
town is an ideal centre for a hiu-climbing holi-
day, Penyghent (2,273 feet high), seven miles
to the north, being quite practicable. Dr.
George Birkbeck, the promoter of mechanics*
institutes, was born at Settle in 1770. Pop.
(1901), 2,302.

Settle, Elkanah, dramatist and poet, was born
at Dunstable, Bedfordshire, En^and, on Febru-
ary 1st, 1648, and studied at Trinity College,
Oxford. Proceeding to London, he began to
write for the stage, and produced two tragedies,
Oamhyaes (1666) and The Empreas of Morocco
(1671), which were fairly successful. He was
pitted against Dryden by the latter’s enemies
and “Glorious Jolm ” retaliated by pillorying
Settle as “Doeg” in Ahscdom ana Achitophn
(1682). Settle’s industry, however, had not
relaxed and he wrote other plays, which were
duly acted and dedicated to distinguished
members of the nobility. Amongst these pro-
ductions were Love and lievtnge (1676), (Jon-
quest of China hy the Tartars (1676), Ibrahim,
the Illustrious Bassa. (1676), Fatal Love (1680),
and, pandering to the Protestant fury of the
hour, The Female Prelate^ heinq the History
the Life and Death of Pope Joan (1680). He
was even base enough to write “A ranegyrick
on Sir George Jefferies ” (1683), and a “heroick
poem” on the Coronation of James 11. (1685).
At the Revolution he prepared to recant and,
in 1691, was appointed City Laureate. His
abilities were on the level of the Common
Council and quite equal to hymn the pageant
of the Lord Mayor’s Show, of which he sang
the praises in successive years. He had not
abandoned playwriting, however, and produced
the Heir of Mororeo in 1682, Distressed
Innocence in 1691, and several more, the last
being The Ladies* Triumph (1.718). He had
fallen pretty low wheu he composed songs for
Bartholomew’s Fair, love-letters for maid-
servants and ballads for street hawkers. His
fortunes were at their darkest in 1718, in which
year his friends procured him admittance into
the Charterhouse, London, where he died on
February 12th, 1724. He had a good working
knowledge of stagecraft and was occasionally
adept at handling plots, but he only lives now
in Dryden*g satire.

Satnbalf or St. Ubes, a seaport of the province
of Estremadura, Portugal, 20 miles S.E. of Lis-
bon. It is commands on the west by the
barren range of Arrabida, 1,700 feet high, a
cloister with a stalactite cavern, the scene of
numerous pilgrimages. The ruins of Troia


( 200 } Mmrm of Sflioovo.


diioloied fome beautiful Beman xemaiiii*
indudiiig a bouse. Ilie town enHered eererelj
iu tbe famous earthquake of 1705. Ilib 4e:t|)ort
trade is imi^rtaut^ since it ineludea a due
quality of salt especially suited for the Surizig
of meat and fish« the best oranges in Portugal
and Muscatel grapes of delicate flavour. The
indnstdes comprise the flsheries^ ship-building,
lace-malcing, sardine-curing and the making of
fish guano. Manoel du Bocage (1766-1806), the
modern national poet, was a native
of Setubal Pop. (1900), 21,819.

Sowoa. A mystical significance
was attached to this number by
the Hebrews, Egyptians, Persians,

Greeks, and other ancient races. Its
sacred character was probably due
to the seven planets and the weekly
changes of tne moon. In the Old
Testament it figures conspicuously
not only in the religious observances
Of the Jews, but m the record of
actual historical events. It occurs
frequently with a symbolic force in
the imageiy of the Apocalypse.

"Various mntiiplcs of seven are also
used in the same manner. In an-
cient Greece the number was asso-
ciated with Apollo and with Diony-
sus, the region in which its magic
properties were most fully recog-
nised being the island of Euba^a. Such medisf^
val notions as the Seven Deadly Sins doubt-
less originated in similar ideas

Mewan BishopSt The. The small company of
prelates who in May, 1688, drew up a petition
at Lambeth, urging James II. not to enforce
his order that wie clergy should read his De-
claration of Indulgence at divine service on
May 20th and the following Sunday. They
were summoned before the King in Council and
then committed to the Tower amidst a scene
of unparalleled excitement. They were brought
before the CJourt of King's Bench on Juno 15th
on the charge of uttering a seditious libel and
committed for trial. The further proceedings
began in Westminster Hall on the 29th of
Juno. At ten o*clock on the following morning
the jury returned a verdict of '*Not Guiltv/'
to tne great joy of th© people and the dis-
comfiture of the Court and its creatures. The
bishops were Bancroft of Canterbury, Ken of
Bath and Wells, White of Peterborough, Lloyd
of St. Asaph, Trelawnoy of Bristol, Lake of
Chichester, and Turner of Ely.

a town in Kent. England, 21
miles S.E. of London, picturesquely situated in
finely* wooded country. Th© principal struc-
tures are the church of St. Nicnolas, a fine ex-
ampl© of the Perpendicular style in Kentish
rag, dating from the 13th to the 15th century
and containing numerous interesting monu-
ments to county celebrities; the Grammar
Bohooi, where George Grote was educated.


founded in 1432 by Sir William SevenokCi Lord
Mayor of London in 1418, and endowed with
a charter by Elizabeth in 1560; the Boswell
School, founded by Lady Margaret, wife of
Sir William Boswell, Charles I.'s Ambassador
at The Hague; the Walthamstow Hall for the
daughters of missionaries, and several alms-
houses and hospitals. Near Sevenoaks, in
1450, Sir Humphrey Stafford in vain en-
deavoured to effect a compromise with the


rebels under Jack Cade, in whose trial he
afterwards took part. Half a mile south-east
of the town is the fine old English mansion of
Knolc standing in a beautiful park of 1,000
acres. From 145C, when it was purchased from
Lord Sayc and Sele bv Archbishop Bourchier,
to the time of Archbishop Cranmer, who ceded
it to Henry VIII., it was the property of the
see of Canterbury. Elizabeth gave first to
the Earl of Leicester and afterwards to Thomas
Sackville, Earl of Dorset, by whom it was re-
constructed, furnished and decorated in much
the same style that still exists. It is the seat
of Lord Sackville. Three and a half miles to
th© north-west is Chevening Place, designed
by Inigo Jones, the seat of the Earl of Stan-
hope, and five miles to the north-west is the
lofty; knoll (770 feeti crowned by a clump, of
beeches, known as Knockholt Beeches, from
which St. Paul’s Cathedral ia visible. About
six miles to the north-east of Sevenoaks is
Ightham Mote, one of the most perfect ex-
amples of a moated mansion in England. Pop.
Sevenoaks (1901), 8,106.

Seven Sleepers of Bplieensy The. form
the subject of an ancient Syrian legend, the
earliest mention of which in the West occure
in the 6th century in the writings of Gregory
of Tours. The story is that during the Decian
persecution seven Christian youths took refuge
in a cave in the vicinity of Ephesns, and were
there imprisoned by their pureuers, who rolled
huge atones against the mouth. By th© Hivina
favour they fell into a deep sleep, from whieli



KSOUB HOUSE, 8EVENOAXS. * VavgAan.




(201 )


ItoTMi Wim Xaii.


tbey were accidentally awalcened by the move-
menta of a idiepherd after the lapse ot nearly
200 years. One of the youths was sent to buy
food, and as he drew near the town he won-
dered at seeing the Cross erected over the
^te and churches. Offering a coin of Oecius
in exchange for bread, he was arrested on
the suspicion that he had discovered hidden
treasure. A visit to the cave, however, con-
vinced the citizens of the truth of his story.
The sleepers were visited by the Emperor
Theodosius, who learnt from them that the
miracle had been wrought to confirm his faith
in the Resurrection. Thereupon the seven again
sank into a calm sleep, from which they will
not awake till the Last Day.

Seven Wise Men, the name given to those
Greek sages who, before Socrates had laid the
foundations of moral philosophy, expressed the
highest wisdom of the time in a number of
pithy aphorisms. Their names were Solon of
Athens, Thales of Miletus, Pittacua of Mitylene,
Bias of Priene, Chilon of Sparta (author of the
famous maxim " Know thyself *'), Cleobulus,
Tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes, and Periander,
Tyrant of Corinth.

8«ven Wonders of thio World, Thb, a
name applied, after the time of Alexander the
Great, to the seven most splendid monuments of
the ancient world, which were the Pyramids of
Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the
temple of Diana at Enhesus, the statue of the
Olympian Zeus at Athens, the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the
Pharos (or Lighthouse) of Alexandria.

Sovon Toars’ War, The (l75fi-63). was due
to the alarm occasioned in Europe by the ag-



PRSOERICK THE OBEAT.

\ {Engraved JR. Taylor.}


gresflive designs of Frederick 11. (the Great) of
Prussia and the desire of the Empress Maria
Ihereea to recover Silesia from that monarch.


flavttt ITaar#' War.


Louis XV. of France, the Tsarina Elizabeth,
and Augnslus, King ol Poland^ who was alsb
Elector of Saxony, ranged th#n|lelves on the



XAIUA TUEELBA.


side of Austria, whilst Great Britain, already
at war with Franco in the colonies, aided
Frederick with money, placed an army in
Hanover at his disposal, and promised him
further assistance. In hie first campaign
Frederick overran Saxony, defeated the Aus-
trians (who were marching to its relief under
Marshal Browne) at Lobositz, and forced the
Saxon army to surrender. In 1757 Frederick
invaded Bohemia and invested the Austrian
army in Prague, but received a crushing de-
feat at the hancls of Marshal Daun (June 18).
Five weeks later the Duke of Cumberland, in
Hanover, was defeated at Hastenbeck by Mar-
shal d’Estr^es, and agreed by the Convention
of Kloster-Zeven to disband nearly the whole
of his army ; but at Rosebach Frederick was
successful against an army composed of Im-
perialists and French troops under Soubise,
and Silesia, which had meanwhile been seized
by * the Austrians, was reoccupied after his
victory at Leuthen (December 6). These suc-
cesses were followed by the withdrawal of t|ie
Russians from East Russia. In 1768 the for-
tune of Frederick varied considerably. His
inroad into Bohemia was cut short by a Rus-
sian invasion, and, although he was successful
against these foes at Zornciorf , he was surprised
and severely defeated by Marshal Daun at
Hochkirch; yet, before the year closed, the
Prussians had regained Saxony and Sflesia.
Frederick^fi fourth campaign (1789) was a aeries
of disasters. He himself suffered a terrible
reverse at Kunersdorf, and the surrender of
Finck to Daun was followed by the Austrian
occupation of Saxony. Against the iU-fortuno
of Prussia was to be set tW almost unvarying
success of Ferdinand of Brunswick in Hanover




(my


Mmrmtm*


md Westphalia. He had been placed at the
head of a new amj by the Bntieh GoTern-
ment> who refused to recognise the Convention
of Kloster-Zeven, and by his victory at Minden
(August 1, 1759) hnallj drove the French be-
hind the Rhine. British aid and his own in-
domitable energy enabled Frederick to resume
the struggle ih 1760, notwithstanding his im-
poverished condition. In spite of his success at
liiegnitz (August 15), Berlin was captured by
the allies in October, but the fierce battle of
Torgau (Nofember 3) drove the enemy from
Silesia and saved Prussia from destruction.
During the next year the war was carried bn
in a desultory fashion, owing to the exhaus-
tion of both sides, Frederick^ position being
rendered more difficult by the withdrawal of
the British subsidy after the death of George
II. But in 1762 he pursued the struggle so
vigorously — aided by his brother Prince Henry
and in the west by the Duke of Brunswick —
that the French withdrew from the conflict,
entering into treaties with Great Britain and
Prussia, which culminated in the Peace of
Paris (February 10th, 1763). Maria Theresa,
left to carry on the war alone, found herself
forced to conclude the Peace of Hubertsburg
(February 15th, 1763), in which she abandoned
her claim to Silesia. The main result of the
war, so far as Great Britain was concerned,
was an immense accession to her dominion and
power not only in India but also in North
America.

A person is said to hold property
in severalty when he is the sole tenant thereof,
and holds them in his own right only, without
any other person being joined or connected with
him in point of interest during his estate there-
in.

Sgwenii Thb (by the Britons called Hafren
and the Romans Sabrina), next to the Thames
the largest river in England. It rises at Maes
Hafren, on the northern slope of Plinlimmon,
and flows in a semicircular course of 210 miles
aet Llanidloes, Newtown, Welshpool, Shrews-
ury, Bridgnorth, Bewdley, Worcester, Tewkes-
bury, and Gloucester, till it opens out into
the Bristol Channel. Its length in a direct
line from its source to the sea is 80 miles. Its
basin extends over 6,000 square miles, the chief
tributaries being, on the right, the Yyrnwy,
the Stour, and the two Avons, and, on the left,
the Teme and the Wye. Owing to the gradual
decrease in the width and depm of the Bristol
Channel the tide rushes up with great force, at
times creating a bore five feet high, which has
occasionally caused very serious destruction.
Canals connect the Severn with the Thames,
Trent, Mersey and other rivers. It is a noted
salmon stream, and the scenery on its banks
is, in certain passages, extremely charming.
The Severn Tunnel, connecting Gloucester-
shire with Monmouthshire, is 44 miles long, of
which 24 miles are carried beneath the of
the river. It was begun in 1873 and opened for
traffic on New Year's Day, 1886.


Sewonif Joseph, the friend of Seats, was bom
at Hoxton, London, on December 7th, 1793. He
was early reized with a longing for the artistic
career, which at last he was enabled to gratify
only after a series of difficulties that would
have disoouraged most men. Whilst still in
the thick of his struggles he formed the friend-
ship of John Heats (1816), to whom for the
brief remainder of the poet's life he was more
than brother. In 1818 he won the Royal
Academy's prize for the best historical paint-
ing, his subject being “TJna seizing the dagger
from the despairing Red Cross Knight."
years later he accompanied Keats to Rome and
stayed with him till his death in 1821. His
picture of "The Death of Alcibiades” gained
a travellii^ scholarship of .£130 for three years
from the Royal Academy. But though he con-
tinued to paint industriously for years his-
torical and imaginative subjects ana portraits
he met with no appreciation from the public,
and in fact took no place as an artist. His
friendship with Keats, however, had intro-
duced him into good sets both in England
and Rome, and, largely owing to the interest
of W. E. Gladstone and Baron Bunsen, he be-
came British Consul at Rome in 1860, a post
which he held for twelve years. He died in
Rome on August 3rd, 1879.

SeveriiE, Lucius Septimius, the twenty-first
Emperor of Rome, was born near Leptis Magna
in Africa in a.d. 146. On the assassination of
Pertinax, in 193, he was proclaimed Emperor
at Carnuntum, the capital of his province
Pannonia Superior, the legions in Germany and
Illyria joining those under his own command.
Diaius Julianus offered but a feeble resistance,
but he had to contend with more formidable
livals in Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus,
the last of whom was vaxyuished in a fierce
battle near Lyons in 197. With the disappear-
ance of the two competitors from the scene,
the character of Severus altered and he de-
veloped a strain of cruelty hitherto unsuspected
in his nature. The success of his Parthian cam-
paigns (197-202) added the province of Mesopo-
tamia to the Empire. His last three years were
occupied with wars in Britain, and he died at
York in February, 211. He was a cold, shrewd,
capable man of business, unscrupulous, and,
though no general, personally brave and, by
attention to discipline, improved the status of
the army as a fitting machine.

SeveruBf Marcus Aurelius Alexander,
Roman Emj^ror, was born at Area near Tripoli
in Syria in a.d. 205. He was an accomplished
and scholarly youth, and, in 221, was adopted
as his successor in the purple by Heliogabalus.
His original name had been Alexander Bas-
sianus, and when he became Emperor in 222
he was called Alexander Severus. His reign
was disturbed by several mutinies in the army,
but he was, notwithstanding, able to come out
of a war against the Persians with something
like success. He celebrated a triumph at
Rome in 233 and next year was engaged in





( 208 )




repelling a Geman invasion Ganl. In 235
hie was murdered during a mutiny which was
probably fostered by Maximinus, who succeeded
him on the throne.

Sdrign^i Habib de BABuxiN-CHANTAt, Mab-
Q17I8B DB, the most fascinating of letter^writers,
was the daughter of Celse Benigne de Eabutin,
Baron de Yantai, the representative of an
ancient Burgundian family, and was born in
Paris on February 6th, 1626. She lost her

arents in early childhood, and was brought up

y her mothers brother, Christophe de Cou-
langes, Abb6 de Livry. In her 19th year she
married Henri, Marquis de Sdvign4, a gentle-
man of Brittany, to whom, in spite of his de-
baucheries, she seems to have been sincerely
attached. In 1651 he was killed in a duel
occasioned by one of hie amours, and hence-
forward she devoted herself to the care of her
little son (Charles) and daughter and the cul-
tivation of her numerous friendships. Her time
was divided between her husband's country
seat of Lea Rochers, near Vitre, and the gay
world of Paris, with occasional visits to her
friends' ch&teaux after the marriage of her
daughter (Fran 9 oise Marguerite) in 1669 to
Francois Adhemar, Comte de Grignan, the
Lieutenant-General of Provence. Excepting
during the intervals when they were together
either at Paris or in Provence, mother and
daughter kept up a constant correspondence
for 26 years, and the letters written by Mme.
de Sevign4 have ever been treasured by lovers
of literature, not only for their graceful style,
but for the picture they present of a noble,
pure, and tender-hearted woman. The whole
of Mme. de S^vigne's correspondence throws
much valuable lignt on the history and social
condition of the time. She died of smallpox
at Grignan, in the department of DrOme, on
April 18th, 1696.

SaTille, a province of Spain, formerly one of
the four Moorish kingdoms, is bounded on the
N. by Badajoz, on the S. by Malaga and Cadiz,
on the E. by Cordova, and on the W. by Huelva
and the Atlantic. It occupies an area of 6,428
square miles. Though rugged and barren
where broken up by the Sierra Morena in the
nortli, the greater portion consists of a rich
plain traversed by the Guadalquivir from
north-east to south-west. The principal crops
are wheat, rye, oats, barley, maize, olives,
grapes and fruit, oil, wine, oranges and olives
being exported largely. The rough grounds
afford pasture to many sheep and oxen and the
mountains yield lead, copper, silver, iron, alum
and coal. There are also salt-mines. Among
the manufactures are silken, woollen and other
textile goods, chocolate, tobacco, leather, flour,
oil, soap, pottery and glass, besides iron- and
bronze-founding, distilleries, breweries and the
State factories of small arms, shells and gun-
powder. Important towns are Carmona, Ecija,
Osuna, TJtrera, Moron de la Frontera, Marchena
and Lebrija. Pop. (1900), 555,256.


StviUOf the capital of the foregoing pro-
vince, Spain, on the left bapk # the Guadal-
quivir, 355 miles S.W. of Madftd, and acces-
sible for small vessels from the sea. In Roman
times it was a prosperoua city. It passed from
the Goths to the Arabs in 712* ana flourished



THii; QIBALDA, SEVILLE.


under them until recovered by Ferdinand III.
in 1248. The cathedral (140d-1619) is a fine
example of Spanish Pointed Gothic. The
Giralda Tower is partially Mauresque, but the
noblest monument of Arab rule is the Alcazar,
a riverside palace. Other remarkable features
of the city are the archiepiscopal palace (1697J,
the university (1567), the Casa del Ayuntami-
enta (1545), the palace San Telmo, formerly
the seat of a naval college founded by the sou
of Columbus, bequeathed to the archbishopric
by the Duchess of Montpensier, who gave part
of the grounds to the municipality, and the
vast Plaza de Toros or bull-ring. Tbe Seville
School of Painting, the glory of Spain, num-
bers among its immortals Vela^uez and
Murillo, both natives of the city. Triana, on
the opposite side of the river, is the Gipsy
quarter. There are considerable exports of
skins, wool, silk and oil, and the manufac-
tures include cannon, small-arms, tobacco, pot-
tery and porcelain, petroleum, woollen goMs,
silken fabrics, iron, machinery, beer, wine and
spirits, soap, corks, chocolates and preserves.
Pop. (1901), 148,315.

^ town of the department of Seine-et-
Oise, France, on the left bank of the Seine, 4
miles E.N.E of Tersailles, midway between








( 204 )




that town and Park. The Oorernment Por-
celain Paetory, eatablkhed in 1760« iihd ro*
built in 1870, employs many hands, and turns
out some of the finest ceramic work in the
world. The museum connected therewith con-
tains specimens illustrating the whole history
cl the art, and there ia also a school of mosaic.
Pop. (1901), 8,210*

Dnux-, a department in the west of
France, bounded on the N. hj Maine-et-Loire,
on the E. by Vienne, on the S.E. by Charente,
on the S* by Chacento-Inf4rieure, and on the
W. by La vendCe. Its area of 2,337 square
miles is divided into three districts — namely,
the Gfitine, the Plain and the Marsh. The
first, adjoining the Bocage, is rocky and poor;
the second yields large crops of grain; whilst
the third, the smallest in extent, is fairly
fertile where drained. The highest point ^92
feet) occurs to the east of Parthenay. The
horses and mulee of the department are much
esteemed, and the cattle, goats, sheep and
other live-stock are a source of considerable
profit. The principal crops are wheat, oats,
potatoes, barley, mangolds, green stuff and
vines. The chief trees are oaks, chestnuts, wal-
nuts, beeches and apples. Wine, cider, honey
and vegetables are important products. Coal,
peat and freestone are worked, and iron,
antimony and silver-bearing^ lead occur. The
industries include paper-making, sugar-refining,
distilling, and tanning, beeides manufactures of
textiles, gloves, brushes, hats and flour. Niort
(20,738) is the capital. The department was
formed in 1790 mainly out of the districts of
Thouars, Gfitinais and Niortais, which consti-
tuted a portion of the old province of Poitou.
Pop. (1901), 342,474.

Sawftrdf Anna, authoress, ** the Swan of Lich-
field,” was the daughter of the rector of Eyapi,
in Derbyshire, where she was born in 1747.
Her father became a canon of Lichfield when
she was seven years old, and she lived in the
cothedral city for the rest of her life, dying in
it on March 25th, 1809. She wrote a great deal
of occasional verse of no real merit. Louisa (a
metrical romance, 1782), the Life of Dr, Dar-
win (1804), and her other works have long been
forgotten, but she is remembered as the friend
of Sir Walter Sebtt. She was on terms of con-
siderable intimacy with Dr. Johnson, whom she
disliked and whom ehe decried (writing under
the signature of ^*Beavolio”) in the Oentle-
man's Magazitie in 1786 and 1793. She sup-
plied Boswell with particulars about Johnson,
out Boswell, knowing her prejudioes, received
them somewhat coldly, thereby offending her.
Her portrait was painted by &eorge Eomney,
whom she had met at her friend William
Hayley^s place in Sussex.

SnwAViSU William Henry, statesman, was
born at Florida, New York State, United
States, on May 16th, 1801. and ednoated at
Union College. He was called to the bar in
1822, He was elected Governor of New York


State in 1838, but in 1842 resumed practice as
a lawyer at Auburn. During his two terms
of office as senator (1849-69) he showed himself
a zealous opponent of slavery, argued against
the Compromise Bill, and help^ to found the
Bepublican party. His candidature for the
Presidency not being adopted by his party
(I860), he became Secretary of State under
Abraham Lincoln (1861), an office which he re-
tained till 1869. In the department of foreign
affairs he encountered the difficulties occasioned
by the War of Secession with singular ability
and success. A desperate attempt was made on
his life in 1865 by an associate of the assassin
of Lincoln. He died at Auburn on October
10th, 1872. He was the author of an able Life
of John Quincy Adams (1849) and other works.

Sewell, Elizabeth Missing, novelist, was
bom at Newport, Isle of Wight, on February
19th, 1816. For eeveral years she received
pupils at Bonchurch, a beautiful little village
near Ventnor, but was chiefly known for her|||i
numerous novels of strongly accentuated re-*
ligious tone, in accordance with the High
Church views of which she was an ardeut ex-
ponent. Her most popular stories were Amy
flerhert, Laneton Parsonage, and Margaret
Perceval, but she was also the author of numer-
ous tales for children and books of devotion
and history. She died at Bonchurch. on August
17th, 1906.

SewoUil iDaphdon ruftls), representing the
HapMontidae, the only family of the section
Sciuromorpha (Squirrel-like Rodents) of the
sub-order of Simple-toothed Rodents. It was
first noticed about 1806 by the American
travellers Lewis and Clarke, described in 1814 ,

by Rafinesque under the name of Anisonyx .
rufa and, in 1829, by Sir John Richardson as J
Aplodontia leporina, since corrected to Haplo-
don. The body is stout and clumay, about one
foot long, the tail is very short, the claws of
the fore feet (which, like the hind ones, have
five toes) are very powerful and there are five I
molars in the upj^r and four in the lower jaw.

In colour it is brownish with an intermixture
of black, lighter and greyish below, the whis-
kers, claws and upper surface of the feet being
whitish. It occurs in the states of Washington
and Oregon between the Rocky Mountains and
the Pacific, and is found also in parts of Cali*,
fornia and British Columbia. Like the Prairie
Dog, which they resemble in some of their
habits, the Sewellels are gregarious, burrowing
easily and feeding on roots and berries. Iheir
societies are smaller than those of the Prairie
Dog and they affect the rich, moist land near
the sources of streams. They have the curious
habit of neatly cutting off some plant, packing
it in bundles which are then laid out to dry in
the sun and stored, probably for winter fodder.
Whether they hibernate or not seems to de-
pend upon the cold of the latitude and local
I conditions. Indians trap and feed on them and
I also sew their skins together for cloaks and
! blankets.




t«W)




-BrnmCf a channel which cCrw tooae^aws^
iraatA water and liquid rcfuaci trade effluents,
rainfaB, etc.; the t^nn drain is applied to a
channel which carries of the draihage of one
building only, and which communicates with
a cesspool or similar receptacle, or with a
sewer ; a eewer being the larger duct which re-
ceives as tributaries the various drains which
communicate with it. In some towns what is
known as the separate system of sewerage is
adopted, the rain water being carried away
by a series of ducts distinct from those which
carry household and trade effluents. Where the
separate system is not adopted, the capacity of
the sewers must be so regulated as to enable
them to remove storm waters. It is usually
calculated that, in the United Kingdom, the
sewer should be capable of dealing with a
maximum rainfall of one inch per hour, over
and above the waste matters derived from
other sources. Ihe smallest sewers are usually
made of earthenware pipes, varying from nine
||||inche8 to two feet in diameter : the larger
~main sewers are made of brick, set in cement
upon a bed of concrete ; in vertical section
their form is generally oval or egg-shaped
rather than, circular, this method of construc-
tion rendering them less liable to be silted up
when only a small volume of sewage is flowing
through them. Sewers are laid in straight
lines, manholes being provided at fAe various
Junctions so as to facilitate inspection and to
allow of the operation of flushing Jbeing per-
formed. The fall of a sewer varies from about
1 in 100 in the smaller to 1 in 750 in the
larger channels. The composition of sewage is,
curiously enough, very little altered by the fact
of the exclusion or presence of water-closet
discharges; the average composition of sewage
from water-closet towns and from towns in
which diy systems of removal prevail not
being stxikiigly dissimilar. Sewage contains,
on an average, some twelve hundred or thirteen
hundred parts of solid residue in 1,000,000
parts by weight, the amount of the suspended
solids being rather greater than the amount
of those which are held in solution. The most
valuable constituents of the sewage from a
manurial point of view are the nitrogenous
compounds, potash salts, and the phosphates.
It has been calculated that, on an average, the
annual quantity of sewage per unit of popula-
tion is 100 tons, and, were this made to yield
it® theoretical value as manure, it would
amount to nearly ^1 per head. The air con-
tained in sewers differs somewhat in Composi-
tion from the air of the atmosphere, gases
being continually given off by the sewage and
some percolation of ground air into the sewers
Usually occurring. Where the fall of a eewer
is insuffleient, and particularly when the level
of a sewer is not properly regulated, or has be-
come affected by subsidence -(allowing of the col-
lection of stagnant pools of sewage), this ac-
cumulation of foul gases in the body of the
sevrer Is especially favoured. In such circnin^
itanoOs the sewer-air may be a serious souioe


of danger to those who work in the sewers*
There is risk* too, d its hndilpf its way into
houses with imperfect dratiiagi”arrattgements,
and wherever means of escape are provided for
the g^ses compladnte of nuisance are almost
sure to arise. With a view to securing some
intorchai^e of air in sewers and so making it
safe for nushers and eewermen to enter them,
and with a further view to aHowing of the
escape of air at times when there & an in-
creased flow of sewage in the sewers, and par-
ticularly after rainfall, it is necessary to pro-
vide means of ventilation. Gratings situated
in the centre of the roadway are usually em-
ployed for this purpose, the distance between
such gratings being one hundred yards or
thereabout®. In some instances shafts are
carried up the sides of houses with a view to
causing the sewer-air to escape at points where
it will not cause offence. Sometimes the air
from sewers has been extracted and passed
through a furnace ao that it may be rendered
innocuous. The method of ventilation by grat-
ings in the middle of the roadway is, however,
very rarely productive of annoyance when the
sewer is in a satisfactory condition, but wher-
ever these outlets can be protected by char-
coal air-screens this additional precaution is
advisable. The methods of disposing of town
sewage have received a great deal of atten-
tion, especially since the undesirability of pass-
ing sewage directly into streams has been in-
sisted upon. Having regard to the fact that
many rivers are yet the main, if not the only
source of drinking water for several towns and
cities, it should be made a penal offence for
riparian owners, whether these are towns, or
villages, or private persons, to run sewage or
other polluting matter into such streams. It
is appalling to think what might happen to
such a vast and populous community as London
if the Thames above the Water Board's intake
were fouled with the germs of a water-borne
epidemic. Some form of chemical treatment of
town sewage (the essence of which consists in
precipitating the organic matter by the addi-
tion of agents such as lime, sulphate of
alumina, etc.) is usually adopted ; but the
effluents after such treatment are in many
cases still a source of injury to the streams
into which they are discharged. Filtration of
sewage is sometime® had recourse to, the
material being discharged over a porous soil,
and the flow being from time to time sus-
pended in order to permit fresh supplies of
oxygen to obtain access to the filter. The
xne&od of broad irrigation, in which the
sewage is distributed over a sewage farm and
utilised as manure for certain crops, has aleo
been employed in several instances. Ibis i®
no doubt the best means of dealing with sewage
when land in sufficient quantity and of suitable
character is obtainable.

fflovdisif XMhiii#* have beeu undergoing a
continual process of developmeint einoe 1830,
when BartMlemy Tkimonieri a French tailor.







arrangedl a ]XiediaiucaUj*]aov«d crodiet needle
which drew loops of thread through the oloth,
each suceeding loop being passed through the
preTiouB one, thus making a chain stitch. T!h0
modem machine practically originated with
Walter Hunt, of Kew York, who dovised a
needle with an eye near the point, and used
two threads to make a lock stitch. Elias
Howe, a native of Spencer, Massachusetts, re-
invented this arrangement in 1846, and, after
suffering for some years the neglect which is
the fate of moat inventors, laid the founda-
tions of the present extensive trade in sewing
machines* In all of the manv modifications of
Howe^s device now in use, the needle is fixed
to a vertical bar having an up and down

motion given to It by a cam, and
l| at each descent it carries the

I thread, which is passed through

I an eye near its point, through

BBQB the fabric to be sewn, and on its I
ascent the friction between the
I cloth and the thread causes the

I \ latter to be left under the cloth
j I in the form of a loop on one side

i J of the needle, as shown at A in

I Fig. 1. A boat-shaped shuttle

, j containing a small spool of thread

FIG, 1. and having a horizontal recip-

rocating motion is now passed
through this loop, so that one thread is twisted
half a turn round the other, and the further
ascent of the needle draws the threads tight, at
the same time pulling the twist into the centre
of the fabric. While the needle is at the upper
part of its movement the cloth is advancea by


the length of one stitch, and the whole cycle
of operations is repeated. This process results
in the lock stitch shown at b (Fig. 2) and forms
a very neat and secure seam. The feed
mechanism for advancing the cloth between the
stitches consists of a small metal block having
on its upper surface a series of saw-like teeth,
which works neatly under the needle in a slot
in the plate on which the cloth rests. The
fabric is pressed upon this block by a spring
foot, through a hole in which ^e needle passes.
It^ile the needle is descending through the
cloth, the feed block is raised and holds it
securely while the stitch is being formed ; when
the needle is clear of the cmth, the block
moves forwards through a distance equal to the
length of one stitch ; it then sinks and moves
backwards and upwards to its first position.
The chain-stitch machine is eomewhat simpler,
as the ehuttle and lower thread are disi^nsed
with. A loop is formed on the nnder-eide of
the cloth as above described, bnt on the ssoSnt
of the needle this is held by a hook, and the
next descent of the needle is made through


this loop. The first loop ie released Ifom Ihe
hook, which engc^es with the second loop, and
on the thread being drawn tight by the rising
of the needle, a crochet stitch shown at c (Fig.


3) is formed. This uses more cotton, and is lees
neat and less secure than the lock stitch, but
the machine is simpler, and therefore cheaper,
and may be worked more rapidly than the
lock-stitch machine. About four-fifths of the
machines now in use are of the latter kind.
Many attachments are sometimes used to facili-
tate special operations, such as hemming. The
adjustments of sewing machines require more
care than is usually bestowed upon them ; both
upper and lower threads are held tight by fric-
tional devices which can be regulated, and it is
important that the tensions of the two threads
should be equal, and should be suited to the
kind of cloth and thread used, in order that a
perfect stitch may be made. It is also advis-
able to proportion the size of the needle to the
size of the thread.

80 X 1 the differentiation of cellular elements,
either alone or with other surrounding struc-
tures, into male and female, so that their union
[Repboduction] results in the stimulus of the
fatter into a new individual. In its simplest
form sex shows itself in the union of similar

f ametes, reproductive cells, that is, incapable
y themselves of giving rise to a new organism.
Organisms producing such gametes are termed
isogamous; the union of their gametes, con-
jugation ; and its result (among plants at least),
a zygospore. Such similar gametes may be
free-swimming, ciliated, and pear-shaped, or
planogametes, or without cilia or definite form
(aplanogametes). Among the Protozoa each
organism generally consists of euch an un-
differentiated conjugating gamete. But little
higher in both the algal and the animal series
heterogamy, or the differentiation of distinctly
male and female gametes, arises. The former,
the spermatozoid, or sperm-cell, is generally
the smaller and more active, being a well-
defined, ciliated, free-swimming mass of pro-
toplasm. This form, it has been suggested, is
the result of the excess of katabolism in a pre-
viously undifferentiated amoeboid cell, finding
its outward expression in increased activity
of movement. The female gamete, oosphere,
ovum, or germ cell, on the other hand, is
generally larger, spherical, unciliated and
quiescent, the result of an excess of anabolism,
t.e., of potential, rather than of kinetic, energ;^.
The union of such heterogamous elements is
termed fertilisation. Where male and female
organs are borne by the same individual, and
on the same branch or body segment, the
organism may be termed monoclinous, the term
hemtaphrodile being unsuitable, as suggesting




8«xtaiit.


( 207 )


■•xtut.


«elf*fertili8ati<m. Where male and female
organs, though on the same individual, are
more distant (as when in distinct flowers), the
organism is termed moncecious. Where the
organs occur on distinct individuals, it is
termed dioscism, a condition which is the rule
among the higher animals more than among
the mgher pl^ts. It is now recognised that
the sex of an embryonic organism is determined
by the condition of the parents, as regards
relative age, etc., by the quality and quantity
of food supplied to the female parent or larv»,
by temperature, and by other similar external
conditions. Abundant nourishment tends to
produce females; but it is difficult as yet to
arrive with certainty at any other law of
general application as to sex determination.
Among some worms, such as the Kotifera, and
some crustaceans, such as the cirripedes, the
male becomes degenerated into a mere append-
age, or complemental male,'’ borne by the
female, and a similar condition occurs in the
algal CEdogonium. Among insects the sexes are
most strongly contrasted by secondary sexual
characters, such as the smaller size, greater
activity, brighter colours, and sound-produc-
ing powers of the male; while among bees,
ants, and other Hymenoptera^ we may almost
be said to have more than two sexes. Among
mammals, offensive organs, such as horns and
tusks, and ornamental appendages, such as
manes and colour-patches, often mark the
males; but among birds the contrast of sex is
yet more striking in the generally gay plum-
age and nuptial song of the male. Numerous
subsidiary sex questions, such aa apogamy,
parthenogenesis, etc., are treated separately.
The advocacy of Charles Darwin gave import-
ance to his theory of Sexual Selection, accord-
ing to which the choice of a mate by the female
animal has had much to do with the evolution
of secondary sexual characters in the male,
suck as song, gay plumage, colour, wattles,
moustaches, etc. Alfred Knssel Wallace has
argued that this process is entirely controlled
by natural selection, while other biologists think
the part played by it in the origin of species
quite subordinate.

SfZtant is an instrument for measuring the
angular distance between two objects. The
principle underlying its action is illustrated
in the accompanying figure, i and h are two
mirrors perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Light from a celestial object, b, is re-
flected at I along i n, and again reflected at
H along H T, this direction being the same as
that of light from another object, p. If the
lines I and h be produced, they meet at r, s x
produced cuts p t at e, and i h is produced to
some point, o. The angular distance between p
and 8 is the angle x, and that between the two
mirrors is the angle p. It can be shown that
i; for E = 0 H B-H I Ba=2 O H P-2 HIP,
Binee m x s is bisected by x p and o H e by h p.
and pko b p— b x p .*. pasl b. In the actual
instrument the mirror h is fixed on the arm


I B, while X A is another fixed arm, making an
angle of 60® with i ». The mijfwsr h is there^
fore parallel to x a. The ate A h ineasureB 60®»
so that the mirror i is at its centre, and is
fixed to a movable radius i v having a vernier



at V. The mirror h is only silvered over ita
lower half, so that the object p is viewed
directly through its upper part. The instru-
ment IS held so that the object p is seen
directly through the telescope t, on the arm
I A. I V is then moved until the image of s
appears to touch p. The position of v is then
noted; this gives the angle via, which is
equal to h p i (since i a and h p are parallel)
and half s e p. It is usual to have the arc
A B graduated not in degrees, but in half-
degrees, each half-degree being marked at
double its value. Thus, if a v be really 20®, it
is marked 40® ; hence the readings give at once
the angular distance between p and s. The
mirror i is usually termed the index-glass,
and H the horizon-glass, because, in taking the
altitude of any object at sea, the horizon is
viewed directly through its upper part. This
instrument was devised by John Hadley (^1682-
1744), and it is usually known as Hadley’s
sextant. It is specially of use in making mea-
surements at sea, since the movement of the
ship has no effect on the coincidence of the
object and image. For measuring longitude
instruments giving an accuracy of a few
seconds are emploved, the radius being gener-
ally about twelve inches. "The circular arc of
the instrument being originally one-eighth of a
circumference,” says E. E. Anderson, "it was
called 'octant,' and as the double reflection
makes one degree on the arc represent two
degrees between the objects observed, the octant
was therefore a measure of ninety degrees, and
thus obtained the name quadrant. In the same
way, when Captain Campbell in 1767 first
proposed to extend the circular arc to one-
sixth of a circumference in order to be able
to measure up to 120 degrees, Hadley's in*
strument then became a sextant."



( 208 )




S«Kmli%r ''Im;


la Wkmim mm svispeGtea by
Afiitotte and ISieo^rAitiuii and mpxe
fully iMMsognised by rliny, tnaie wfi^feana being
mom or lees lamiliar witm tiie diTieioii of aezee
in tlm date-palm; but until tbe 17tli oeatury
mere difference in babit was often taken to in*
dicate sex, m in the lamiliar case of the so-
called Uiale and lady ferns. Clusius (1526-
1609), however, terms the staminate napaw the
male* and the carpellate the female. Even
Cffisalpinns (1519-1603) and Malpighi (1628-94),
who traced the development of the embryo,
seem ignorant of the function of the pollen.
Grew and Ray at least formed conjectures of
■^at we now know to be the truth ; but Lin-
heeus and Sachs attribute the demonstration
of sex in plants to Camerarius (1666-1721).
Further experimental confirmation was given
by Bradley (1717), Philip Miller (1761), and
LinnsBus assumed sexuality in making the
sexual organs the basis of his classification.
Kfilreuter (1783-1806) first studied the arti-
ficial production of hybrid plants, and Spren-
gel (1760-1816) detected the frequent occur-
rence of dichogamy and the importance of the
aid of insects in pollination. After Hhomas
Andrew Knight, Dean Herbert, and K. F.
Gartner had also shown that Nature abhors
perpetual self-fertilisation,” Charles Darwin
arrited at the conclusion that cross-fertilisa-
tion secures a stronger and more numerous
progeny. Schleiden in 1837 first pointed out
the general protrusion of pollen-tubes by the
pollen-grains and their passage into the
micropyle ; but not till 1846 was it clearly
shown by Amici that the e^g-cell is formed
in the embryo-sac before fertilisation. Among
cryptogams, though conjugation in Spiro^ra
was maintained by Vaucher to be sexual in
1808, and spermatozoids, observed in 1822, had
been declared by Unger in 1837 to be male
organs, mainly from their resemblance to those
of animalSj it was not till 1849 that Hofmeie-
ter, who did much also to show tho absence of
spermatozoids in the pollen-tube of the hieher
plants, gave a complete account of the ” alter-
nation of ^nerations” in the higher crypto-
gams and &e fundamental identity of all cases
of sexuality as consisting of the fertilisation of
a germ-cell by a sperm-cell. It seems that
some of the lowest plants (Protophyta) may be
destitute of sexuality; whilst in others more
highly ozonised, such ae some Saprolegnias
and the Basidiomycetes among Fun^, it has
been lost by a degeneration-process Known as
apogamy.

, StyoliellgSi a group, with its dependencies, of
eighty-nine islands in the Indian Ocean, 1,000
miles east of Zanzibar. They are of granitic
formation with encircling resefs of coral, and
rise steeply from the sea. The total area
amounts to 148^ square miles, Mah6. the
i»gest, occupying 66| square miles. Other
Mands are Praslin, SilhotiOtta, La 1^^
Cuneuse and F41icit4, while the dependent
islands comprise, among others, the AmiraiLteSt


Alphonse, Bijqutier, St* Francois, St. Pkfro,
the Oosmoledos, Astove, Assumption, the
Aldabras, Providence and Flat Island. The
vegetation is luxuriant, and though they are
only three or four degrees south of the equator,
the tropical heat is tempered by sea-^breezes,
and the climate is healtl^. An but half a
dozen are uninhabited. From 1742 to 1798
they belonged to France, but were conquered
by the British, and were un(|er the govern-
ment of Mauritius until 1888. They are now
administered by a Governor, with an Executive
Council of three members and a Legislative
Council of six members (three official and three
nominated unofficial). Almost every tropical
product can be raised, but oocoanuts and their
oil, with sperm-oil, tortoise-shell, vanilla, soap,
guano, salt fish, coffee and cacao are the chief
exports, the negro population being averse
from labour. Port Victoria, in Mabe, is the
chief harbour and the administrative centre.
Pop. (1901), 19,237.

Seymotirf Edward, 1st Earl of Hertford
and Duke or Somerset, the Protector, was
born about 1606, being the eldest surviving
son of Sir John Seymour (1476-1536), of Wolf
Hall, Wiltshire,
descended from a
companion of
William the Con-
queror, who de-
rived his name
from St. Maur-
sur-Loire, in
Touraine, France.

Edward was edu-
cated at Oxford
and then at Cam-
bridge. Before he
was twenty he
was employed in
military com-
mands in France
and held several
posts in the house-
hold of Henry
VIII., whose fa-
vour he enjoyed
in an exceptional
degree. In June,

1636, a week after his sister Jane’s marriage to the
king, he was created Viscount Beauchamp <5 Hacbe,
Somerset, within a month was appointed (fovernor
and Captain of Jersey, and in August became
Chancellor of North Wales. Though the queen’s
death might have been thought likely to
jeopardise his interests, it did not seem to
affect his influence with the king, who visited
him, along with Cromwell, at Wolf Hall and
deputed him to bring Anne of Cleves from
Calais to London. In 1641 he was made E^ht
of the Garter and in the following year Wai>
den of the Scottish Marches. In 1644 he was
ordered to proclaim Henry guardian of the
infant Mary, Queen of Scots, and undertook an
expedition against Scotland which had con-


e Seymours claimed to be



XDWABD SEYMOdB, DUKB OF
S0MBB6ET.





SifWiWM




( 209 }


ioluded All wiDi Fiaii<»ev Be liarrMi

Che 8(»itdi<«{i#teni ^itnttee a&4 8a<^ed £di&*
burgh, but only succeeded in confirming l^e
Scots^ friendship with France and still further
embittering their feelings towards England.
In the beginning of 1546 he was in charge of
operations in France and a dashing sally from
Mulogne, in which he routed a force twice as
numerous as his own, brought him great credit.
A serious English reverse at Ancrum Moor,
in Roxburghshire, induced Henry to summon
Seymour to lead another invasion of Scotland.
He again ravaged the Borders and was savage
enou^ to destroy the beautiful Border abbess,
whoee glorious ruins still move the admiration
of all oeholders. On Henry's death in 1647
the struggle between the Duke of Norfolk
and himself for power during the minority of
Edward VI. ended in his favour and he was
named Protector with almost regal authority.
He was appointed High Steward for the Coro-
nation, Treasurer for the Exchequer, and Earl
Marshal, and was, besides, created Baron Sey-
mour of Hachc and (February 16th, 1547) Duke
of Somerset. He at once devoted himself to
drastic religious reforms on Protestant lines,
a policy which he pursued far too energetically
and which ended in a good deal of popular
odium, though his sincerity was unimpeach-
able and not that of a mere partisan. One
of his State dreams was the marriage of the
young king and the young Queen of Scots, but
here again his impetuosity ruined the project,
for though he defeated the Soots signally at
Pinkie (September 10th, 1547) — th©^ last battle
between England and Scotland as independent
kingdoms— he naturally failed to conciliate
them, and the treaty for her marriage with
the Dauphin, concluded in 1548, put the
finishing touch to a wise and statesmanlike
scheme. His failure to save his brother Thomas,
Baron Seymour of Sudeley, who had married
Catherine Parr, also increased the disfavour
in 'v^ich he was now being held. As often
happens in such circumstances, national diffi-
culties crowded upon him at this juncture.
The Scots rapidly regained all their captured
castles ; the French were making headway, and
war with France was ^aiu inevitable; econo-
mic distress provoked Robert Ket's and other
rebellions, and the adherents of the “old re-
ligion*' fanned the flames of general discon-
tent. Somerset's enemies caballed against
him, and in October, 1649, he was sent to the
Tower charged with abuse of power. Complete
submission saved him for the moment and it
even seemed as if he might regain his position.
But failure of health in^ptember, 1561, ^en
he was concerting the downfall of his rivals,
gave them the opportunity to mature counter-
plans of their own and he was again placed in
the 'I\)wer. He was tried for treason-felony on
Deoeihber 1st, 1551, in Westminster Hall. The
case for treason collapsed, but he was con-
demned for felony and sentenced to death. He
was executed on Tower Hill, London, on
Jaauai^ 22nd, 1552. A man of pure morals,

206— N.E.


earnest In his reli|fious convictious, of strong
character, an able general and n statesman m
lofty alms, he was yet inordifiiiily ambitious,
greedy of money, power and possessions, and
unskilled in the handling of men.

Ssymo'iiri Sib Edwabp, Speaker of the House
of Commons, was bom in 1633 and entered
Parliament in 1661 as member for Gloucester.
He soon proved himeelf a Capable administra-
tor, among the posts he filled being that of
Treasurer of the Navy. On February 18th,
1673, he was elected Speaker, but at first
gave umbrage by alleged partisanship with the
^urt. Latterly by his knowledge of the Con-
stitution and 1ns business aptitude he won the
respect of the House, though ho always com-
ported himself with extraordinary dignity. In
March, 1679, he was returned for Devonshire,
and being again unanimously chosen Speaker,
his selection was disallowed by the King, to
whom he was no longer acceptable, an inter-
ference with their rights that the Commons
hotly resented. As a private member he was
concerned for the condition of the Protestant
religion in view of the accession of James II.,
but opposed the Exclusion Bill, urged the
Duke of York to change his Church, and at
length proposed that, while James should wear
the crown, William of Orange should act as
Regent. In 1685 he succeeded to his title, be-
coming fourth baronet. He was in sympathy
with tne Revolution and framed the Associa-
tion to secure the religion, laws and liberties
of the people in a free Parliament. In March,
1692, he became a Lord of the Treasury with
a seat in the Cabinet, but lost his place when
the Whigs took office in 1694. Soon afterwards
he was rejected at Exeter, and had to seek
shelter in the small borough of Totnes, but
was again elected for Exeter in 1698. Louis
XIV.'s patronage of the Pretender drove Sey-
mour and other Tories into the Dutch camp,
and he supported the military programme of
William. lh.e succession of Anne improved
his prospects, and, in April, 1702, he was made
Comptroller of the Royal Household, and, in
May, Ranger of Windsor ^Forest. His hos-
tility to the Duke of Marlborough, however,
wag- fatal to further advance, and when the
Whigs got the upper hand his influence was
extinguished. He died at his seat of Maiden
Bradley, Wiltshire, on February 17th, 1708.

Saymonry Fredrbick Beauchamp Paget,
Lobd Alcestbb, Admiral, was born in London
on April 12th, 1821, and educated at Eton. H©
entered the navy in 1834 and rose in various
stages from mate on the Britannia to com-
mander in 1847. In 1862 he volunteered for
service in Burma, in 1853 was O'n the North
American and West Indian station, and in
1854 was sent to the White Sea under Sir
Erasmus Ommaney. In 1853 he took the
Meteor floating battery to the Crimea and
brought it back to Portsmouth next year, two
adroit feats of seamanship. He commanded
for the following six years on the Australian




i%lQ)


MvwmatB


station, bein^ at tlie bead of the naval brigade
in the Maori war. In 1870 he was pomoted
rear«adiniral and from 1872 to 1874 was one of
the Lords of the Admiralty. He commanded
the Channel Fleet from 1874 to 1877, was made
vice-admiral in 1876, and created K.C.B. in



LORD ALCESIKR.


(Photo: J. Madardy, Osweatry.)

1877. As commander-in-chief in the Mediter-
ranean he was entrusted, in 1880, with the de-
monstration off the coast of Albania, conse-
quent on the refusal of Turkey to cede Dul-
cigno to Montenegro. On the compliance of
the Porte, Sevmour received the G.C.B. (1881).
On July 11th, 1882, he conducted the bom-
bardment of the forts at Alexandria and the
later coast operations in the Egyptian war,
for his services in which he was created Lord
Alcester. From 1883 to 1886 he served once
more as an Admiralty Lord, retired in 1886,
and died in London on March 30th, 1895.

Seymour, Jane, third Queen of Henry VIII.,
was the eldest of the eight children of Sir
John Seymour, of Wolf Hall, Savernake, Wilt-
shire, where she was born about 1509. She
was a gentle, accomplished girl, not remark-
able for beauty, and was attached as lady-in-
waiting to Catherine of Aragon, and after-
wards to Anne Boleyn. From the end of 1635
the king paid her marked attention, but Jane
was able to keep the monarch’s attachment
within the bounds of propriety, though she
had to remind him that her honour was her
fortune. On May 20th, the day following
Anne’s execution, Jane went secretly to Hamp-
ton Court and was formally betrothed to
Henry, the marriage being privately celebrated
in London on May 30th, 1536. The king
treated her with considerable affection, but
once, when she begged him to restore the dis-
solwd abbeys, he bade her mind her own
business if she would avoid her predecessor’s
fate-^a hint the queen could not afford to
despise. On the l2tlh of October, 1537, she was
connned at Hampton Court of a son, after-
wards Edward VI., but complications setting in
ahe died twelve days afterwards. She was
buried with great pomp in the choir of St.


fltyinmr.;


Oeorge’s Chapel, Windsor, where in his turn
Henry was laid beside her.

SejrmouTf Bobebt, artist, was bom In London
about 1800. His father died before his birth
and his mother was too poor to ^ve him more
than a very ordinary education. He was appren*
ticed to a pattern draughtsman of Smithfield,
but having taught himeelf to draw and paint,
took to the career of an artist when his time
was out. In 1822 he was represented at the
Royal Academy, but he never had another pic-
ture hung there. Turning to the illustration
of periodicals and books, he showed equal
facility and versatility. His work suffering
greatly at the hands of the inferior engravers
to whom it was commonly entrusted, he
directed his attention to etching and pro-
duced many plates. He afterwards adopted
the method of lithography, and between both
processes attained to an enormous output.
Excepting for a period of four months, he was
illustrator of Figaro in London from 1831 till
his death. His work for other publications was
not interrupted, however, and his 36 etchings
for Hervey^s Booh of Christmas (183^ were
probably his best work in that line. Having
illustrated for Chapman and Hall The Squib
Annual (1835-6), he suggested a series of Cock-
ney sporting plates to be issued in monthly
parts with letterpress. Hall commissioned
Charles Dickens to supply the text and in
this way was begun the immortal Paj^ers
of the Pickwick Club. Seymour was never
very tolerant of criticism (he had had to
put up with a good deal of uninformed criti-
cism in his career at various times), and, find-



2LLUSTBATION BY ROBERT SEYMOUR.


ing Dickens’s dictation, though kindly meant
and expressed, distasteful, withdrew from the
enterprise after executing the plates for the
second part. The unfortunate man’s nerves
were completely unstrung and he shot himself
in London on April 20th, 1836.

SeymoTirr Thomas, Babon Setmoub of
SuDBMiT, fourth eon of Sir John Seymour, of
Wolf Hall, Wiltshire, was bom al^ut 1508.
He was employed on State affairs in various
capacities dunng several years and, on the




( an )


■glfftlitCI,


outbraak of war between England and Spain
and also with France, was made Marabal of
tbe English army in the Netherlands, being
second in command to Sir John Wallop (1543).
For his services he was appointed in 1544 Mas-
ter of the Ordnance for fife and became ad-
miral of the fleet in October of the same year.
In 1545 he was entrusted with the defence of
the Kent coast and the Strait of Dover. By
Henry VIII.'s desire, he was created Baron
Seymour of Sudeley and Lord High Admiral
a few weeks after the king's death. He soon
afterwards began to intrigue against his elder
brother, the Protector Somerset, whom he
seriously annoyed by marrying Catherine Parr,
widow of Henry VlII., although slie was an
old flame of his. He abused his position as
Lord High Admiral, partly by encouraging
privateering in the English Channel and partly
by utilising his naval strength to forward his
own ends. In 1648 he suffered several defeats
off the shores of Scotland, and, on his return
to London, made overtures for the hand of
Elizabeth, whom he had treated with undue
familiarity until Catherine removed her from
his influence. His underhand conduct at last
precipitated his ruin. He was arrested in
his house near Temple Bar on January 17th,
1549, and sent to the Tower. A Bill of at-
tainder passed both Houses, and he was be-
headed on Tower Hill on March 20th, 1549.
He was a capable soldier, courageous and of
handsome appearance, but ambitious, unscru-
pulous, overbearing and profligate.

S6yne-8Tir-Mer« La, a town of the depart-
ment of Var, France, 4 miles S.W. of Toulon.
It is an important shipbuilding centre, the
yards being amongst the oest in Europe. Other
industries include iron-founding and fisheries.
Pop. (1901), 21,002.

SfaZf a seaport of Tunis, Africa, 70 miles N.N.E.
of Gabes. It occupies the site of the ancient
Taphrura and is sometimes styled the City of
Cucumbers. It was captured in the 12th
century by the Sicilians and occupied by the
Spaniards for a short time in the 16th cen-
tury. During the French conquest of Tunis
in 1881, the town was bombarded. It consists
of three q^uarters — the European in the south,
the French camp in the north, and the Arab
town in the centre. The country houses, villas,
orchards and gardens of the prosperous mer-
chants occupy eligible sitee for several miles
around on the north and west. Dates, al-
monds, grapes, figs, peaches, olives (in the
Middle Ages it was noted for its great export
of olive oil), and, in wet years, melons and
cucumbers grow profusely. * A brisk trade is
done in textiles, fruit, vegetables, oil, soda,
essences, esparto grass, wool, sponges and pista-
chio nuts. It is the seat of a bishopric and
has numerous educational establishments. Pop,
(estimated), 60,000.

Bforxay a celebrated Italian family, whioh
controlled the destinies of Milan for a hundred


year®, was founded by Jaooi^o Svobza (1369-
1424), the son of a farmer at Cloftignola, in the
Homagna, who became a iamMis condoUiere,
and died constable to Joanna II. of Naples.
His real name was Muzio Attendolo, which he
abandoned for that of Sforza (“stormer”).
Feakcssco Sfobza (1401-66), his natural son,
an able tactician and general, at first supported
the Duke of Milan against the Venetians and
Florentines, but afterwards supported the lat-
ter in their struggle with the Milanese. In
1441, however, he married the Duke's only
daughter, and on his death in 1447 laid claim
to the duchy, which he obtained after three
years' hard fighting. Meanwhile he had
wrested the March of Ancona from the P<W
(1434), and yielded it to him again (1447). He
was a wise ruler and a patron of learning, and
was much beloved by the Milanese. Lodovico
Maria Sforza, “The Moor” (1451-drca 1608),
third son of the preceding, succeeded his
brother Galeazzo (Duke in 1466; assassinated
1476), and his nephew Giovanni (Galeazzo, the
latter of whom he probably poisoned (1494).
Whilst Hegent, in 1491, he had incited Cnarles
VIII. of France to invade Italy and attack
Naples, but ho now became alarmed at the
success of the French, and ioined the league by
which Charles was expelled. In 1499 the
Milanese were conquered by Louis XII., and
in 15(X) Lodovico was carried captive to
France, where he passed the remainder of his
life. His son Massimiliano — who, with his
brother, had been sent to Germany — was re-
called to Milan hy the Swiss, who had de-
feated Louis XII. in 1512. After the battle
of Melegnano (Marignano), however, he sub-
mitted to Francis I. of France (October, 1516).
Stupid and indolent, the loss of power did not
disturb him, and he was quite content to pass
the rest of his existence on the estates which
had been granted to him in France. He died
in Paris in 1630. His brother Francesco
Maria (1492-1535) was restored to the duchy
upon the defeat of Francis I. at Bicocca in
1522. Having joined the Holy League against
Charles V., he was compelled to submit to the
conditions laid down by the victorious Em-
eror. His death ended the dynasty of the
folzas.

Sg^aflELtOp or Graffito, from an Italian word
meaning “to scribble” or “to scratch,” is
used in an antiquarian and an aesthetic sense.
Archaeologically, it is applied to those in-
stances which have been preserved of an
ancient custom that has its m^ern counterpart
(which, however, in these days is an abuse and
nuisance and inexcusable), in whioh a wall*
pillar, tablet, or other surface was covered with
scribbles and scratches. They partook some-
times of the nature of crude sketches, some-
times they consisted of sentences and words,
sometimes of meaningless lines, possibly an at-
tempt at design or decoration. In some cases
they have revealed facts of historical interest.
Artistically, it indicates a species of decora-



( 212 )




tion, executed by coTering a surface, as of
plaster, stucco, or clay, of ouo polout with a
ihiaoisu coating of a like material iu another
colour, and then forming designs in tho o<4our
of the hidden substance by scratching through
the outer coat (while it is soft ; if dry it will
be liable to chip) with a suitable tool. Thus,
the hgnre of a lotus, treated conventioually,
might be shown in red (the concealed colour)
on a surface of blue (the superimposed colour)
and, of course, mucn more elaborate effects
might be obtained.

SliaAf a common name, with or without an
epithet^ for several fishes of the Herring family,
generally ranked with the Herring, but some-
times made a separate genus. They are marine
fisn, ascending rivers to spawn, depositing their
eggs on the bottom, in form and general
appearance they resemble Herrings, but are of
larger size, two feet being a usual length,
though specimens four feet long are bv no
means unknown. Their flesh is valued for
food. The Common or Allice Shad {€, alosa)
frequents the British coasts and is found in
the Mediterranean, other European waters, and
in the estuaries of some of the larger rivers.
In the Severn it is sometimes taken as high
up as Worcester and, in any case, the flavour
or the fish is said to be improved by a fluviatilo
habitat for a period. At sea it is occasionally
caught on lines with a mackerel bait. The
Twaite Shad (C. finta) is abundant round
British coasts, and is found in the Thames.
It enters the English streams in May and
goes down to the sea in July. It also occurs
in the Nile. Its ordiiia^ length is from
twelve to sixteen inches. The American Shad
{C. sapidissima), with an average weight of
4 or 5 lbs., is a valuable food-flan. The Her-
ring which is restricted to the Caspian
{Olupea caspia) is intermediate between the
Herrings and the Shads.

Shaddock ( Citnis decuvuma), so called from
Captain Shaddock, who, at the beginning of
the 18th century, introduced the shrub into
the West Indies from China. Like all the
orange tribe, it has winged petioles to its
large leaves; its shoots are downy, and its
smooth, pale yellow, thick-rinded fruit some-
times reaches 20 lbs. in weight. Large speci-
mens are sold in London as pomeloes; small
ones, as forbidden fruit.

Shadow. When light falls upon an opaque
body, it cannot traveree the space behind that
body, and hence a region of darkness is pro-
duced, or the body is said to cast a shadow.
If the light came from an absolute point, a
projection of the object would be cast upon
any surface behind it, the form of the pro-
jection depending on the shape of the surface
and its position with respect to the object and
the light. Usually the light does not eman-
ate from a point, but the source of light has
measurable size; in this case each point of
light forms its own shadow and the final re-


sult is a number of overlapping ahadewB, tiie
darkest region being that where most over-
lapping taxes place, and the lightest where
least overlapping occurs. A shadow looks
darker or lighter according as much or little
extraneous Bght is about^ its depth being
merely estimated by contrast. If the surface
receiving the shadow be neat the object, a
deeper &adow is obtained than when it is far
away, owing to the fact that the rays of light
which would be primarily intercepted by the
object can, by reflection from other surfaebs,
etc., find their way into the otherwise dark
region, if space enough be allowed for this be-
haviour.

Bkadwell, Thom as, dramatist and poet laureate,
was born at Broomhill, Weeting, Norfolk, in
1640 or 1642. He was educated at home, the
Grammar School of Bury St, Edmunds, and,
for a time, at Gains College, Cambridge. After
a season of travel on the Continent he settled
in London and began to write for the stage,
modelling himself, as he said, on Ben Jonson.
His first play was The Sullen Lovers (1668),
and among its successors were The Humourists
(1670), The Miser (1671), Epsom (1672),

one of his best and coarsest. The Enchanted
Island (1673), an opera constructed out of
The Tempest, Timon of Athens (1678), a re-
vision of Shakespeare ^s drama, The True
Widow (1678 or 1679), and The Lancashire
Witches (1681). For several years Shadwell had
been on more or less friendly terms with John
Drydcn, but growing coolness ended in rup-
ture and in 1682 he was ridiculed by Dryden
as MTlecknoe in his satire of that name, and
as Og in the second part of Absalom and
Achitophel. The quarrel was caused by the
scurrilous tone of The Medal of John Bayes
(written by Shadwell as a counterblast to
Absalom and Achitophel and The Medal)t
which satirised the opponents of the Court
party. After a long spell Shadwell produced
The Squire of Alsatia (1688), one of nis most
successful plays, and when Dryden lost the
laureateship at the Eevolution Shadwell, by
the irony of fate and the paucity of ^^ig
poets, became his successor. In 1689 his comedy
of Bury Fair appeared, in 1690 the Amorous
Bigot, and in 1691 The Scowrers. He died
suddenly in London on November 19th, 1692.

Shaftesburyi or Shaston, a town of Dorsot-
ehire, England, 28 miles N.N.E. of Dorchester.
It is a place of remote antiquity, being the
Mount Palladur or Caer Sceaft of the Britons,
in allusion to its situation, for the town is
built on high ground and the approach is steep.
It was also the site of a Boman station. On
the gK>und occupied by a pagan temple Alfred
the Great raisea a Benedictine abbey in 888.
The position of the abbey is definitely afleer-
tainea, though hardly any ruins remain. Ed-
ward the Martyr, who was stabbed to death
at Corfc Castle by his mother-in-law Klfrida
in 978, was buried in the abbey. The prin-
cipal structures are St. Peter*- Church, dating



SluifiMliiursr.


(213 )


SbrnSMbmej.


from the 16fh century; Holy Trinity Chnrt^,
the churchyard of which is noted for its
lime-tree avenues; the town hall; Temperance
Hall; Literary Institution; the Westminster
Memorial Cottage Hospital, opened in 1674
to the memory of the 2nd Marquis of West-
minster, and the market-house, erected by the
Marquis of Westminster. The trade of the
town ooneists chiefly in dairy nroduce, especi-
ally cheese and butter, the produce of the rich
grazing lands in the vicinity. Shaftesbury gave
the title of Earl to the family of Anthony
Ashley Cooper. Pop. (1901), 2,027.

Shaftesbury^ Anthony Ashley Cooper,
1st Earl of, statesman, was the son of Sir
John Cooper, of Eockborne, in Hampshire, and



ANtnOKY ASHLEY COOPER, IST EARL OF SHAFTESBURY,


was born at Wimborne St. Giles, Dorsetshire,
on July 22nd, 1621. After studying at Exeter
College, Oxford, he entered Parliament as
member for Tewkesbury in 1640. When the
Civil War broke out, he at first supported
the Royal cause, but in 1644 went over to the
Parliament, and was given the command of
the troops in Dorsetshire. He sat for Wilt-
shire in the Barebones and first Protectorate
Parliaments, but was excluded by Cromwell
from that which met in 1656. He thereu^n
joined the Opposition, and afterwards took a
leading part m effecting the Restoration, being
one of the twelve commissioners sent to Breda
to invite Charles II. to return, and being
created Baron Ashley of Wimborne St. Giles
in recognition of his eervioes (1661). In the
legislation which followed he was usually to be
found on the side of toleration and against
persecution. He must be held in some measure
responsible for the misdeeds of the Cabal
Ministry (1667-73), although he endeavoured
to prevent the ‘‘stop of the exchequer**
ana probablv wished to maintain the IViple


Alliance. In 1672 he was mad^ Bari of Shaftes-
bury and Lord Chancellor, signalising himself
in 1673 by a speech advocating war against Hol-
land (‘'Delenaa est Carthago ! ” ho vehemently
exclaimed), as a formidable obstacle to the com^
mercial supremacy of Great Britain. But the
success of the Teat Bill in the following year
proved fatal to the Cabal. He now put him-
self forward as the champion of popular rights,
and began to intrigue with Monmouth. In
consequence of his hostility to the prorogation
of Parliament in 1677 he was sent to the
Tower, where he remained for a year. His
conduct during the excitement occasioned by
the Popish luot (1678-80) marks him as a
reckless and shameless demagogue. Tet Eng-
land owes him a debt of ^atitude for the
Habeae Corpus Act, passed after his return to
power as President of the Council in 1679. He
only held office six months, for his attempt to
impeach the Duke of York broke down, and,
after his appearance at the Oxford Parliament
with an armed body of followers, h© was again
lodged in the Tower (1681). The bill charging
him with high treason was thrown out by the
Middlesex Grand Jury, but he had been sink-
ing deeper and deeper into intrigue, and in
November, 1682, he prudently fled to Amster-
dam, where he was received with the bitter
gibe, Nondum est deleta Carthago.” His
health was in a precarious condition by now
and he died in Amsterdam on January 21st,
1683, and was buried at Wimborne St. Giles.
Shaftesbury is the Achitophel of John Dryden*s
satire.

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper,
3rd Earl of, philosopher, grandson of the let
Earl, was born at Exeter House, in London, on
Februa^ 26th, 1671, and educated privately,
under John Locke and Elizabeth Birch, and
at Winchester, where he was unhappy owing
to th© persecution of his schoolmates. After
duly performing the grand tour he entered
Parliament as Whig member for Poole G^96),
but three years later the state of his nealtn
forced him to abandon politics. During the
reinainder of his blameless career, which was
early cut short by consumption, he led th©
easy-going life of an affluent literary philo^
pher. He died at Naples, whither he had
proceeded to mitigate his complaint, on Feb-
ruary 4th, 1713, and was buried at St,
Giles's, Dorsetshire. The leading idea in his
Oharacttristics of Men^ Manners, Opinions,
and Times (1711) is that the right order of
the universe is maintained by means of a due
balance between the various parts of which it
is composed. So it is also with the individual,
who is the subject of various passions, appe-
tites, and affections, and human society holds
a middle place between th© two, and is regu-
lated by the eame law. Thus, for Shaftesbury,
morality seems to have occupi^ much the same
sphere as the msthetic feelings. Whatever
transgresses the law- of the universe is repug-
nant to the “moral sense** or “taste,** and



Sliftftoibiurjr.


(214)


this is the origin and sanction of our notions of
right and wrong.

Shailasbnryi Anthony Ashley Coopke, 7th
Ea»L of, philanthropist, was born in London
on April 28th, 1801,
and educated at
Harrow and Christ
Church, Oxford.
His parliamentary
career began in 1826,
when he was elected
Conservative mem-
ber for Woodstock ;
he afterwards repre-
sented Dorchester
(18 3 0-1), Dorset-
shire (1883-46), and
Bath (1847-51), and
held several Govern-
ment offices prior
to his succession to
the earldom in 1851.
In 1862 he was
made Knight of the
(Photo : Russell) Garter. Soon after

his entrance into
Parliament he showed himself a vigorous opponent
of laissez faire, and his unwearied efforts on behalf
of the labouring population at last bore fruit in the
Act forbidding the employment in mines of women
and of boys under thirteen (1842), while his
name is pre-eminently associated with factory
legislation. Another measure, which realised
one of his earliest hopes, was the Ten Hours'
Bill of 1847. Other objects which engaged
his active sympathy were the protection of
chimney-sweepers’ apprentices, in whose favour
he obtained an Act of Parliament, the estab-
lishment of ragged schools, and the erection of
sanitary dwellings for the poor. He died at
Folkestone on (October Ist, 1885. In his re-
ligious views Lord Shaftesbury was an ardent
Evangelical. He warmly supported the British
and Foreign Bible Society, the London City
Mission, the Bagged School Union, of which
he was President for more than forty years,
the Young Men’s Christian Association, and
other institutions of a similar character. By
marriage he was the stepson-in-law of Lord
Palmerston, who had such implicit confidence
in his judgment in such matters that he had
practically the bestowal of all the Church
patronage that fell to the dispoeal of the more
worldly-minded statesman. Lord Shaftesbury
was, in the highest sense, a benefactor of his
kind. He conquered the caste feeling of his
order to a surprising degree and allowed the
claims of humanity to assert themselves to a
very large extent. Sympathy was with him
no mere abstraction or catch-phrase, and the
influence of personal leadership and contact
was the unfailing hall-mark of hie philan-
thropy. Given a cause of the righteousness of
which he was personally convinced, he never
hesitated to make it hk own. In one sphere
of usefulness he partially outlived his reputa-


tion. He did not take at all kindly to the
Education Act of 1870, which, in the long
run, led to the closing of several ragged
schools, the languid existence of some of vmich
collapsed before the vigorous life of the new
board schools. He occasionally permitted him-
self to use language about the School Board of
Loudon which was not justified by the facts.
But there can be no question, on a survey of
his noble career, that had he been a younger
man when the great change came about, he
would have taken a wider and wiser view of
the entirely beneficial effects of national com-
pulsory education.

Shag. [Cormorant.]

Shagreeiiy (l) tbe prepared skin of the shark
and other fishes of the same order which was
at one time used as a covering for watch and
instrument cases, etc. In this sense the word
may also denote the unprepared skin. (2) A
kind of leather made from the skin of the
horse, the ass, and other animals. Whilst the
skin is still moist and soft, a seed belonging
to the genus Chenopodium is forced down upon
it, so that it becomes embedded in the surface.
As soon as the skin is dry, the seeds are re-
moved, and the surface is pared down almost
to the level of the cavities they filled. The
skin is then soaked in water, the result being
that the cavities swell up and produce a
blotched or granular appearance. Ihe leather
is frequently dyed with the green resulting
from the action of sal ammoniac on copper fil-
ings, but it will take ot^her colours as weU.

Shah, the proper title of the king in Persia,
Afghanistan, and other states of Southern and
Central Asia. A son of the king may also
claim the title. In Persia the monarch is
frequently designated Padishah (Great Shah;
Shan-in-Shah), a title which in Europe, how-
ever, is more commonly bestowed on the
Sultan of Turkey and, in India, was given to
the Great Mogul and is now applied to the
sovereign of the United Elingdom as Emperor
of India.

Shahabad, a district of Bengal, India, forming
the south-western portion of the Patna Divi-
sion and occupying tho angle formed by the
junction of the Son and Ganges. It covers an
area of 4,365 square miles, of which the north-
ern portion, two-thirds of the whole, is low-
lying and fertile, while the southern is part of
tlie Kaimur Hills, a branch of the vindhya
range. Besides the boundary-rivers already
named, the principal streams are the Karam-
nasa, Dhoba and Dargauti. The fauna in-
cludes the tiger, bear, leopard, deer, wild boar,
jackal, hyaena, fox, nylghai and several game
birds. Limestone and sandstone are met with
in quantities, and alum, slate and iron occur.
Rice is the staple crop, but wheat, barley,
maize, peas, lentils, oil-seeds, various veget-
ables, cotton, hemp, jute, poppy, sugar-cane,
betel, tobaooo, indigo and safflower are culti-
vated. The manufactures include sugar, paper.






(216)


SIlaJrespMre.


ealtpetve, blankets, cotton and braes utensils.
Arrab (50,000), the capital, was the scene of one
of the most stirring episodes of the Mutiny
of 1867. Pop. (1901), 1,963,762.

Shall- Jahaa (d. 1666), the fifth emperor of
the Mogul djrnasty, succeeded his father Jahan-
gir, at Delhi, in 1627. After two campaigns
against the princes of the Deccan, which re-
sulted in an extension of his dominions, and
some unsuccessful efiorts to regain Kandahar
from the Persians, he fell into the hands of his
rebellious son, Aurungzebe, and was imprisoned
in the citadel of Agra, where he remained till
his death. He was accounted a wise and just
ruler. He was the founder of the present city
of Delhi (still known to its Mohammedan in-
habitants ao Jahanabad), where he set up the
famous peacock throne, and such buildings as
the magnificent Taj Mahal (the mausoleum of
his favourite wife % whose side he was laid),
the Palace and Pearl Mosque, all three in Agra,
attest his love for architectural display.

ShahjaJiaxiVTirf a district in the North-West
Provinces, India, forming the most easterly
portion of the Rohilkhand Division, occupjring
an area of 1,745 square miles. It runs in a
north-easterly direction from the Ganges to the
Himalaya, part of the territory being malarial,
partly jungle, and partly under cultivation.
The principal rivers are the Gumti, Khanaut,
Deoha, Garra and Ramganga. The wild beasts
include the tiger, lynx, leopard, wild hog, deer,
antelope, and nylghai, besides large numbers
of game birds. Ine principal crops are rice,
cotton, wheat, barley, oats, oil-seeds, pulse,
vetch, peas, sugar-cane, and various vegetables.
The only mineral is nodular limestone, which
is either burned for lime or used for road
metal. Sugar and rum are the chief manu-
factures. fte district was a hotbed of mutiny
in 1857. The capital Shahjahanpur (75,662) was
founded in 1647, and named after the Emperor
Shah-Jahan. Pop, (1901), 921,624.

ShairPv John Campbell, man of letters, was
born at Houston, in Linlithgowshire, Scotland,
on July 30th, 1819, and educated at Edinburgh
Academy and Glasgow University, whence he
proceeded as Snell exhibitioner to Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford. From 1846 to 1856 he was assist-
ant-master at Rugby, then conducted for a few
months the Greek classes at Glasgow, was
assistant-professor of Latin at St. Andrews
from 1857 to 1861, when he was appointed to
the professorship, and was elected principal
of the United College of St. Salvator and St.
Leonard in 1868. From 1877 to his death (at
Ormsay in Argyllshire on September iSth,
1885) he was professor of poetry at Oxford.
His works include a volume of poems entitled
Mlmahoe (1864), Studies in Poetry and Philosophy
(1868), Culture and Religion (1870), Aspects ^
Poetry (1881), and Rums in the English Men of
ZeUers series (1879), in the last of which he was
iingularly unhappy in his estimate of the poet.


Of his short pieces, Bhairp’s "Bush Aboon
Traquair ” bids fair, as it deserves, to live.

Shakers, the name usually given to the "United
Society of Believers in ChrisPs Second Ap-
pearing," a sect founded by Ann Lee (1736-84),
a native of Manchester. Jan© Wardley, a
tailor's wife, who belonged to the Society of
Friende, declared she had received a Divine
message announcing that Christ's second com-
ing was about to take place, and that Ho
would assume the form of a woman. Ann Lee
applied this prophecy to herself, being honoured
with a vision of Jesus whilst she was in gaol
in 1770 for Sabbath-breaking, and gained a few
converts besides Jane Wamley and her hus-
band. They were called Shakers, owing to the
extravagant gestures they adopted when en-
gaged in worship. In consequence of the per-
secution to which they were subjected, Ann
sailed with her followers to America in 1774,
and formed a settlement at Niskayuna (now
Watervliet), near Albany, New lork. The
headquarters of the society, which adopted
communistic ideas, combined with strict celi-
bacy, was afterwards fixed at New Lebanon.
The Shaker settlements comprise both men and
women, under the direction of an elder and an
elderess. In addition to their own peculiar
doctrines regarding marriage and a female in-
carnation, they share many of the views held
by the Quakers. They are a quiet, industrious
people, famed for their agricultural skill and
their knowledge of medicinal herbs. The Eng-
lish Shakers, or the People of God, owed their
origin to Mary Anne Girling (1827-86), who
became a prey to the same kind of delusions
as Ann Lee. ^ey formed a settlement in the
New Forest, where they suffered great priva-
tions, but after the death of Mrs, Girling,
whom they regarded as immortal, the com-
munity was dissolved.

Shakespeare, William, poet and dramatist,
the world’s greatest playwright, was bom at
Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire, England, In
April (in all likelihood on April 23 Old Style),
1564. His father, John Shakespeare, a fellmonger
apd glover, who in 1668 became high-bailiff of
Stratford, had married in 1657 Mary Arden,
daughter of a well-to-do farmer. William Shake-
speare was probably educated at the Stratfetd
free school, where he would have learnt some
Latin and possibly the rudiments of Greek. When
he was about fourteen years old his father fell
into pecuniary troubles. There is a tradition that
the boy became a butcher’s apprentice ; it has been
conjectured that he was also for a time in an at-
torney's office, the legal allusions in his writings
being unusually numerous and accurate. At tne
age of eighteen and a half he was married to
Anne Hathaway, daughter of a yeoman of Sbot-
tery, in the parish of Stratford; she was eight
years older than her husband. A daughter, named
Susanna, was baptized on May 26tb, 1583. His
other children were twins, Hamnet and Judith
(baptized February 2nd, 1585); Hamnet died in



fllialBMipMNl.


( m )


hit twelfth year ; Sosanna and Jadith anrvjived
their father. The tradition that Shakespeare
qnitted Stratford in consequence of trouble which
followed a deer-stealing expedition in the grounds
of Sir Thomas Lucy, of Charloote, is probably
based oh fact. The date is perhaps 1586 or 1587.
It is said that his first employment in London



WJLLIAM BUAXKSPKAKI (OBOESHOUT'b PORTBAIT).

{Photo : yr. Baker, Birmingham.)


was that of holding horses at the theatre door;
but the statement cannot be proved. We lose
sight of him until 1692, when he is referred to in
a hostile spirit, as an actor and playwright, by
Eobert Greene (1660-92), the dramatist, in the
pamphlet Oreene*8 Groaimorth of Wit. Henry
Chettle, the editor of Greene’s deathbed pamphlet,
apologizes for the attack, and speaks of Shake-
speare’s “grace of writing” and “uprightness of
dealing,” As an actor Shakespeare never became
eminent ; he is said to have played the ghost in
his own Hamlet, Old Adam in As Ton Like It, and
Old Knowell in Jonson’s Lvery Man in his Humour.
In 1693 appeared his narrative poem Venus and
Adonis, dedicated as the “ first heir of his inven-
tion” to the Earl of Southampton, his friend and
patron. It was followed in 1694 by The Rape of
lAtcreoe. Both poems were highly popular; the
earlier is remarkable for its pictures of country
life; the latter for its sympathy with Homan
character ; the Venus is a study of feminine passion
and boyish coldness ; the Luereee represents wifely
chastity and fidelity opposed by the treason and
violence of an evil man. Shakespeare's first work


as a dramatic writer (about 1689^0) was probably
that of rehandling and fitting to the stage pieces
by earlier dramatists. Titus Andronkm may have
been retouched by him, and it is believed that he
made additions (as Act ii. so. 4) to the Mrst Part
of Henry VI. In the Second and Thwd Parts of
Henry VI. he revised the work of Greene and
perhaps Christopher Marlowe (1564-93), possibly
with Marlowe's assistance. £mg Hich^ III.
shows the influence of Marlowe, though his hand
is not present in the work. In the prose passages
of the early comedies he was influenced by Jemn
Lyly (1663-1606). Love's Lahoui^s Lost satirises
contemporary affectations of manners and diction.
The farcical Comedy of Errors illustrates the in-
fluence of Plautus on English comedy. The Tmo
Gentlemen of Verona, partly derived from a Spanish
source, is a play in the romantic manner. This
early group of comedies reaches its highest point
in A Midsummer Night's Dream, where exquisite
lyrical writing, broad humour, and chivalric sen-
timent are delightfully brought together. King
Richard II. (about 1594), though not unaffected
by Marlowe’s Edward II., shows how Shakespeare
in historical drama was delivering himself from
discipleship to Marlowe. King John (about 1596),
to some extent founded on an older play, stands
as regards style midway between Shakespeare's
early histories and those of his matnrer years — the
two parts of King Henry IV. (1597-8) and King
Henry V. (1599), in which there is a great develop-
ment of comic power. In like manner the Merchant
of Venice represents the mid-period between the ^
earliest comedies and those which were produced
in the closing years of the 16th century. Shake-
speare’s earliest independent tragedy is the lyrical
tragedy of youth and love and death, Romeo and
Juliet. Its chief source is Arthur Brooke’s narra-
tive poem Romeus and Juliet (1562), itself derived
from an Italian tale by Matteo Bandello (1480- f
1562). Thus alike in comedy, history, and tragedy
Shakespeare was advancing with swift and unfmter-
ing steps. He had learnt all that his dramatic
predecessors could teach him, and had formed a
style of his own.

Meanwhile, his worldly fortunes prospered. He
acted with his company — the Lord Chamberlain’s
— on several occasions before Queen Elizabeth.

In 1697 he purchased New Place, a large house in
Stratford, and he seems to have exerted himself to
restore his father’s fallen fortunes. In 1598 he
assisted in negotiating a loan for the Stratford
Corporation. He became a shareholder in the
Globe Theatre, erected in 1699 on the Southwark
side of the Thames near London Bridge. In 1602
he enlarged his New Place property, and bought
107 acres of land near Stratford. Three years later
he purchased for £440 the unexplred term of a
moiety of the Stratford and neighbouring tithes.
But as he advanced in life sorrows came to Shake-
speare. His son Hamnet died in 1596; his father
in 1601 ; in 1607 he lost his brother Edmund,
an actor ; in the following year his mother died.
The Sonnets published in 1609, but probably
written several years previously, tell of an ideal-
istng friendship lor some unknown youth of high





SHAKESPEARE.

1 The Church, Stratford-on-Avon (Poulton & Son. London, phot.). 2 Shakespeare’s House {Harvey Barton, Bristol, phot.
3 Shakespeare’s Monument, Holy Trinity Uhurch, Stratford {Boulton ct Son, phot.), 4 Ann Hathaway’s Cottaj
{Harvey Barton, Bristol, phot).

N, E. — 42






81iailBOilp0iU9ti


(21T)




0 tatlotif md of an extravagant passion for some
unknown lady, highly accomplished but not beau-
tiful in person, upon whom Sliakespeare squan-
dered his heart. 8 he would seem to have en-
snared Shakespeare’s young friend, with the result
that the friendship, though afterwards restored,
was broken for a time. The Sonnets are dedicated
by the bookseller to “ Mr. W, H. ” as their ** only
begetter.” Many conjectures have been hazarded
as to the identity of Shakespeare’s friend ; perhaps
the least unfortunate is that which suggests that
he was William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. An
attempt has been made to identify the lady of the
Sonnets with Mary Fitton, a maid of honour to the
queen. Some critics argue that “ Mr. W. H.” was
Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton ; others
regard the veiled story of these poems as wholly
fanciful ; others as an allegory ; but it can hardly
be doubted that a basis of fact supports what
is ideal or imaginative. Shakespeare’s brightest
comedies lie about the year 1600. The Merry
Wives of Windsor is said to have been hastily
written at the request of Queen Elizabeth, who
desired to see Falstaff in love. The Taming of the
Shrew ^ somewhat boisterous in its mirth, is founded
on an older play. In Much Ado about Nothing t
founded on a story by Bandello, the mirth is re-
fined, and some matter almost tragic is connected
with the humour of the piece. As You like It,
based on a novel by Thomas Lodge (1656-1626) —
itself derived from the old poem of Gamelyn^ond
Twelfth Night bring the development of Elizabethan
comedy to its fiighest point. The gaiety declines
in the comedies which immediately succeed ; All's
Well that Ends Well is serious in the presentation
of its strong-willed and clear-sighted heroine ;
Measure for Measure is dark and would be painful
but for the nobility of the character of Isabella ;
Troilus and Cressida,Xh.^ date of which is disputed,
is a comedy of disillusion, almost cynical in its
satire of spurious heroism and the deceptions of
passion. At this point Shakespeare turned from
comedy to tragedy. Julius Ceesar (1601) and
MamUt (1602) may be described as tragedies
rather of reflection than of passion. In the former
Shakespeare follows Plutarch ; the latter is perhaps
based upon an older play. Each represents, in the
persons of Brutus and Hamlet, the inefficiency of
a thinker and student for dealing with the tragic
material of actual life. Tragedies of passion follow.
In Othello (about 1604) the fatal breach is between
husband and wife ; in Kimg Lear (1606) it is be-
between father and child. Maoheth (about 1606),
the tragedy of guilty ambition, represents the
treason of a subject to the king. In Antony and
Cleopatra (1607) and Coriolanus (1608) the poet
again handies Eoman history ; the one is the tragedy
of Koman manhood yielding to the seductions of
sensual pleasure ; the other is that of Roman pride
overthrown by its own excess. The heroine of one
play exhibits the voluptuous genius of the Bast ;
the heroine of the other is the lofty matron of
Rome. This group of plays closes with Timon of
Athens (about 1607-8), which exhibits the ruin of
manhood, caused by pessimistic despair following
on m over- lax benevolence. The last group of


Shakespeaiefs plays is romantic, npd, though show*
ing a deep knowledge of humam ills, they are
radiantly serene in temper. They tell of the knit-
ting again of broken human ties, of the gentleness
and wisdom of old age, the joy of unstained youth,
the blessedness of the forgiveness of injuries, and
the loveliness of meadow and mountain and sea.
Probably only a part of Pericles (part of Act iii.
and all of iv. and v.) comes from Shakespeare’s
hand. Oymheline combines a fragment of old
British legend with matter from It^ian romance.
The Tempest is like a great mage’s legacy of wisdom,
In The Winter's Tale Shakespeare dramatised a
novel by his early contemporary Greene. It is now
disputed whether any portion of Nina Henry VIII.
belongs to Shakespeare; part of the play is un-
doubtedly by John Fletcher (1579-1626). The
authorship of The Two Noble Aimnwn is.akso un-
certain ; but possibly in it, as in Henry VIII.,
Fletcher co-operated with Shakespeare. We do
not know that Shakespeare appeared as an actor
after 1603 or 1604. In 1607 his daughter Susanna
married a Stratford physician named Hall. The
shares in the Globe Theatre were sold, but Shake-
speare, while retiring to his native place, retained
a connection with London, having bought in 1613
a house near Blackfriars Theatre. In February,
1616, his daughter Judith married Thomas Quiney,
a Stratford vintner. A month later the great poet
was seriously ill, and attached his signature to m
draft copy of his will. He died on April 23rd, 1616,
and his body was laid in the chancel of the parish
church. His widow lived until 1623. The only
indisputably genuine portraits of Shakespeare are
the rudely-executed bust in the church at Stratford
and the rude engraving by Droeshout in the first
collected text of his plays (1623). In 1907 great
interest was aroused by the discovery of a portrait,
surmised by Mr. M. H. Spielmann to be that
of Shakespeare at the age of twenty-four, which
had done duty for an unknown number of years
as a signboard in Darlington. The form “ Shale.*
spere ” has autograph authority ; “ Shakespeare ”
is the form which appears on title-pages of
books for the publication of which the poet was
responsible. Since general interest attaches to the
prices which rare editions of books fetch in the
auction-room, it may be mentioned that a superb
copy of the first Folio edition of Shakespeare’s
works, published in 1623, which had belonged ib
Mr. W. C. van Antwerp of New York, was sold at
Sotheby’s rooms in London on March 23rd, 1907,
for the enormous sum of £3,600 — the record price
at that date — the purchaser being Mr. Quaritoh, the
well-known bookseller.

ShaJcdSpeaar«’0 CUIF, a chalk mass rising
sheer from the sea* to a height of 350 feet on the
coast of the English Channel to the south-west of
Dovef, not far from the harbour. It is named
after the dramatist, from the circumstance that
a scene in Mng Lea/r was laid here, The cliff has
been tunnelled for nearly three-quarters of a mile
for the railway from Folkestone. Before reaching
Dover the metals are carried on a lofty viaduct
over a creek. Chalk sHps take place ooc^onally;





(218)


llimiigliai.


there having been an nnnsually extensive one in
1897. When the project of a Channel tunnel was
first broax^hed, a shaft was sunk in this quarter
with a view to testing the practicableness of the
s cheme* Borings for coal have also been made in
the vicinity,

0]ialtf a laminated sedimentary rock, typically
argillaceous, but often either sandy, calcareous,
carbonaceous, or bituminous. Shales split into
very thin leminm parallel with the bedding of the
rook. They may be the result of separate acts of
intermittent deposition, as in the inundation-mud
of the Nile, and are often indications of shallow
waters with varying sediments, as in the paper-
shales and associated beds of the Penarth (Rhaetic)
series. They thus frequently mark transitions to
pure sandstones or limestones, as in the Ledbury
Shales (sandy) below the Old Red Sandstone and
the Tuaedian (Tweed), or Lower Limestone Shale
below the Carboniferous Limestone. Most Palaeozoic
argillaceous beds are shales, as in the Wenlock and
Ludlow Shales, probably the result of the vertical
pressure from the weight of superincumbent rock.
The roof of most coal-seams is formed of shale
(the “ slate ” that occasionally appears in the coal-
Bcuttlej. Bituminous shales, from which paraffin
is distilled, as in Lanarkshire, are recognisable by
smell, by brown stains on a black surface, and by
rolling up when pared.

Shallot (^ Ilium a»cal(micxm\ a hardy perennial
species of onion, native of Palestine, and especially
of the neighbourhood of Ascalon, of which its name
is a corruption. It was introduced into England
in 1548, and is milder in flavour than the onion.
Its bulbs divide into “ cloves,” as in garlic. They
are largely pickled in vinegar.

Shamaniaaiy the religion professed by certain
tribes of Finnish stock, such as the Ostiaks,
Samoyedes and other races of Northern Siberia.
These peoples believe in a Supreme Being, but think
that the government of the world has been com-
mitted to several subordinate deities, of whom
some are well disposed and others inimical towards
man and who must be propitiated by magic cere-
monies and incantations. They deem that the
future life will be considerably worse than the
present and therefore they view death with any-
thing but equanimity. Only folk in the most
rudimentary stage of civilisation would cherish
beliefs of that description. The word thaman is
Persian and Hindustani for an ** idolator,’* and
indicates not only the extensive part which mere
sorcery or wizardry plays in such a crude faith, but
also the hold which the cunning ” medicine-man ”
has upon his deluded victims.

Sliailllliali a Jewish rabbi who flourished in
the 1st century B.C., and founded a school which
entered into rivalry with that of Hillel, though the
two contemporaries do not seem to have diffiered
greatly in tneir doctrines. Shammai interpreted
the law in a very literal manner, and enjoined a
strict observance of all its ordinanoes.

SlmiVOOl:, a green trefoil leaf serving as the
national emblem of Ireland, having been used by


St. Patrick to illustrate the doctrine of the Trinity.
The plant in question was probably not the wood-
sorrel, which is comparatively uncommon in Ireland,
but a true trefoil, such as ^folium, repem, T, JUi*
forme or Medieago lupulina, which are worn in-
discriminately in Ireland on St. Patrick’s Day.

Shamyly or Schamyl (that is, Samuel), the
patriot of the Caucasus, was born in Daghestan
about 1797. He became a mollah,, or priest, and
took the lead in preaching a holy war against
the Russian invasion of his country (1831). His
patriotic spirit and bravery induced him to take
the field, and over and over again he harassed and
defeated the enemy, not in pitched battles but in
ambuscades. In 1839 General Grabbe surrounded
him in the fortress of Achulko. Capture seemed
inevitable, but he contrived to escape, and for
many years incited the Lesghian, Circassian and
other tribes to maintain the guerilla warfare. In

1842 he repulsed the Russians, again under Grabbe,
at Itchkeri. Operations against the heroic moun-
taineer were suspended during the Crimean War,
in which Schamyl was able to assist the Allies.
After the Treaty of Paris, however, Russia adopted
the plan of systematic and ruthless extirpation and
by that means ultimately subdued the Caucasus.
The Russian forces burned every village as they
advanced, and against this policy the tribes were
powerless. At last Schamyl’s stronghold of Weden
was stormed and the chieftain was obliged to flee.
Most of the tribes now submitted, but Schamyl
still held out. He defended the fortress of Mount
Gunib, but it was surprised on October 6th, 1869,
and the hero was captured. He was deported to
St. Petersburg, and the Tsar allowed him an income
and a residence tit Kaluga, about 100 miles south-
west of Moscow, He was afterwards permitted to
live at Kieff. In 1870 he made the pilgrimage to
Mecca, where he died in the following year. One
of his sons took service in the Russian and another
in the Turkish army.

Skaaghai, or Shanghae, a city and port of
China, on the left bank of the Hwang-p’u or
Woosung river, 12 miles above its junction with
the Yang-tsze-Kiang. It covers a great area, and
is divided into several sections. The native city is
surrounded by a wall 3 J miles in circumference and
occupied by close, narrow, dirty streets, which are
insanitary to an abominable degree. Between the
Chinese city and the river the space is taken up by
suburbs, in front of which are crowded the junks
at anchor. Immediately to the north of the native
city lies the French quarter, where, in sharp con-
trast, the streets are well constructed, broad, paved
and properly lighted. To the north of this district,
again, separated from it by the Yanking Canal, is
situated the British settlement. It was selected in

1843 and is bounded on the north by the Soocbow
Creek and on the east by the river, while on the
west there begins a vast, fertile, alluvial plain,
which extends to more than 40,000 square miles.
Within the British region have been erected many
handsome houses and imposing building, including
the Anglican Cathedral, which was designed by Sir
Gilbert Scott. On the north side of the Sooohow



ShMlrliii,


(219)


BhMxk.


Creek is laid out the American section, the river at
this point making a sharp bend towards the east.
Owing to its position, Shanghai, by means of the
rivers and innumerable canals converging towards
the estuary of the Yang-tsze-Kiang, taps the agri-
cultural and industrial wealth of Central China. It
is thus the natural outlet for the tea, silks, cotton,
woollens, opium, metals and other products of the
gardens, fields, plantations and factories of the most
fertile and busiest area of the Celestial Empire. By
the Treaty of Nanking which followed the war of
1841 Shanghai was recognised as a treaty-port,
open to the trade of the world (1842), The growing
prosperity of the city was checked for a period by
the approach of the Taeping rebels in 1862. They
obtained a footing in the native city and by their
presence dislocated trade to such an extent that
the Chinese Government implored the British,
French and American consuls to provide for the
Collection of the revenue, a system which has worked
^admirably under Mr. H. N. Lay, Sir Robert Hart
and other able administrators. But though the
rebels were dislodged in 1865, they returned periodi-
cally and caused so much disturbance that at last
British, French, and American aid was invoked to
suppress them. On March 25th, 1863, General
Gordon assumed the command of the Chinese force,
which in Oriental fashion dubbed itself the Ever
Victorious Army, and, carrying the war into the
enemy’s country, soon succeeded in crushing the
rebellion, the malcontents learning a bitter lesson
in the process. It was for his skilful handling of
this revolt that he acquired the soh'iqiiet of Chinese
Gordon. Shanghai is the seat of the British
Supreme Court of Appeal for China and Japan,
which also adjudicates upon the cases of British
subjects in the city. The climate is exceedingly
trying. The early winter is enjoyable, but the
summer is intensely hot, and fever, dysentery and
cholera are rife. Pop. (variously estimated), from
450,000 to 600,000.

g liiuilrUvi a watering-place on the south-east
coast of the Isle of Wight, England, 9 miles S. of
Ryde. Part of the town lies on the level of the
shore and part on the summit of the cliffs. The
fine sandy beach and the beauty of its surroundings
have brought the place deservedly into favour as a
holiday and health resort. There is a chalybeate
spring on the front. A portion of the church of
St. John the Baptist is said to date from the reign
of King Stephen. On one side of Shanklin the
sands stretch to Sandown, while on the other there
is a charming walk by the Undercliff and Bonchurch
to Ventnor. On the west of the town is the ravine
known as Shanklin Chine, lovely in the growth of
trees, shrubs and ferns w'hich clothe both banks of
the chasm carved through the cliffs by the brawling
bum. As it reaches the sea the chine is 180 feet
wide and 270 feet deep. At the head are several
picturesque, thatch-roofed cottages. The town is
commanded by Shanklin Down, 773 feet high,
which affords pleasant views of the Channel and
the island scenery. Fop. (1901), 4,538.

81lttll2lO% the longest river in Ireland. Rising
at Shannon Head in Ouileagh Mountain, in County


Cavan, 2^ feet above sea level, pursues a mainly
southerly by south-westerly direction till it falls
into the Atlantic at Loop Head, after a course of
254 miles. After flowing through County Leitrim,
it serves as a boundary to the counties of Ros-
common, Longford, Galway, Westmeath, King’s
County, Clare, Tipperary, Limerick and Kerry, and
then separates Connaught from Munster. It has a
drainage basin of more than 6,000 square miles, its
affluents on the right including the Boyle, Suck
and Fergus, and on the left the Rinn, Camlin,
Inny, Brosna, Little Brosna, Mulkear, Maigue and
peel. At certain parts of its course it expands
into lakes, the principal being Loughs Allen,
Boffin, Forbes, Ree and Derg. From its source to
Lough Forbes it forms the Upper Shannon, thence
to Limerick it is the Middle Shannon and thence
to its mouth the Lower Shannon. The tide acts as
far up as Limerick, to which point large vessels
can ascend, though by means of the lakes steamers
can go up to Athlone and smaller vessels to Lough
Allen. It communicates with Dublin by the Royal
Canal, Which joins it near Cloondara in County
Longford, and by the Grand Canal, which joins it
at Shannon Harbour in King's County. The estuary
is 70 miles long and varies in width from 1 mile
to 10 miles. The current is sluggish and the
country on either side is, on the whole, flat. The
chief places on the banks upwards are Kilrush,
Foynes, Limerick, Klllaloe, Portumna, Banagher,
Clonraaonoise, Athlone and Garrick.

Shan States, a territory in Burma, bounded
on the N.W. by Upper Burma, on the N.E. by
China, on the E. by Laos (French Indo-China),
on the 8. by Siam and on the W. by Lower
and Upper Burma. They occupy an area of 68,166
square miles. The siirface is almost wholly moun-
tainous and the chief river is the Salwin. The
Shans are people of Chinese origin and are believed
to have migrated to this region two thousand years
ago. They extend into the valley of the Mekong,
are identical with the Laos and akin to tlie Siamese.
They are indolent, addicted to gambling and cock-
fighting and pleasure-loving. Buddhism is the
prevailing religion. The mineral wealth of their
country is considerable, including iron, rubies,
silver, gold, coal, copper and petroleum. The
principal crops which they cultivate are tea, rice,
tobacco and cotton. Pop. (1901), 1,237,749, but
there are more Shans outside of the States than
within and it is estimated that, including those in
Burma, Siam, Anam, Laos and China, their total
numbers exceed 6,000,000.

Shark, a common name for a fish belonging to
the group Selachoidei, widely distributed, but most
numerous between the tropics. The body is long
and cylindrical, with a pointed snout, and strong
flexible tail, the latter forming an admirable swim-
ming organ. In the place of scales the skin is
covered with calcified papillse ; the teeth are well
developed in most forms, though in some they are
adapted for crushing rather than cutting, and these
sharks feed only on small fishes or on molluscs and
crustaceans. In most the eggs are enOlosed in a
homy case, though some bring forth the young



nm'k


( 220 )




aJive. In India and China the noUecting sharks*
dns Is an important Industry. They are used for
making a thick gelatinous soup. In Ceylon a shark
fishery is carried on, and oil is eipressed from the



BAMME|inKAX> SHARK (Zygo&TM malltus).


livers. The skin is also utilised for shagreen.
Gunther (Introduction to the Study of FiiiLef)
recognises the following families : —

Oabohariid.*:, chiefly from tropical seas. The
Blue Shark (C. glau(nis) and the White Shark
(C mlgaru) attain a length of from 12 to 15
feet and 20 to 25 feet respectively. [Dogfish,
Hammerhead.]

LAMNlOiE, containing large pelagic forms. To
this family belongs the Man-eating Shark
( Carcharodon rondeletii)^ which has been known
to attain a length of 40 feet. The Challenger
Expedition obtained from the Ooze teeth
similar to but twice as large as those of
this species, so that the larger form must have
become extinot within recent times. [Basking
Shark, Fox-Shark, Porbeagle.]

Notidan.^?, from tropical and sub- tropical seas.

About 15 feet seems to be the greatest length.
SoTLLiiD.®. [Dogfish.]

Cestraoiontioae:. — T here are four speoies of a
single genus ( Cestraewn), None exceeds 6 feet
in length. The teeth are broad and pad-like.
SpiNAOiDift. — Here belong the Spiny Dogfishes
[DOGFlfiBl and the Greenland Shark (L^mar-
gm horealit)^ which grows to a length of about
15 feet, and is a persistent foe of the whale.
The Spiny Shark (Mokinorhinue ^inosue), a
Mediterranean ground shark, has the skin
covered with spiny tubercles.

Rhinidaq. [Akgel-fish.I
FBISTI0P110R1D.£.—Thi8 family contains forms
like small sawfishes, but with lateral gill slits,
and two long tentacles at the base of the saw.

“Couch says,” writes Emma Phipson in Hie
Anim4il - llore of Shahmme'e Time, ** that the
notion that the shark, while ferocious in the extreme
to every other living creature, yet exhibited great
devotion to its young, and watened over them with
tender solicitude, is derived from the Greek poet
Oppian, who relatea that, when danger threa^ns,


the parent sbai^ opens her mouth and conceals her
young ones in the targe concave space provided lor
the purpose, much in the same way as the adder
is said to provide for the safety of its offspring.
This statement is repeated and confirmed by
Rondeletius, a naturalist of eminence, whose
work on fishes was the chief authority of this
period.”

Sharon, a plain of Palestine extending on the
coast from the Kahr-ez-Zerka southwards for 44
miles to the Nahr Rubin, by which and the hills of
Ramleh (766 feet highest point) it is divided from
the Philistian plain of Shephelah. It is an undu-
lating country, is in parts well wooded and was
once famous for its vegetation and pasture and
nmst formerly have contained splendid oak groves.
The most southerly tract is cultivated and, in
spring, as viewed from the heights, the landscape
is most attractive in its gay dress of brilliant
flowers and rich grass. The marshy lands in the
north wear a pleasant look in autumn when the
tall and graceful papyrus is in flower. But for the
intruding sand the plain would yet yield rich crops
and feed large flocks.

Sharp, Granville, emancipator of the slaves,
was born at Durham, England, on November 10th,
1736, and educated at Durham Grammar School.
He was apprenticed to a linen-draper in London,
but in 1768 obtained a situation in the Ordnance
Department. In the meantime he had acquired
Greek and Hebrew and in 1767 published a Short
TreatUe on the Engluh Tongue, He was offered a
living in Nottinghamshire, but could not see his
way to take holy orders. Two years before he
had befriended a homeless negro named Jonathan
Strong. In 1767 the master sued Sharp for illegal
detention of his property and, when the latter found
the leading lawyers of the day against him, he
devoted two years to investigating the law of
personal liberty in England. His research resulted
in the publication (1769) of A Bepresentatim of the
Injustice of tolerating Slavery and he took

up several cases, including the famous case of
James Somersett in which he gained a verdict for
humanity, the judges affirming the principle that
“ as soon asirany slave sets his foot upon English
territory, he becomes free.” Sharp sympathized
with the American colonists who declined to be
taxed unless they were represented and threw
up his Ordnance post rather than despatch war
material to the States (1776). He assisted General
Oglethorpe in his crusade against the pressgang
and was instrumental in introducing Episoopeoy
into New England after the war in 1787. In the
same year he founded the Society for the Abolition
of Slavery and advocated the formation of the
Crown colony of Sierra Leone for freed slaves, the
first company orVhom were despatched tbithfr on
April 8th, 1787. He assisted to found the British
and Foreign Bible Society and was its first bhair-
than in 1804, and was also one of the founders of
the Society for the Conversion of the Jews in 1808
and first chairman of the Protestant Union in 1818.
He died at Fulham on July 6th, 1813.




'AUftVf.


( 221 )




Jambs, Arohbishoi> of St. Andrews, was
bom in xbe osstle of Banff, Scotland, his father
being factor to the Earl of Findlater, on May 4th,
1613. He was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen,
and seettis also to baTe studied at Oxford. He
became Professor of Philosophy at St. Andrews
about 1644 and in 1650 was elected one of the
ministers of Edinburgh, a call which Cromwell’s
invasion prevented him from accepting. During
the Commonwealth he supported the “Resolu-
tioners ” against the Protesters,” or extreme party,
in the Kirk, but when sent on a mission to Charles
at Breda (1660) he made use of the opportunity to
intrigue with the prince and Clarendon. After the
Restoration he secretly aided the establishment of
Episcopacy in Scotland, receiving as his reward the
Archbishopric of St. Andrews (1^1). By this step,
as well as his subsequent conduct, he earned the
hatred and scorn of the Convenanters. On the
3rd of May, 1679, whilst he was returning to St.
Andrews with bis daughter, he was attacked and
murdered by twelve men, under John Balfour of
Burleigh, on a lonely spot called Magus Muir,
between the city and Cupar. The assassins escaped
to the west of Gotland and the episode, along with
the Covenanters’ rebellion, was dealt with at length
in Sir Walter Scott’s Old Mortality, An elaborate
marble monument was erected to Archbishop Sharp
in the parish church of St, Andrews in which he
was buried.

Sharp, Richard, ** Conversation Sharp,” was
born in Newfoundland in 1769. He adopted a
mercantile career in London, first in the West
Indian trade and afterwards as a hat manufacturer
and amassed a fortune. He took a strong interest
in politics and literature and rejoiced in the society
of literary men. He knew Dr. Johnson and Edmund
Burke, became the lifelong friend of Samuel Rogers,
and was a member of most of the literary Bohemian
clubs. He was elected F.S.A. in 1787 and F.R.S.
in 1806. From this year to 1812 he sat as M.P.
for Castle Rising in Norfolk, was returned for
Portarlington in 1816 and retired In 1819 to make
room for David Ricardo. At his house in Park
Lane and his cottage at Mickleham, near Dorking,
he constantly collected the sociable notabilities of
the day and it was in consequence of the part which
he played at these gatherings that be obtained his
nickname. Among the regular visitors were James
Mill, Francis Horner, Henry Grattan, Sydney Smith
(there so often that be was styled “ the bishop of
Mickleham ”), Tom Moore, John Horne Tooke,Lord
Macaulay (not then a peer) and many other dis-
tinguished persons. He died at Dorchester on
March 30th, 1836. In 1828 ho published anony-
mously Mputles in Verse^ which were reproduced
with additions in Letters and Msaays in Prose and
Verse (1834),

Sharp, William, pseudonym Fiona Macleod,”
man of letters, was bom in Glasgow on September
12th, 1866, and educated at the university of his
native city. Poor health compelled him to spend
much of his youth in travel, chiefly in Australia
and the Pacific, but he settled in London in 1879
and, through the kind offices of Sir Noel Paton,


came to know DStiite Gabriel Boisietti and biscliolA
He soon sbowM ^traoidinary and industty

in several branches of literatuifa^ and maintained
the amasing output until his death at Bronte^
Sicily, on December 12th, 1906. In poetry he
produced The Humm In^itmes (1882%

Voices (1884), Mommtio Ballads (1886), SospiH di
Boma (1891) and Sos^iH d'Jialia (1904) ; in bio-
graphy he wrote Dante Gabriel Mossetti (1883),
besides studies of Shelley, Meine, Browning and
The Severn Memoirs; among his novels were
Children of To-morrow (1890), Madge o’ the Fool^
Wives in Exile and A London B>omanoe ; works
in belles-lettres comprised Vistas, Eoce PueUa and
A Literary Geography (1904), while he edited The
Sonnets of the Vdth Ceninry and Lyra Celtica, His
identity with “ Fiona Macleod ” was not disclosed
till his death and was thus a well-kept secret.
Under this name he produced several works,
amongst them being Pharais (1894), The Menmtain
Lovers (1895), The Sin^Eater (1896), The Washm'
of the Lord (1896), Green Fire Thel*aughter

of Peterkin and Old Celtic Tales Med old (1897),
The Dominion of Dreams (1899) and Iona (1900).

Sharpe, Charles Kirkpatrick, antiquary and
artist, was born at Hoddani, Dumfriesshire, Scot-
land, about 1781, and educated at Christ Church.
Oxford. He was a man of curious temperament,
crotchety and “ gey ill to deal wi’,” but extremely
affable with those he took to. Making a speciality
of antiquity he read assiduously and edited several
rare works for the Bannatyne and other clubs. On
the appearance of Sir Walter Scott’s Minstrelsy of
the Scottish Border in 1802, he manifested a keen
interest in the project, contributing ballads of his
own and forming a lifelong friendship with Scott.
In 1807 he published Metrical Legends and other
Poems, but he showed more skill with his pencil,
especially in the line of the grotesque and carica-
ture, than he did in verse-making and brought out,
in 1833, a volume of etchings under the title
Portraits of an Amatenr, His Etchings, with
Photographs from Original Drawings, Poetical and
Prose Fragments appeared posthumously in 1869.
He was an indefatigable collector of Scottish curios
and antiques and many of his “ finds ” are now at
Abbotsford. He died at Edinburgh on March 17th,
1854.

Sharpe, Samuel, Egyptologist, was born in
London on March 8th, 1799, and was educated at
Eliezer Cogan’s school at Walthamstow, which
Benjamin Disraeli also attended. He entered the
bank of his uncle, Samuel Rogers, the poet, in 1814,
became a partner in 1824, and remained with the
concern till 1861. Having acquired an interest
in Egyptology he learned Coptic and formed a
vocabulary of hieroglyphics, in compiling which he
acted upon the bold generalisation, “ Granted a
sentence in which most of the words are already
known, required the meaning of others." In 1836
lie published The Early History of Egypt and in
the following year appeared the first part of his
Egyptian Inscriptions (others were issued in 1841
1856) and his Vocabulary of Hieroglyphics. In
1846 he blended several of bis sectional works




( 222 )




into one complete ^

published The J^ 0 w TettammU, 2!ra9i«2a^^ irorkiog
upon the text of Griesbach, and his translation of
Ths Mebrem Seripturet came but in 1865. In 1869
his MUtorp of the Mebrem Nation a/nd lU Literatwre
appeared^ He was President of the British and
ForeiTO Unitarian Association in 1869-70 and
President of Manchester College (now at Oxford)
in 1876-8. He died in Uondon on July 28th, 1881.

SlmWf P^BOROB Bbbnarb, playwright and critic,
was born ki Dublin on July 26th, 1856. He came
to London in 1876. His early years were occupied
with agitation in the cause of Socialism and with
criticism of the Fine Arts. In 1884 he joined the
Fabian Society, of which he became a prominent
member and for which he edited the Fabia/n Ettays
in 1889, contributing two of their number, The
society also published many of his tracts on
Socialism. In 1891 appeared his Quinteesence
of Ibienism and in the following year The Perfect
Wagnerite. From 1888 to 1890 he wrote weekly
articles on music for the Star under the pseudonym
of Corno di Bassetto ; afterwards writing similar
articloo for The World from 1890 to 1894. In 1895
he joined the Saturday Review as dramatic critic
and continued in that capacity until 1898. In
1898 he published his Playt : Pleasant and Un-
pleasant, a collection of seren plays, of which the
Widowers' i/(f)w<?s— was originally begun in
collaboration with William Archer in 1885, and
performed by the Independent Theatre Company
at the Royalty Theatre, London. Arms and the
MaUt another of these plays, was performed at the
Avenue Theatre, London, and in the United States.
Candida^ perhaps the best of the seven plays, was
written in 1896 and performed by the Independent
Theatre Company and again in 1904 in New York.
The remaining four plays of this set are The
Philanderer^ written in 1893 ; Mrs, Warren's Pro-
fessUm^ performed in New York in 1905, when it
created a sensation ; You Never Gan Tell^ written
in 1896, and The Man of Destiny ^ written in 1895
and performed at Croydon in 1897. In 1900 he
published Three Plays for Puritans, which consisted
of The DeviVs Disciple, written in 1897 and per-
formed in New York in the same year, Casar and
Cleopatra, written in 1898, and Captain Brass-
bound's Conversion. Of his later plays the best
known are The Admirable Bashville, or Consitaney
Rewarded, performed at the Imperial Theatre by
the Stage Society in 1903 ; Man and Superman,
written in 1902, published in 1903 and produced at
the Court Theatre by Granville Barker in 1906 ;
John BulVs Other Island, performed by the Stage
Society at the Court Theatre in 1904 ; Major
Barbara, in which Shaw deals with the Salvation
Army, was written in 1905 and produced at the
Court Theatre, as was also The Doctor's Dilemma, He
has also written ** The Commonsense of Municipal
Trading ” (1904) and “ Fabianism and the Fiscal
Question** (1904). A man of strongly marked
character and advanced opinions, he is opposed to
vaccination and vivisection, is an ardent vegetarian,
clothes himself d la Jaeger and politically, like his
oounttymen, is often “ agin the Government.**


Sliawl (Persian, shdV), a square or oblong gar-
ment worn so as to hang from the shoulders. In
the East, where its use dates back to a remote
period, it is worn both loose and woven into tunics
and other shaped articles. The most beautIM and
costliest shawls are those made in Kashmir. The
material of Kashmir shawls, called ** pashm" or
“pashmina,” is the fine short under-wool of the
shawl-goat indigenous to the highlands of Tibet.
These shawls are either woven at fjhe loom or em-
broidered ; in the former case they usually consist
of small segments joined together with so much
neatness that they present the appearance of a
single piece ; the embroidered shawls have an in-
tricate design worked with the needle in pashmina
thread on a plain ground of the same material.
The processes of sorting the wool, spinning, dyeing,
and weaving or embroidering, all require great care
and occupy much time. The main feature in the
designs on Kashmir shawls, the artistic value of
which is fully recognised, is the “ cone ” pattern,
traced by some experts to the image of a cypress
bent by the wind. These shawls are also prized
for the harmony, depth, richness, and durability of
their colours. An inferior kind of shawl, in which
the pashm is mingled with “ koork ** (goat’s wool
from Kerman, in Persia), is manufactured by set-
tlers from Kashmir in various towns of the Punjab.
The genuine Persian shawls are made of silk, and
rank second to those of Kashmir alone. The manu-
facture of imitation shawls which formerly throve
at Lyons, Norwich, Paisley, and elsewhere, has now
greatly declined, or become altogether extinct, and
it is said that even in Persia European broadcloth
is to some extent superseding the native shawl-stuff.

Shawnees, North American aborigines, mem-
bers of the Algonquian family, formerly very
powerful on the eastern slopes of the Alleghanies,
in the Susquehannah basin, and as far as the
Delaware. The famous chief Tecumseh, who en-
deavoured to rally the Indians against the whites
in 1811, was a Shawnee. After his defeat by
General Harrison at Tippecanoe, the nation was
driven beyond the Mi.ssissippi, and was later re-
moved to the Quapaw, Sac and Fox, and Cherokee
reserves in Indian Territory. Here the various
groups still number 1,560.

ShearwateTy a bird belonging to the genus
Puffinus, of the Petrel family, with about twenty
species, universally distributed. The wings are
long and pointed; the nostrils open separately;
the three front toes are webbed, and the hind toe
is very small. All the species are oceanic, and swim
well, though they rarely dive, feeding on fishes
that frequent the surface. Some are nocturnal in
habit, or partially so. Four species visit the British
Isles : the Great Shearwater (P. mmoryis generally
met with on the south coast of England, the Dusl^
Shearwater (P. griseus) has been taken there, and
also on the east coast ; the Dusky Shearwater (P.
obsourue) is but an occasional visitor. The Mimz
Shearwater (P. anglormi), by far the commonest, is
about the size of a pigeon, black above and white
below. It breeds in Wales and in the Orkneys. All



ShAba,


( 223 )


■IMAP.


these birds lay a single white egg in a hole in the
ground.

SlMbai the country whose queen, according to
the Bible narrative (1 Kings x . ; 2 Chronicles ix.)>
visited Solomon, is usually supposed to be Yemen,
in the south-west of Arabia. Its capital was Saba,
the present Mareb, now practically ruinous. James
Bruce, the traveller, however, argued that Sheba
was situated on the coast of Abyssinia, towards
the southern end of the Bed Sea. He did not
derive the name from the son or grandson of Gush
(Genesis x. 7), but said that it meant “ south,”
recalling the description of the queen in Luke xi. 31
as “ the queen of the south.” Both countries yielded
spices, incense, and gold, and the journey to
Jerusalem was equally arduous from either. The
Abyssinian tradition supports this contention. It
is believed that she stayed long enough in Palestine
not only to study the Hebrew religion and the
Solomonic mode of government, but also to bear a
son to Solomon, who was afterwards sent to
Jerusalem to be educated, brought ^ back with
him to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) a number of Jewish
colonists and finally succeeded his mother on the
throne. That the Queen of Sheba made a protracted
stay in Judssa is affirmed by Moslem tradition,
according to which Solomon built for her Baalbek
as a residence. Dr. John Kitto ingeniously suggested
that, since Bruce surmised that the Arabian and
Ethiopian coasts at this part of the Red Sea at one
time constituted one dominion, the Queen of Sheba
may have been queen of both the Sabea of Ethiopia
and that of Arabia.

SheBoygan, capital of a county and at the
mouth of a river of the same name, Wisconsin,
United States, on Lake Michigan, 52 miles N. of
Milwaukee. It has an excellent harbour which
does a great export trade in the grain of the rich
surrounding agricultural land. The manufactures
include ironware, stoneware, leather, implements,
shoes, furniture, and beer, besides iron-founding
and planing mills. Pop. (1900), 22,962.

Shechem. [Nablus.]

Shee, SiK MaetinArchkr, painter, was born in
Dublin on December 23rd, 1770. He studied and for
a period practised art in his native city, but came
to London in 1788 and attended the Royal Academy
Schools. He enjoyed the friendship of Edmund
Burke and Sir Joshua Reynolds. His urbane
manners and genial disposition recommended him,
in spite of mediocre talent, and he soon acquired a
lucrative connection. He was elected an Associate
of the Royal Academy in 1798, and became a full
member in 1800. He occupied George Romney’s
house in Cavendish Square, and probably thereby
tacitly suggested that he was bis successor. It
was an era of strong portrait-painters, however, and
he was manifestly inferior to Raeburn, Hoppner,
Phillips, and even to Jackson and Sir Thomas
Lawrence. Shee had a turn for^verse, and in 1805
and 1809 published Rhymes on AH, which Lord
Byron puffed, following it up in 1814 with The Com-
memomtion of Sir Joshna Reynolds amd other Rooms*
Although accepted for Covent Garden, his tragedy


of Altmo did not pass the censor* George Colman
the younger, who blundered egregfbuily, and Shee,
who felt the indignity keenly, publish^ it in 18^.
On the death of Lawrence in 1830 Shee was elected
President of the Royal Academy and knighted.
This ^sition he filled, with great acceptance to
his colleagues, till his death in Brighton on August
13th, 1860.

Shefipi an animal belonging to the genus (Got>>
of Hollow-horned Ruminants, closely allied to the
goats, from which they are distinguished by their
convex spiral horns, beardless chin, the presence of
sub-orbital glands and tear-pits, and of foot-glands
in the hind as well as in the fore feet. Neither
canine nor upper incisor teeth are present. The
male is called a ram, the female a ewe ; the young
are lambs, and their flesh is lamb j that of sheep is
mutton. There are about a dozen species, chiefly
Falaearctic, but ranging into the neighbouring parts
of the Oriental region, and the Rocky Mountain
Sheep is American. Central Asia is the chief home
of Wild Sheep [Argali], whence they range to
Northern India, eastwards to Tibet, westwards to
Asia Minor, and northwards to Kamtchatka. There
is one African species, the Aoudad, or Barbary
Sheep. Europe has two :— the Mouflon ((?. mu-
Simon) from Corsica and Sardinia, and O, ophion,.
almost extinct, from Cyprus. All frequent high and
rooky ground, and are gregarious, a habit which
subsists in the domestic species. The flocks are
generally composed of females and young males,
the older males usually living apart at a higher
elevation. While the flock is feeding, sentinels are
posted, and these give notice of the approach of
danger by a sharp whistling sound, and then safety
is sought in flight. At certain seasons desperate
encounters take place between the males, which
fight, as do those of the domestic species, by
butting with the head. An old ram is a match
for almost any dog. It has been suggested that
a dog which had developed the bad habit of
worrying sheep should be shut up in a loose box
with a sturdy ram, and that a few days of such
confinement would probably cure him of any taste
for mutton. No doubt the plan would answer
except in the case of a bulldog, which would pin
the jram by the nose and so prevent its butting.
The common sheep (6?. aries) was probably the first
animal domesticated by pastoral man, and its origin
is as obscure as that of the dog. We find ii
mentioned, however, in the oldest literature that haa
come down to us ; and the story of Cain and Abel
— the tiller of the ground and the keeper of
sheep — deals with an early stage of human culture..
The sheep has been introduced from Europe into
America and Australia, where they number millions,
on the runs, and is now found wherever farming is
carried on, though it attains its best development of
flesh and fleece in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres. In the wild sheep there is a short
underwool beneath the straight hairy coat, though
this generally is as rough on the surface as the
wool itself and consequently felts. In the domestic
sheep the outer clothing of hair is lost, and the
underclothing of wool greatly developed. This is




X )


•hom yeatly, geperuJly in early though the

operation may he deferred till the middle o>f^nly,
and In the aptnmn dips'' are applied to heep the
she^ from i^asites and promote the growth ot the
wooi In countries like Australia and New Zealand,
where they are kept on a scale quite imposing in its
magnitude, the wool is of as much value, economi-
cally, as the carcass, and the sheds are equipped
with the Moffat-Virtue and other she^-shearlng
machines, so that enormous numbers of fleeces can
be strij^ed with as little delay as possible. Sheep,
like other iomestic animals, have varied greatly.
In the Highland and smaller Welsh Black-faced
sheep both sexes bear horns, as do the Dorset sheep,
though in the last-named breed the horns are small.
In the Merinos, noted for their fleece, only tho rams
are horned. Most of the English breeds are horn-
less. In the Iceland sheep as many as eight boms
are sometimes developed. An Asian breed, found
also in Africa, has the tail greatly enlarged by fat,
so it often weighs from 70 to 80 lbs., and is sup-
ported by a kind of sledge ; while in a Tatar breed
the tendency to lay on fat is confined to the rump.
The economic value of sheep is very great; their
flesh serves for food; their fleeces are made into
clothing; their skin into leather for bookbinding
and gloves ; cheese the well-known ‘♦Roque-
fort is ma-nufaotured in some countries from ewe-
rnilk; the fat is melted into tallow; from the
intestines “ catgut ” is made ; and horns, hoofs, and
bones are also used. In England in the olden days
the farmer constantly grumbled at the monopoly of
attention which the sheep enjoyed. “They have
driven husbandry out of the countrey," says the
I/arkfian Miscellany ^ “ by the which was increased
before all kinde of victuals, and now all together
sheepe, sheepe, sheepe. It was farre better when
there were not onely sheepe ynough, but also oxen,
kine, swyn, pig, goose, and capon, egges, butter,
and cheese ; yea, and breade come, and malt come
ynough besides, reared altogether upon the same
iande." And in Warwickshire, according to Thomas
Fuller's Worthies^ the complaint was that sheep
were “ cannibals, eating up men, houses and towns ;
their pastures make such depopulation.” To-day
such a condition of things seems as remote as the
Deluge.

Shtep-Bogi n somewhat loose name for dogs
used by shepherds and drovers. In Scotland the
collie is the sheep-dog ; in England this breed is
replaced by one more stoutly built and with a
stiff er coat, probably due to an infusion of mastiff
blood. Other varieties of dogs are also employed
which, after the necessary practical training,
develop a high degree of intelligence and tact.
The Bob-tailed Sheep-dog, with grey curly coat, is
sufficiently defined by its name.

Sheepthanlaiy JoHxr, patron of art, was born
in Deeds, Yorkshire, in 1787 and became a partner
in the firm of his father, a cloth manufacturer.
He developed a taste for collecting pictures and
latterly confined his attention to works by modem
British painters. In 1857 he presented his col-
lection to the nation. It contained several of Sir
Hdwin Landseer’s finest works, as well as noblp


examples of Turner, Linnell, ponstable, Mulready
0. R. Leslie, David Roberts, Stanfield, Sir David
Wilkie, Creswick, Bonington, Old Crome, mi
Patrick Nasmyth. His gift was as disinterested ai
generous, for he neither stipulated that the col
lection was to be kept intact, nor exhibited as a
whole, nor required to bear his name, although he
expressed a hope that it might be on view or
Sundays. He died in London on October 5th:
1868.

Slia#ni6m, a seaport and naval station at the
north-western extremity of the Isle of Sheppey
Kent, 38 miles E. by S. of London, at the point
of junction between the Medway and the Thames
Here a fort was built after the Restoration, but
was taken by De Ruyter in 1667. The town is nov
strongly fortified with guns of heavy calibre, sinc«
it is the centre of the defence of the entrance to the
Thames and Medway. The dockyard has first-ratt
docks, basins, and all the latest appliances of f
naval establishment of the second class, Sheernesi
being associated with Chatham, higher up th<
Medway, in respect of the Royal Navy. Th<
barracks will accommodate more than 1,500 men
The dockyard church, built by the Admiralty ir
1830, was burned in 1881 and rebuilt and opened ir
1886. The wharfage is on the Medway front, but or
the Thames front a newer residential quartei
has gradually grown up, and, under the name oi
Sheerness-on-Sea, has become a midsummer reson
largely favoured by the masses. Pop. (1901)
18,278.

Sheflfleldp a city of Yorkshire, England, or
the Don, and its tributaries the Sheaf, Porter
Rivelin and other rivulets, 43 miles S.W, oi
York. Excepting Leeds, it is the largest cit}
in the county, and in 1897 its chief magistrati
was promoted Lord Mayor. It is situated in «
hilly district and has picturesque surroundings
As far back as the Roman period iron waj
smelted here, and at the Norman Conquest i1
was the capital of Hallamehire, an ancient
lordship. At that period Richard (Je Bush wa^
the superior and from him the land passed
successively to the Lovetots (at the end of the
11th century), the Purnivals (in the reign oi
Richard I.), John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrews-
bury (in 14i)6), and 1654 to the Duke of Nor-
folk, who is still lord of the manor. In 153C
Cardinal Woleey spent several days at th<
castle which, from 1672 to 1586, harboured ai
a prisoner Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1644 the
stronghold was captured by the Roundheads
and j^ur years later it was dismantled, its site
now only living in certain street names. Ix
1864 the bursting of the water dam at Bradfield
destroyed 260 lives and an enormous amount oi
property, and three years later the toWn passed
under a cloud in connection with the outrages
known as '^rattening.” Sheffield is well pro-
vided with public parks. Norfolk Park, in tlw
south-east of the city, belongs to the Duke^
who has allowed the citizens the user ; Westox
Park, in thh west, contains the Mappin Ar1
Galleryt, musehm, observatory and the statue






( 22 6 )




of Bbenever Elliott, tho CoJn Law Ehymor; boiougflis to adopt the Public Libraries Act.

Pirtb Park, in tbe nortb, is named after The city is riob in educattoal ittstitutions^

Mark Firth, the donor; Meersbrook Park, in among them being Firth College, founded by

the south, contains the St. George's Museum, Mark Firth in 1879 and incorporated as Uni-



founded by John Piiskin, a picturesque ravine versity Ck>lWe in 1897; the Boyal Grammar

and fin© rose garden and avenues ; while the School in Broomhall Park ; th© Technical

Botanical Gardens, in the west, Endcliff© School, one of the best in the kingdom; the

Woods to the south-west, and Wharncliffe School of Art; Wesley College; th© Methodist

Chase, a magnificent tract of rocky woodland. New Connexion College; the Church of Epg^

about 5 miles to th© west, are at the disposal of land Educational Institute; the Mechanics*

th© townsMk under conditions, and Bramall Institution; the Athenaeum and the Literary

Lane Cricket Ground is associated with many and Philosophical Society. Amongst benevolent

of the cricketing triumphs of Yorkshire. The institutions are the infirmary, public hospital,

principal Wldings are St. Peter’s Church, Jessop Hospital for women, several hospitals

dating from the 12th century and containing for fecial diseases, retreats for the infirm, and

numerous interesting monuments; the splendid the Shrewsburv Hospital, Firth almshouses and

Municipal Building opened in 1897 by Queen other acceptafile charities. Since the time of

Victoria; Albert Hall; Cutlers* Hall, contain- Chaucer Sheffield has been the chief seat of

ing the offices of the Company and a banquet- the cutlery trade, and the Cutlers* Company

ing hall where important political announce- was incorporated in 1624'. In later years the

ments occasionally accentuate the Cutlers* manufacture of heavier steel goods has been

Feast; the Norfolk and Fitzalan Market Halls; developed, and armour-opiates, shot and shell,

&e Corn Exchange and the Central Library, casting for engines, rails, etc., are turned out

established in 1855, wdth several branches, in large quantities. Stovefe, grates, plated gpods,

Sheffield having b^n one of the earliest and optical instruments are important products.

207— N.i.





mum.


( 226 )


mm.


The use of cast steel dates from 1740, when
it was introduced by Benjamin Huntsman of
Handsworth ; silver-platingj one of the speciali-
ties of the city, dates from 1742, when it was
disoe^eired by Thomas Bolsover; the manufac-
ture of Britannia metal ware dates from about
1760; while Sir Henry Bessemer had many
converters in blast in the Sheffield foundries.
Pop. (1901), 380,717.

Slieili Richard Lalob, dramatist and politi-
cian, wae born at Drumdowney, County Tip-
perary, Ireland, on August 17th, 1791, his
father being a wealthy Cadiz merchant, and
educated at Stonyhurst and Trinity College,
Dublin. He was called to the Irish bar in
1814, but supported himself mainly by litera-
ture, writing several tragedies — amongst them
The Apostate (succesefully produced at Covent
Garden in 1817, with Young, Macready,
Kemble and Miss O'Neill in the principal
parts), Bellamira, or the Fall of Tunis
(1818), Evadne (1819), Montoni (1820), and The
Huguenot (1822) — and contributing “Sketches
of the Irish Bar" to the New Monthly
Magazine (1822). The foundation of the
Catnolic Association in 1823 opened a new
career for him, and when it was suppressed
(1826) he devoted himself with energy to the
organisation of the society which took its place.
By means of his impassioned oratory he gained
a position in the movement second to that of
Daniel O’Connell alone. He eventually joined
O’Connell in his demand for Repeal, altnough
after Catholic emancipation (1829) he had dis-
countenanced further agitation. In 1831 he
was elected M.P. for County Louth, and in 1833
for Tipperary County. After the final defeat
of the Repeal party in 1834 Sheil acted with
the Whigs, and in 1839 ho was made Vice-
President of the Board of Trade. He became
M.P. for Dungarvan in 1841 and in 1846 was
appointed Master of the Mint. The omission
of the legend “Defensatrix Fidei Dei Gratia’’
from the fiorin issued in 1850 brought him into
sharp conflict with public opinion and Parlia-
ment, though he disclaimed sectarian motives
and the matter was probably a regrettable over-
sight. He accepted the post of British Minis-
ter at the Court of Tuscany in 1850 and died
at Florence on May 25th, 1851.

Shekelf originally a Jewish weight, and after-
wards a gold and silver coin adapted in some
manner to the purposes of exchange, although
it bore no impression. The Hebrew talent
(hikkar) contained 60 maneh, and there were
60 shekels in a maneh. The Maccabees were
the first Jewish rulers to issue money in the
strict sense of the word. Their silver shekels
were probably first coined in 141 b.c. by Simon
Maccabmus, weighed about 220 grains troy,
and were worth a little more than two
shillings. The obveree represented a pot of
manna or a sacred vessel with the wording
** Shekel of Israel," the reverse a' floral device,
conjectured to be Aaron’s rod budding, and the
legend “Jerusalem the holy.**


Bh^bnirtie, William Fettt, 1st Marquis
or Lan8Dow|7E, better known as Lord Shrl-
BURNS, statesman, was born at Dublin on May
20th, 1737. He was descended on the side of
his father, the 1st Earl of Shelburne, from
the ancient Irish family of Fitzmaurice, and
through his mother from the celebrated Sir
William Petty. He was educated privately
and at Christ Church, Oxford. After serying
in the army he entered Parliament as member
for High Wycombe (1760), but hie father dying
in the following year he never actually sat in
the House of Commons. He at first supported
Bute, but subsequently joined the Opposition
under the elder ritt, and, after the fall of the
Rockingham Ministry, was made Secretary of
State. This office he retained till 1768. He
vigorously opposed Lord North’s policy in re-
gard botn to John Wilkes and the American
colonies, and on his retirement (1782) accepted
the office of Home Secretary in the second
Rockingham Administration. Shelburne suc-
ceeded the Marquis of Rockingham as Prime
Minister, but he was deserted by Fox, who
united with North to form the Coalition, and,
after seven months’ tenure of power, he was
forced to resign. In 1784 he was made Mar-
quis of Lansdowne. During the remainder of
his life he took little part in politics, and died
in London on May 7th, 1805. He was on© of
the most unpopular statesmen of the time,
being accused of insincerity and disloyalty to
hie comrades. He was deficient in tact and
the knack of managing men, but seems to have
been a politician of independent views and to
have had the courage to prefer measures before
men. He was a keen debater and fine orator,
and amongst the earliest and most zealous ad-
vocates of Free Trade. He y^as besides a warm
and enlightened patron of literature and the
fine arts.

Sheldrake, a bird belonging to the genus
Tadorna, of the Duck family, with seven
species, from the Palaearctic and Australian
regions. The hind toe is free, and in the
male there is a frontal knob at the base of
the bill. 'Phe Common Sheldrake (T. cornuta or
vulpanser) is one of the most beautiful of the
family. The head and neck are dark glossy
green ; this colouring is separated by a white
collar from a broad band of bright bay, and
the rest of the plumage is black and white,
with some grey. The speculum is a rich bronze-
green. The male is about two feet long; the
female is somewhat smaller, and has the colour
less brilliant. It is found on. sandy coasts in
Great Britain, and usually nests in a rabbit-
hole, whence its local name of the Burrow-duck*
The Ruddy Sheldrake fP. rutila) is a rare
visitor to the British Isles.

SheU, a hollow projectile within which is
placed a bursting-charge of gunpowder or
other explosive m.^terial, furnish^ with a fuse
to ignite it at the moment desired. Shells are
said to have been first employed by the Sultan
of Gujerat in the latter part of the 15th cea-



sitelliitt. ( 227 )


tury. They are commonly made of cast-iron
or steel. The oriMal type, which survives in
the common shell, was spherical, being fired
from a mortar or smooth-l^re cannon, and was
invariably filled with powder. Shrapnel shells,
invented by Colonel Henry Shrapnel, E.A.
(1761-1842), are filled with bullets and a small
bursting-charge of sufiicient power to split the
shell without impeding the flight of the bullets,
which then spread over a wide area, their speed
remaining unaltered. The Shrapnel shell, being
now used for rifle guns, is elongated in form.
Palliser shells, invented by Sir William Pal-
liser ^1830-82), have sharp-pointed heads which
are almost solid, and become chilled by being
cast in iron moulds, the result being that their
hardness enables them to pierce ships’ armour
to a very great depth ; the explosion takes place
without the use of fuses.

Shellac. [Lac.]

Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, novelist,
daughter of William Godwin, political philoso-
pher, and his wife, Mary Wollstonecraft, was
born in Somers Town, London, on August 30th,
1797. Her mother, a brave and remarkable
woman, authoress of the Vindication of the
Eights of Woman, which initiated many re-
forms in social life and whose views have
largely been realised, died soon after her birth.
Godwin remarried a widow, Mrs. Clairmont,
a commonplace woman, who inspired no affec-
tion in the motherless child. He superintended
her education and, despite a cold exterior, be-
came Mary’s companion. As she grew up, her
mother’s memory was idolised by her. Her
love for literature, the intellectual friends of
her father (Charles Lamb among others^, and
desire for knowledge helped in the develop-
ment of her bold and active mind. In 1812
and again in 1814 she met Percy Bysehe Shel-
ley, who was both her needy father’s benefac-
tor and disciple. The estrangement between
the poet and his wife had then reached an
acute stage. Mary Godwin and he were
mutually drawn to each other and their affec-
tion rapidly ripened. Godwin forbade Shelley
his house and Mary, believing in Harriet Shel-
ley’s faithlessness, left home with her step-
sister Jane (henceforth called Claire) Clairmont
on July 28th, 1814, meeting Shelley at five
o’clock in the morning near Hatton Garden.
They went to I>over -and finding the packet

f one crossed the Channel in a sailing boat.

lary’s literary life now started. Their ad-
ventures are recorded in her History of a Six
Weeks* Tour. They returned to England and
in February, 1815, a girl was born to them who
died in March, and, in the same year, on the
death of Shelley's grandfather his circum-
stances improved. He then settled .£200 a
year on his wife. In January, 1816, a son,
William, was born, and in May, accompanied
by Claire, they again went to Switzerland,
where they met Lord Byron. During this visit
it was proposed that each of them should
write a tale of horror and the celebrated


FrankenBinn was the outooinc of Mary’s listen-
ing to a talk between the poeta on the re-
animation of a corpse. The atory of the
student (whose name is often misquoted for the
monster he created) who discovered the princi-
ciple of life and determined to create a being
superior to man, which drove its creator to the
verge of madness and to death, is an extraor-
dinary and not very healthy production for a
girl of uinoteen. On December 10th Shelley
wife was found drowned in tragic circum-
stances, and on the 30th he married Mary at
St. Mildreds Church, in the City of London.
In 1817 a second daughter, Clara, was born,
who died in 1818. To the deep grief of hie
parents William died in Home, on June 7th,
1819, and the cloud of sorrow was only lifted
when, on the following November 12th, their
second son, Percy Florence, was born in the
city whose name the poet linked with that ot
the boy. Mary's second tale, Valperga, a
romance of mediaeval Italy, admired by Shel-
ley, was written in 1820. In 1822 Shelley was
drowned, and in June, 1823, his l^idow, in great
distress, returned to England. Her father-in-
law, Sir Timothy, offered to provide for the boy
if she would resign him into his charge, a
proposal Mary indignantly declined ; but when
Shelley’s son by Harriet died the baronet recog^
nised the propriety of providing for his heir.
Her health was broken by her struggles for
her sou’s sake. In 1840 she revisited Italy
with Percy and two college friend® : in 1842
they made another tour, also visiting Ger-
many, and when, in April, 1844, Sir Timothy
died Mary’s long endeavour not to incur debt
was rewarded by comparative affluence. She
died on February Ist, 1851, in London, es-
teemed for her intellectual qualities, devoted
as a daughter, wife and mother. Many of her
writings have fallen into neglect, but frafiken^
stein and her valuable biographical and critical
notes on Shelley will preserve her memory.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, poet, essayist, and
reformer, was the eldest son of Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Timothy Shelley, of Field Place, near
Horsham, Sussex, England. Here, on the 4th
of August, 1792, he was born. His education
l>?gan, at the age of six, at a day-echopj. at
Warnham, and was continued at Sion Hons*’ .
Brentford, then at Eton, and finally at Uni-
versity College, Oxford, whence, in March, 1811,
he was expelled for having circulated a tract
on The Necessity of Atheism. A few months
later he eloped with a schoolfellow of his
sister's, Harriet Westbrook, to whom he was
married in Edinburgh on August 28th, 1811,
with the result that his allowance from his
father was stopped, to his great inconvenience.
Alx)ut this time he came under the influence of
the writings of William Godwin, and entered
into a correspondence with that philosopher.
Becoming enthusiastic in the cause of Catholic
Emancipation and of Bepeal, he wrote an ad-
dress to the Irish people, and in 1812, ac-
companied by his wife^ went to Dublin, and



Sliilliir*


( 228 >


ttultit.


them published it. Under the insistent per*
suasion of Uodwin he abandoned thi^ enisade,
and on leading Ireland he and his idle stayed
for a while in Wales and Uynmouth, in Beron-
shire. His behaviour while at Lynmouth in
disseminating revolutionary publications was
brought to the notice of the Government, and.



PERCY BYSariK SHELLEY,


after printing at Barnstliple A Letter to Lord
Ellenhorough asserting the liberty of the press,
he returned to Wales. In 1813 his first notable
poem. Queen Mah, was privately printed. Soon
after this, his marriage with Harriet Westbrook
having been prompted by chivalry rather than
any warmer feeling, he fell in love with Mary
Wollstonecraft Goa win, daufirhter of the philo-
sopher, herself a person of remarkable literary
gifts, who in 1816 wrote Frankenstein, and sur-
vived to edit Shelley's Poems (1839) and Letters
(1840). In 1814 he made provision for his wife's
maintenance and left her and went with Mary
Godwin to the C5ontinent. Lamentable as was
this step in a moral sense, the development of
Shelley’s poetical genius was unquestionably a
consequence of it. Early in 1816 his grand-
father, Sir Bysehe Shelley, died, and, as
the heir to the title and the property, he now
received an allowance of .£1,000 a year from
his father, of which he set apart JB200 for his
wife. In tlie following year (1816) he published
AlaMor, or the Spirit of Solitude, etc. ; and on
his return from a second Continental trip with
Mary, during which they were much with Lord
Byron, they settled at Great Marlow, where
they for the most part lived during the rest of
his life in England. In November of 1816
Harriet drowned herself, and a month later,
at the instance of Godwin, he legalised his
relation with Mary. In 1817 the Hymn to
Intellectual Beauty appeared, and in 1818 Hie
MetoUof Isimi. Early in the latter year he and
his family removed to Italy, He now set to woric
upon Promthem Unh&umd, completed BmUni and


Helen, and wrote his JuVmn and Maddah and
other pieces. His tragedy, the Cend, belongs to
1819, as do Hie Masque of Anarchy and P&tet pell
the Third. In 1820 appeared Promd^ie IMmnd
and (Edipus Tyrannus, while The Witok of Atlas
was written. In 1821 came Epipsychidion and
Adonais — a lament for John Keats — and in 1822
Hellas. The poet, splendid as had been his
achievements, seemed hardly yet to have reached
the full measure of his greatn^s ; but in 1822,
when he was only in his thirtieth year, his
career was brought to an Untimely and tragical
close. He and his friend Edward WilliamSjj
with a sailor-lad, were returning from Leghorn
to Lerici in a cutter belonging to himself and
Williams, when they were caught in a squall,
and all three were drowned. After a time the
remains were recovered, and on August 16th
Shelley’s body was cremated, his ashes being
buried in the Protestant cemetery at Eome
on the 7th of December. By Harriet he had
two children, and by Mary four, the youngest
of whom, Percy Florence, became third
baronet, and survived till 1889. Among Shel-
ley’s more notable contributions to prose are- a
translation of Plato’s Banquet and The De-
fence of Poetry. As a reformer he has, in spite
of an ardour passionate almost beyond example,
exercised little influence, for he was neimer
practical on the one hand, nor had he philo-
sophic insight on the other. But as a poet,
good cause might be shown for placing him
next after Shakespeare and Milton. If to most
of his creations there is a faintness of outline
which makes them hard reading for thow
who lack the poetic temperament, it is still
true that in sheer inspiration, in rapture and
exaltation, he ranks with, if not before, the
very greatest of English poets.

Shelta, a cant language used by cairds or
tinkers, beggars and tramps. It is to be met
with in Ireland, Wales and the Highlands of
Scotland. To Charles Godfrey Leland (1824-
1903), the creator of “Hans Breitmann,” belongs
the credit of discovering it. He first was at-
tracted to it by hearing it on the lips of an
English vagabond on the Bath road in 1876;
in the following year he heard it from a
vagrant near Aberystwith, and in 1877 he came
across it again from an Irish tinker in Phila-
delphia, who assured him it was the language
spoten by the Piets. Leland wae proud of his
discovery, his great contribution to philology.
In a letter he wrote in 1902, quoted in Mrs.
Elizabeth Eobins Pennell’s biography of her
uncle, Leland says that Shelta “has yielded a
large crop of legends and poems, and is rapidly
being recognised as the corner-stone of British
Celtic literature.** David MacEitchie, follow-
ing up the discoverer’s research, endorsed this
and published an article on “Shelta: the
Cairds* Language*’ in Vol. xxiv. of Tht
Transactions of the GaeUc Society of Inverness •
Dr. Euno Meyer identified it with Ogham, an
obscure speech affected by the apeient Irish*
and John Sampsou considered it “a back-



( 229 )




and liiyming cant based on old or pre-
aspirated Irwib Gaelic.*^ To more profane, if
less scholarly, persons, on the other hand, the
jargon has seemed an artificial gibberish, in*
vented for purposes of secrecy and mystification
and used as ii it were a kind of masonic Ian-
gnag®-

Slioiistonei William, poet, was born on his
father's estate, the Leaeowes at Halesowen, in
Worcestershire, England, on November 13th,
1714. His first teacher was Sarah Lloyd, whom
he celebrated in The Schoolmistress, and from
her he passed to Halesowen Grammar School
and a private tutor at Solihull, and finally en-
tered Pembroke College, Oxford. After his
father’s death in 1745 he lived quietly at the
I^aso-wes, devoting himself zealously to land-
scape-gardening. He died on February 11th,
1763, and was buried in Halesowen Church-
yard. His Elegies, which are graceful, though
tedious, fascinated Robert Burns; but it is
mainly by the Pastoral Ballad and The School-
mistress (1742) that he has secured a permanent
place in literature. Their simplicity of diction
and directness of sentiment contrast strongly
with the artificiality of contemporary verse.
His letters and essays are not without consider-
able merit.

Sliepherd’s-piivse (Capaella Bnrsa-pastoris'),
a cruciferous weed, native to Europe, which has
spread all over the world. It has a rosette of
radical leaves and an elongating, corymbose,
lax-erect raceme of minute white flowers, which
are followed by the heart-shaped, angustisept
si^iquas, the septum of which bears numerous
yellow seeds. It is also known as “pickpocket,”
perhaps from behaving as a noxious weed on
good soil, and as “ pick-your-mother’s-heart-
oat.”

Sheppard, John, usually called Jack Shep-
pard, criminal and prison-breaker, was born
at Stepney, London, in 1702. He was brought
up in Bishopsgate Workhouse, and afterwards
employed by a cane-chair mender, whom he left
owing to ill-usage. He was then befriended by
a woollen-draper, who taught him to write and
•sum and apprenticed him to a carpenter. Loose
company soon led him from the paths of
virtue and he rapidly became known as the
most dexterous thief in London. His accom-
plices were Bess Lyon (“Edgeworth Bes8”b
Poll Maggott, and “ Blueskin (Joseph Blake).
Locks, tK^lts and bars seemed to have no
terrors for him. Once before he could escape
lie had to remove his irons, cut through a
double grating of oak and iron bars, descend 25
feet by a lEiheet and blanket, and climb a wall
22 feet high (which he achieved with a pal on
his back). He was condemned to death at the
Old l^ailey on August 14th, 1724, but on the
31st (the warrant not having been signed yet)
he elfeete^ his escape. Captured on ^pt ember
10th he was again confined in Newgate, the
dha^pel bein^ crammed three days later with
persons anxious to get a sight of him. On the


Shoirfttoiif


X6th he was at liberty f^ain* but nine days
afterwards was re-taken a ta^rn in Clare
Market, where he had been foolish enough to
drink himself incapable. This time he was
watched day and night in Newgate, and, ac-
cepting the inevitable, was hanged at l^burn
on November 16th, his body being buned in
the churchyard of St. Martin’s-in-tihe-Pielde,
where the National Gallery now stands.

81ieppe3r (that is, “the isle of sheep”), for-
merly consisting of the islands of Sheppey,
Elmley and Harty, now practically one, an
island oft' the north coast of Kent, England.
It is separated from the mainland by the Swale
and the estuary of the Medway, and has an
area of some 30,000 acres, including water, with
a length of nine and a breadth of five miles.
Marshy to the south, it rises to the height of
60 or 80 feet in the north; and the soil, con-
sisting wholly of London Clay, is fertile and
yields good corn-crops, besides pasturing large
flocks of sheep, for wie excellence of which the
island still enjoys a reputation. Sheerness lies
at the north-west extremity, Queenborough is
on the west side, and on the north is Minster-
in-Sheppey, the most interesting place in the
isle, having in the church of St. Mary and St.
Sexburga, though only a fragment of the ori-
ginal conventual church, the oldest abbey
church of the Saxon period in England.

Shopton Malleti a town of Somersetshire,
England, 5 miles S.E. of Wells. Before the
Conquest Shepton 'was known as Sepeton and
had then belonged to Glastonbury Abbey for
four centuries. The manor afterwards passed
into the hands of a baron named Mallet, in
whose family it remained till the reign of John,
when it became forfeit to the Crown in con-
sequence of the baron Mallet of the period sid-
ing with liis order against the king. It is now
held by the Prince of Wales as Huke of Corn-
wall. In 1685 the Duke of Monmouth and
his men visited it twice, an excess of zeal
which Bloody Jeffreys acknowledged by sentenc-
ing twelve of his followers to be hanged in the
market-place. The principal structures are the
church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Transitional
and Perpendicular styles; the Grammar Sciiool.
founded in 1627 ; the Town Buildings, the
court-house in the Tudor style, the District
Hospital in the Gothic style, and Strode’s Alms-
houses. The manufactures include cloth (the
town was once noted for its West of Eng-
land cloth), knitted stockings, silk, velvet and
crape, in addition to brewing, rope-making and
brick- and tile-making. The Market Cross,
originally built in 1500, is 51 feet high, was re-
stored in 1841, and is one of the finest examples
in the shire. Pop. (1901), 5,238.

ShevatOlly Thomas, furniture-designer, was
bom at Stockton-on-Tees, Durham, England#
in 1751, Without any regular education his
artistic leanings constrained him to teach him-
self drawing and geometry. He was taught
eabinet-makmg, but While as a practical work-





( 230 )


WkwMm.


man he failed, his shill as a desifipaer <»f furni-
tnre placed him in the front rank of technical
artism. In 1790 he came to London and lired
in Soho where, in his house, half shop and half
dwelling-house, he is described by Adam Black
in his Memoirs. Black, who as a youth had
been employed by Sheraton, calls him a ‘‘worn-
out encyclopedist ... a man of genuine
piety . . . draws masterly ; is author, book-

seller and teacher ... by attempting to do
everything he does nothing.*’ He published
The Cahimt^ Maher's and Upholsterer's Drawing^
Booh in 1791. In 1803 The Cabinet Dictionary,
or Bwplaeiation of all Terms used in the Cabinet,
Chair and Upholstery Branches appeared, and in
the following year he began the publication of
Ths Cabinet-Maker and General Artist's Bncyclo-
pcedia, a folio to be completed in 126 parts, of
which he only lived to issue 30. This is not to
be regretted as, yielding to the fashion of the
day, the designs wdre of the woret type and
connoisseurs would gladly forget that poverty
tempted him to forsake his own high ideals.
The equal of Chippendale and Heppelwhite he
exceeded them in literary ability. Here is the
idea which governed his art: “In furnishing a
good house for a person of rank it requires some
taste and judgment that each apartment may
have such pieces as is most agreeable to the
appropriate use of the room.” “The drawing-
room IS to concentrate the elegance of the whole
house . . . being appropriated to the for-
mal visits of the highest m rank . “ Patriotically
ho urged English ciaftsmen not to be led away
W French fashions but to improve their own.
His works were published by subscription and
he travelled far to gain subscribers. Although
his designs were regarded with “superstitious
reverence,” he was never prosperous and eked
out his income by teaching drawing. He con-
sistently held to his religious principles, was
an occasional preacher in Baptist chapels, and
wrote also upon religious subjects. He died
in Soho, London, on October 22nd, 1806, leaving
his family in straitened circumstances, and he
whose furniture is often so exquisite patheti-
cally eaid, in allusion to his ill-fortune, “I can
be well content to sit on a wooden-bottom chair
provided I can have but common food and
raiment.”

SllorbornOf a towm of Dorsetshire, England, on
the Yeo 6 miles E. of Yeovil. It was the capi-
tal of Wessex and King Ina made it a bishop-
ric, which was removed to Old Sarum (Salis-
bury) in 1078. About this date, or possibly a
little earlier, a Benedictine abbey had been
founded, the minster of which was sold, after
the dissolution of monasteries in Henry VIH/s
reign, to the inhabitant®. The noble church
still survives, partly Norman but mostly Per-
pendicular, and contains behind the high altar
the graves of Ethelbald and Ethelbert, elder
brothers of Alfred the Great. The first castle,
originally the episcopal palace, was besieged in
the wars of Stephen and Maud and, during the
Commonwealth, was held for Charles till it was


captured by Fairfax in 1645, dismantled and
gradually became ruinous. The modem castle
was in part built by Sir Walter Baleigh,
upon whom Elizabeth conferred the manor.
On JRaleigh’s attainder, James I. gave it to
his favourite, Carr, from whom it passed to the
Higbys, the present lords. It is separated from
the ruined castle by a lake and stands in a
magnificent park in which are large herds of
deer. In its dairy is a Roman tessellated pave-
ment discovered at Lenthay Common. Sher-
borne Grammar School, occupying part of the
eite of Hie abbey, was founded by Edward VI.
and holds a prominent rank among the public
schools of the country. The Hospital of St.
John was founded by Benedictines on the site
of an earlier Augustmian house in 1405-6, and
re-founded in 1436-7 by Bobert Nevill, Bishop
of Salisbury. The Macready Literary Institu-
tion was established in 1850 and named after
the great tragedian, who spent several of his
declining years in the town, and the Yeatman
Memorial Hospital was built in 1866. The
manufactures of woollens, buttons and lace,
once flourishing, have given place to silk-throw-
ing and glove-making. The Sherborne Pageant,
held at intervals and managed on an elaborate
scale, attracts large numbers of spectators.
Pop. (1901), 5,753.

SherbrookOf Robert Lowe, Viscount, states-
man, was born at Bingham rectory, Notting-
hamshire, England, on December 4th, 1811, and
received his education at Winchester and Uni-
versity College, Oxford. For some years he was
a famous private “coach” in that university,
but from 1843 to 1851 he was in Australia,
where he at first practised at the bar,^ and
afterwards took a prominent part in political
life. In 1852 he entered Parliament as M.P.
for Kidderminster, and after holding various
minor oflices became Paymaster-General under
l4ord Palmerston. He was Vice-President of
the Council on Education from 1859 to 1864,
and introduced the Revised Code of 1860, which
arranged for payment by results. As leader
of the “ Adullamites ” and still more by his
articles in The Times he was infiuential in
causing the rejection of the Reform Bill of
1666. After aiding in the disestablishment of
the Irish Church, he became Chancellor of the
Exchequer under Mr. Gladstone in 1868 (his
tenure of office being memorable for the ob-
loquv, somewhat cheap and theatrical, aroused
by his proposal in 1871 to tax lucifer matches a
halfpenny a box), removing to the Home Office
in 1873. In 1880 he was raised to the peerage.
His Poems of a Life appeared in 1884, and he
die<i at Warlingham in Surrey on July 27th,
1892.

Sheridaiii Philip Henby, the most dashing of
the generals who fought in the American Civil
War, was born at Somerset, Ohio, on March
6th, 1831. Obtaining a cadetship at West
Point, ho graduated in 1853 and received hie
commission. In 1854 he was appointed to the
4th Infantry in Texas and during an attack on




Skeridaii.


(231 )


the Indians at the Cascades, Washington Terri-
tory (now State), attracted special attention by
his bravery under fire. During the unhappy
Civil War his talents won rapid recognition.
In 1862 he obtained command of the 11 th Di-
vision of the Army of the Ohio under General
Buell, taking part in the fierce battle of Per-
ry ville. At Murfreesboro one of the longest
battles of the campaign was fought, and his
tactical skill and gallantry during several hours
in the first day's fighting gained him his
commission as major-general. At Chattanooga
ho again distinguished himself and when U. S.
Grant establidied his headquarters in Virginia,
in March, 1864, Sheridan was made comman-
der of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the
Potomac. From May 27tli to June 24th he was
engaged almost daily and when the Middle
Muitary Division was constituted in August
General Grant placed him in command. Op-
portunity at length came to attack the
Southern leader, General Early. Obtaining
Grant^s laconic permission, “Go in ! *’ Sheridan
proceeded vigorously, routing the enemy, cap-
turing 3,000 prisoners and five guns, sending
Early, he said, “whirling through Winchester. “
The following day President Lincoln rewarded
him with a brigadier-generalship in the re-
gular Army. Sheridan started in pursuit of
Early and when they came to battle the losses
on both sides were about equal, but the North-
ern general succeeded in capturing many guns
and small arms. He continued the pursuit
but, finding it useless, returned, devastating
the country and making it untenable for the
enemy. His success secured Maryland and
Pennsylvania against the danger oi' invasion.
Then followed the most renowned operations of
his adventurous career. Early with reinforce-
ments surprised the Northern army during a
fog at Cedar Creek on October 19th and cap-
tured 24 guns and 1,400 prisoners. Sheridan,
who h^id been summoned to Washington for
consultation, was then at Winchester. Hearing
the din of battle he dashed off with an escort of
only twenty men, rallied the fugitives he met
during his ride of twelve miles (celebrated in
the stirring poem “ Sheridan's Ride “) and when
he reached his troops was greeted with wild
enthusiasm. After making hasty preparations
he ordered an advance and swept the enemy
off the fiield. Not onlv were their guns re-
covered, but 24 Confederate guns with wag-
gons and stores were taken. Congress passed
a vote of thanks to him and to his troops for
their brilliant series of victories and he was
again promoted for personal gallantry. In
February, 1865, he once more defeated Early
at Waynesboro, and, in the final campaign on
April 1st, entrapped and routed Pickett and
Johnson^ft forces at Five Forks, taking thou-
sands of prisoners. The engagement proved
decisive. General Robert I^e was soon in
flight witih Sheridan in pursuit. On April 9th
the power of the Confederates was broken by
their surrender at Appomattox Court House
and although desultory engagements continued


SliariiM.


until later the war was practically ended.
Sheridan subsequently conducted an expedi-
tion into North Carolina and held commands
in New Orleans and elsewhere. During the
Franco-German War he visited Europe, oeing
present as a spectator with the German forces.
When General Sherman retired in March, 1884,
Sheridan was appointed Commander-in-Chief of
the Army of the United States. He died on
August 5th, 1888, at Nonquit, Massachusetts.
Highly esteemed both by Bismarck and Moltke,
his energy and self-reliance in time of danger
were conspicuous, and he is regarded as tiie
most brilliant cavalry officer the United States
has produced.

Sheridan, Richaed Beinslky Butlbe, dra-
matist, orator, and statesman, was born in



HJCHARO BftlMSLKY SHKllIUAN.


Dublin on October 30th, 1751, son of Thomas
Sheridan (1719-88), actor and lexicographer,
and grandhon of Dr. Thomas Sheridan (1687-
1738), the friend of Dean Swift. He was
educated at a school in Dublin and after-
wards at Harrow. He entered the Middle
Temple on April 6th, 1773, and a week later
married Elizabeth Ann Linley, the beautiful
singer, whom he had really married im the
previous year at a village near Calais, whih*
escorting her to France to avoid the odione
persecution of a rou4 named Mathews. His
first notable dramatic achievement was The
Rivals, which appeared with great iclat in
1775, and was followed by the farce St. Pat^
rick's Day, and this by the opera The Duenna,
a brilliant success. In 1776 he acquired a share
in Drury Lane Theatre. Here, in 1777, he
produced the Trip to Scarborough, adapted
from Sir John Vanbrugh’s Relapse, and his
finest comedy, The School for Scandal. Here,
too, was recited, in 1779, his Monody to the
Memory of Garrick. In th© same year he pro-
duced Pizarro and his last original play, The
Critic. By the influence of Fox he was elects
for Stafford in 1780, and two years later en-
tered the Rockingham Ministry as Under-




mmtMu


( 282 )


Secwlmi^ of State for Foreign iJEair% ^tiring
with hie friend Fox» and in 1783 heooming
Secretary to the Treasury in the short^liTed
Coalition Mini&try. Many years later — in 1806
—he bfcame Treasurer of the Navy ; but he had
little capacity for office, and hie parliamentary
gifts found more appropriate exercise during
the long spell of opposition between the Coali-
tion Ministry and the Fox and Grenville Ad-
ministration. His “Begum” speech, delivered
in 1787 in the impeachment of Warren Haet-
ings, was declarea by so unsympathetic an
auditor as Fitt to have “surpassed all the elo-
quence of ancient and modern times.” In the
rupture between Fos and Burke, Sheridan re-
mained faithful to the former. He opposed the
union between Great Britain and Ireland and
succeeded Fox in the representation of West-
minster (1806), a seat which he held for only a
few months* but was returned for Ilohester in
1807, which he retained till 1812. A strong
advocate of the Prince of Wales's cause in
the Regency debates in 1789, he became the
Prince's boon companion, and his indefensible
action in oonnection with Prince George in 1810
deprived him of the confidence of the other
Whig leaders, and virtually marks the close of
hiri political career. Always reckless and ex-
travagant, he was often in pecuniary difficul-
ties; and at last, by the burning down of
Brury Bane Theatre in 1809, followed by ex-
pensive elections, he was reduced to poverty,
the last four years of his life, when, having lost
his seat* he was no longer safe from the
bailiffs, being spent in attempts to evade his
creditors. He died on the 7th of July, 1816,
and was buried with great pomp in Westmin-
ster Abbey. A few vears after the death of his
first wife, to whom be was devoted, he married
Esther Jane Ogle, daughter of the Bean of
Winchester.

Sheriff is the chief officer, of the Crown in
every county in England. He does all the
sovereign's business in the county, the Crown
by letters patent committing the custody of
the county to him. The judges, together with
the other great officers and privy councillors,
meet in the Exchequer on the morrow (Novem-
ber 12th) of St. Martin yearly, and then and
there the judges propose three persons from
each county to be reported, if approved of, to
the King, who afterwards appoints one of them
(usually the first on the list) to be sheriff, and
such appointment generally takes place about
the end of the following Hilary Term. The
final ceremony of selection is Known as the
“pricking for sheriffs,” because the sovereign
“pricks off,” or pierces the lists with a punch
opposite the names of the persons appointed.
If a sheriff die during his term of office, the
appointment of another is the mere act of the
Grown. The duties of a sheriff in England are
dhleffy ministerial, the execution of writs
and orders of the courts, thqu^ he hhs a
jndieial office in the assessment of damages with
the assistance of vn Jury, yrhin'e judgment has


IhievlOiiEi.


gone by default against a delendaiit in iie
superior courts. But iu Scotland the Sheriff is
the chief judge of the county, his civil jurii&o-
tion extending to all personal actions on con-
tract, bond, or obligation to the greatest ex-
tent, also by a statute of the reign of Victoria
to actions relating to a heritable right where
the value of the subject matter does noieitceed
.£50 per annum or <£1,000 value and to all
possessory actions as removings, spuilzies, etc.,
to all brieves issuing from &ancery in Scot-
land, as of inquest, teroe division, tutory, etc.,
and generally to all civil matters not specially
committed to other courts. He has also a sum-
mary jurisdiction in regard to small debts as
well as a criminal jurisdiction.

Sheviffmiiir, a moorland tract on the north-
western flanks of the Ochils, Perthshire, Scot-
land, 2^ miles E. by N. of Bunblane. It is
noted as the scene of the chief conflict of the
first Jacobite rising. On the 13th of November,
1715, the Jacobites, 8,400 strong, under the
Earl of Mar, met the Royalists, 3,600 strong,
under the Duke of Argyll, and after a fierce
combat in which both sides won successes in
detail, victory declared for neither party. But
though it was a drawn battle, Argyll derived
all the material advantages, for Mar retreated
after nightfall. The Old Pretender's cause col-
lapsed shortly afterwards. The Rev. John Bar-
clay (1734-98) wrote a sarcastic ballad on the
battle and its futilities, which Robert Burns
revised.

Sherlock, Thomas, Bishop of London, was
born in London in 1678, and educated at Eton
and St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge. He took
holy orders and in 1704 was appointed Master
of the Temple, in succession to his father. In
1711 he was made chaplain to Queen Anne and
other Church appointments followed rapidly.
He became Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral
in 1713, Master of St. Catherine’s Hall and
Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University in
1714, Bean of Chichester in 1715, Canon of Nor-
wich in 1719, Bishop of Bangor in 1728, and
Bishop of London in 1748, after he had refueed
the see of York (1743) and Canterbury (1747).
He died at Fulham, London, on July 18th,
1761. He took the leading part against Bishop
Hoadley in the Bangorian controversy (1717)
and his best- known book was The Tryal of the WiU
nesses of the Resurrection of Jesus (1729).

Sherlock, William, Bean of St. Panl’s and
father of the preceding, was born at South-
wark, London, about 1641, and educated at
Eton and Peterhouse, Cambridge. He took holy
orders and in 1669 wag preferred to the rectory
of St. George's, Botolph Lane, London, and in
1685 was appointed master of the Temple. A
believer in tne divine right of kings ana al^ a
strong opponent of Popery he managed to sur-
vive the reign of James 11. without leas of
place. At the Revolution he acted with the
Nonjiprors, but took the oath in 1696. In the
preoeding year he had published Ms moat popn«





{ 233 )


iar book, Pmc^^ca^ Discouru concerning Death.
Having made Ms peace with Crown and Cbur^,
he was prelerred to the Beanery of St. Paura
in 3.691. He died at Hampstead, London, on
June 19th., 1707. His Vindication of the
Doctrine of the Trinity (1690) plunged him into
more controversy than he canea for, much as he
liked disputation. His enemies accused Mm of
maintaining tritheism and his doctrine was con-
demned at Oxford as false, impious and
heretical” (1695). In his Present State of the
Socinian Controversy (1698) he seceded from the
positions which had been assailed and was open
to Robert South's taunt, " There is hardly any
one subject that he has wrote upon (that of
Popery only excepted) but he has wrote for and
against it too.”

Sherman, William Tecumseh, general, was
born in Lancaster, Ohio, United States, on
February 8th, 1820. He graduated at West
Point, was engaged in the Indian warfare of
the early 'forties and took part in the Mexican
War of 1846. He returned to civil life in 1853,
but, on the outbreak of the Secession War,
entered the Northern Army, and distinguished
himself under Grant at Shiloh (April, 1862) and
Chattanooga (November, 1863), Appointed to
tho command of the south-western division in
March, 1864, he proceeded to operate against
General J, E. Johnston, the chief point of his
attack being Atlanta in Georgia. As long as
Johnston remained in command he was batfied
by his skill in manoeuvring, but when he was
superseded by Hood a series of battles ensued,
in which the Confederates were invariably
beaten, and in September Atlanta surrendered.
On November 16th he set out on his famous
march to the sea, which occupied 28 days and
was followed by the fall of Savannah. In the
early months of 1865 Sherman gained numerous
successes in the Carolinas, and on April 26th
the Confederate army under Johnston surren-
dered at Durham Station. When Grant be-
came President Sherman was appointed General
and Commander-in-Chief (1869^ but in 1874
he retired at his own request. He died at New
York on February 14th, 1891.

Sberrjry the English name of a Spanish wine
which is made from grapes grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Xeres or Jerez dc la Frontera,
Andalusia. The qualities of the wine, which is
made both from white and red grapes, are
owing to the nature of the soil, which is com-
posed of carbonate of lime, magnesia, clay, and
silex. The grapes, after drying, are placed in
vats and covered with a layer of gypsum, and
then trodden. The wine is allowed to ferment
for a cotiple of months, is then racked off, and
that whiim is intended for exportation is forti-
ded with brandy. Sherry is at its best after
fifteen or twenty years in bottle, wine
owes its nutty flavour to an admixture of
hitter almonds. The best Sherry is Amontillado,
the 8ii||>ly being limited by the small district
‘wiilcli possesses the snitable soil. Cadis is the
lislneipal seat' of exportation.




Skftrarood a sylvan MUy tract in

Central England, which lihy he roughly eon*
sidered as extending from Nottingham to
Worksop, a distance of 25 miles, north and
south, by about 8 miles in width, but in
former times, in the pre-enclosure period, em-
braced a much wider area. Important towns
like Mansfield and Chesterfield have grown up
within the region and the private parks of tiie
Dukes of Portland (Welbecx Abbey), Newcaajtl©
(Clumber), and Devonshire (Hardwick) ire
also to be found within the territory. Tra-
ditionally the Forest is associated with the
Dragon of Wantley and, much more certainly,
with the exploits of Robin Hood, “the Englii^
ballad-singer's joy.”

Shetlaadf or Zetland, Islands, the most
northerly county in Scotland, 60 miles N.E.
of the Orkneys, excluding Fair Isle, which be-
longs to Shetland and lies between the two
groups. They extend north and south for



SHETLAND PONIES.


70 miles and have a breadth of 36 milfs, and
occupy an area of 651 square miles. The group
numbers rather more than 100 islands (the
variation being due to where one ceases to
include the uninhabited rocks), of which 29
are inhabited. 'The largest is Mainland (3V8
square miles) and next to it come Yell (83
square mile^, Unst (47 ^uare miles), Petlair,
Bressay, Whalsay and Foula. %e highest
points are Ronas (1,475 feet) in the north-west
of Mainland, and the Sneug (1,372 feet) in
Foula. There are several brooks and fresh-
water lakes. The coast k so cui into and in-
dented that no point k farther than three
miles from the sea. The climate is mild, but
damp (rainfall 49 inches a year) and liable to
fog. The coast scenery is extremely fine and
the rock colouring in certain atmo^herie ehn*
ditions beautiful. There are no na^ve tree8»




( 234 )


And the soil is largely moss and ptal. The
principal crops are barley, oats, turnips and
potatoes. Sheep, cattle and pigs are raised,
and especially the ragged Shetland ppnios or
shelties^ from 9 to 10 hands high. The knit-
ting of fine shawls and other articles from the
wool of the native sheep is the characteristic
industry, but the most important is the deep-
sea fishery. The men employed are crofters
and fishermen. Lerwick (4,061) on Bressay
Sound. <ii the east coast of Mainland, the
capital, has a remarkably fine town hall. Shet-
land was subject to Norway until 1468, when
along with the Orkneys it was pledged with
the ICing of Scotland for the dowry of the
Danish princess Margaret. In 1766 the group
was sold bv the Earl of Morton to Sir Law-
rence Dunoas, ancestor of the present Earl of
Zetland, who derives his title irom the group.
The Norse tongue lingered in Foula till 1774.
Of the Piets, Oie earliest inhabitants, numer-
ous examples of their weems, or underground
dwellings, still exist as well as specimens of
the broch, or round tower, notably that on
Mousa, alleged to be the most perfect of its
kind in Europe. Pop. (1901), 28,185.

ShiallisiKL. The world of Islam is divided
into two churches, the Shiah and the Sunni.
The Shiah Church traces its foundation to
the Caliph Ali, first cousin of Mohammed and
husband of his daughter Fatima, and believes
him to have been the first legitimate imam or
successor of the Prophet. It thus rejects the
first three Caliphs of the Sunni Church as
usurpers. Shiahism is the State religion of
Persia and it is estimated that twen^ millions
of Indian Mussulmans are Shiahs. The Sunni
€hurch was founded by Mansur, the second
daliph of the house of Abbas. “The wide ex-
f:ent of the Abbasside Caliphate,” save Ameer
Ali in Iddm (London: Constable), “helped in
the diffusion of its power and influence.” This
writer reckons that fifty millions of Indian
Mohammedans belong to the Sunni Church, as
also do the Mussulmans of China, Tartary,
Afghanistan, Asiatic and European Turkey,
Arabia, Egypt, Northern and Central Africa,
Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bussia, Ceylon, the
traits of Malacca, and the Malay Peninsula,
almost all of whom acknowledge also the
fipiritual headship of the Sultan of Turkey.
*^The question of the title to the spiritual and
temporal headship of Islam,” explains Ameer
Ali, “forms the chief point of difference be-
tween the two churches. The Sunnis are the
advocates of the principle of election; the
Shiahs of apostolical descent by appointment
and succession; and this difference, which is
essentially of a dynastic character, gave birth
to constant quarrels.” Ameer Ali, however,
■believes that ^‘extraneous circumstances** will
ultimately compel both ^iahs and Sunnis “to
realise the necessity of greater harmony and
goodwill,**

has come to mean a party cry
ot watchword. It owes its origin as such to a


passage in the Bible (Judges xii. 6) describing
the war between Jephthan and the Ephraiin
ites. When the latter tried to escape over
the Jordan Jephthah*3 men intercepted them
at the ford, and gave all passers the word
“Shibboleth** to pronounce as a test. The
Ephraimite would say “ Sibboleth,** and thus
betray his nationality.

Shield, an article of personal defence or armop?
which was used from very ancient times
clypeua of classic times was made of |H|al,
and was round in shape; the scutum wW^bp-
long, and generally of wood covered with skin,
and was often convex ; the parma was of skin ;
and the pelta crescent-shaped. The Norman
shield was triangular, becoming at a later
period heart-shaped. The Bayeux Tapestry
and brasses of different dates show us the
modifications of the mediseval shield. The
troduction of fire-arms did away with the
necessity for its use in warfare, and new j
methods of fencii^ rendered it obsolete in
personal combat. The Highlander retained his
targe till a late period. The Zulu warrior
used a shield of hiae which was impervious to
the assegai.

Shield, William, musical composer, bouttm
Swalwell, in Durham, England, on March^||B|i
1748. His father taught him the rudimenti”^i
music and be continued his studies in New^|
castle, while serving his time to a boat-buildei^^
in South Shields. On the advice of Oiardini,*
who knew of his skill as a violinist, he took to
music professionally, and after engagements in
the theatre orchestras of Scarborough, Dur-
ham and Newcastle, he removed to London,
where he became principal viola at the Italian
opera in 1772, a post he held for eighteen years.
The success of his comic opera me Flitch of
Bacon (1778) led to his being appointed com-
poser to Covent Garden. In 1793 he formed,
along with others, the famous Glee Club, and
was an original member of the Philharmonic
Society. He died in London on January 25th,
1829, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He composed the music for more than thirty
plays and wrote many songs that are still ad-
mired, such as “The Thorn,** “The Wolf,**

“ The Arethusaf* and “ Oxfordshire Nancy Be-
witched.**

Shields, Nobth, a seaport of Northumberland,
England, on the north bank of the Tyne at its
mouth, 8 miles E. of Newcastle. Its progress
was studiously repressed by Newcastle for
several centuries, but in the 19th century it
took couragfe to assert itself and soon became
a prosperous community, forming part of the
parliamentaiw borough of Tynemouth. The
principal buildings are the town hall, market,
free library, museum, Tyne Sailors* Home, and
the Master Mariners* Hospital. The chief
docks are the Northumberland (55 acres) and
the Albert Edward (24 acres). The industries
include shipbuilding and the making of
anchors, chain cables, ropes, marine engines#



( 235 )




SkMMJi.


and glaciBa in addition to fisheries. Enormous
quantities of coal are exported annually.
Myles Birket Foster (1825-99), the water-colour
painter and black-and-white artist, was a na-
tive. Pop. (1901), 6,737.


SMtMSy South, a seaport of Durham, England,
on the south bank of the Tyne at its mouth, 8
miles E. of Newcastle, It and North Shields,
with which there is frequent communication
by ferry, are the “twin ports” of the

Tyn||piLough in different counties. It is sup-
poselrto have been a Roman station and de-
rived its name from the fishermen’s huts, or
shiels. The principal buildings are the church
of St. Hilda, the town hall, exchange, the
public library and museum, marine school.
Master Mariners’ Asylum and Ingham Infirm-
a^jy. It was once the seat of a great salt
tirade^ but the chief manufactures now include
chemicals, glass, pottery, boilers, anchors, chain
babies, ropes and sailcloth, besides shipbuild-
ing. The capacious docks and harbour are
protected from the south - east gales by a
huge breakwater, and the fine beach, pro-
menade and marine pai^ have given the
town considerable vogue as a midpmmer re-
k There ie a monument to William Would-
Band Henry Greathed, the inventors of the
(bat, and near it stands the Tyna life-
|oat, at rest after its long and honourable
preer, during which it saved more than a
iiousaad lives. Pop. (1901), 96,267.

a town of Shropshire, England, 17
miles E. by S. of Shrewsbury. It was formerly
called Idesall, which was yet its name when.
In 1691, Elizabeth sanctioned a collection
throughout Shropshire, Staffordshire, Flint-
shire and Montgomeryshire to recoup the
ravages of a conflagration by which it had
been almost entirely destroyed. The church of
3b. Andrew contains exai^’es of the Early
English (the south porch), Transition, Norman,
Decorated and Perpendicular styles. Among
its memorials is one to Mary^ Joseph

Yates, who died in 1776 at the age of 127,
and who is said to have married her third
husband when she was 92. The public buildings
include the mechanics’ institute, library and
market hall. It has iron-foundries and coal-
and iron-mines. Pop. (1901), 3,321.


SMkaxpury a district in Sind, Bombay, India,
tt occupies an area of 9,300 square miles. It
is a vast alluvial plain, part of which contains
patches of salt land, while other parts are
bracts of clay and sandhills. The chief cr<^
are wheat, millet, rice, pulse and oil-seeds,
but tobacco, indigo, sugar-cane and other
plants are cultivated. Agriculture depends al-
most wholly on the Indus canal system and the
river in flood occasionally has wrought great
havoc. The former capital, Shikarpur (49,491),
commands the trade of the Bolan Pass. The
administrative headquarters are situated at
Sulfur. Pop. (1901), 1,018,237.


8hilli0la|rh (Irish, sons of Eluch’’), a bludgeon
carried by irishmen for oi||iameat or usei as
occasion offers. It derives its name from the
forest of oaks in Shillelagh in county Wicklow,
Ireland, which supplied tne wood of which the
cudgels were usually made. The trees also
furnished the timber for the noble roof of
Westminster Hall, which is said to have been
sent over by the King of Leinster to William
Rufus. The “Tipperary rifle” is a longer
staff, quite as stout, of black thoru, from which
tho boughs have been cut off uear enough to
the stem to leave it adorned with bosses which
increase the ugliness of the wounds that tho
weapon can inflict.

Shilling, as an English silver coin, dates
from Henry VII. The present shilling is the
twentieth of a pound sterling, and is equivalent
to 12 pence, and approximately to 25 cents
American, 1*25 franc French, and ITl mark
German. It contains 87*272 grains silver, of a
fineness of 925, the remainder consisting of
cepper alloy. Its bullion value being greatly be-
low its face value, it is really a token of ex-
change, on which account the number of shillings,
or other silver coins, that constitute legal tender
is strictly defined. In the United Kingdom the
legal tender of silver has been fixed at not
more than two pounds. In tho case of the
present coin, therefore, forty ehilliiigs is the
legal tender.— To ‘‘take the King’s shilling”
is a colloquialism implying that a man has
enlisted by accepting a shilling from the re-
cruiting-sergeant.

Shiloh, a town of Ephraim, where was the
sanctuary of the Ark under the priesthood of
the house of Eli. Shiloh was destroyed by the
Philistines after the battle of Ebenezor. It
has been identified with the present Seilun,
2 miles E.S.E. of Lubban (Lebonah) on the
road from Bethel to Shechem, and 20 miles
N. of Jerusalem. Behind the village rises
a flat double-topped eminence, suggestive of a
stronghold as well as a sanctuary. Shiloh in
Benjamin was th© home of Eli and Samuel.
The phrase “until Shiloh com©” in the Bless-
ing of Jacob (Genesis xlix. 10) is one pf the
obscure texts of the Bible. It is currently in-
vested with a Messianic meaning, but Pio-
feseor T. K. Cheyne holds that if “Shiloh”
be regarded as a scribe’s error for “Laiahah,”
as is probable, the passage will then be trans-
formed into a psBan of the praise of the might
of Judah.

Sluxnonoidki, formerly called AkamauasibkIv
a fortified seaport at the south-western ex-
tremity of the island of Hondo, Japan, 6^
miles W.S.W. of Tokyo. It was bombarded in
1864 by the combined fleets of Great Britain,
the United States, France and Holland, and
in 1896 the treaty between Japan and China
was concluded here. The Strait of Shimonoeeki,
at one part only a ouarter of a mile wide^
divides Kiushiu from Hondo and connects th^


( 236 )


miaglM.





8HIFBU1LD1K0 : ATLAKTIO ROUTS MAP.


Inland Sea witJi the Sea of Japan. Pop. (1903),
46,286.

a kind of detritus worn by water, a
little coarser than gravel. The word is oom-
monly employed to describe the character of
the beach at a watering-place. — A Shingle,
or shindle, is a planed wooden board, ordinarily
18 inches long by 6 inches wide, used for
covering the sides and roof of a house in the
same way as a tile or slate is used. One end is
thicker than the other and the shingle should
be stout enough to stand weather and wear
and tear. In the United States, where shingles
are largely used, it is customary to lay them
with two-thirds of their length covered and
one- third of lap (or exposure). They are gener-
ally made in that country from the wood of a
variety of oak (Quercus imhricaria).

Shingles (Lat. Cingulum^ &. girdle), [Heepes.]

Shintoism. [Japan.]

Shinwiriy a powerful Afghan nation, whose
territory comprises part of the Khaibar Moun-
tains and some of the eastern valleys of the
Sufed &f>h. range. It consists of four main
divisions, Sgngu, Ali Sher, S^ai and Mandu,
with abont 30 minor groups. The Shinw&ri and
neighbouring Orakzaes and Afridis are collec-
tively known as Khaibaris.

Ship-hnoksVf one who transacts the business for
a ship when in port — as, for example, the pro-
curing of a cargo— or who buys and sells ships.

. Shiohuming is an art whose origin is lost
in antiquity. IPerhaps the CJhinese were the
earliest practisers of it, and the ships of the
Oreeks, ^mans, and Phoenicians must have
been of a high order of merit. The barbarian
iproads seem to have destroyed the art gener*
ally,^ thoiigh round the Mediterranean it still
flonrished, and the Norse and Saxon galleys
had their good points. A Nor^e gallev, d£s-
obwred in a cairn, was fitted ier. sails and


oars, and was 76 feet long by 16 feet wide.
Though an English fleet existed, and fought
in early times, England made but ^low progress
at a later period. The order Iff excellence
seems to have been Genoese, Spanish, French,
English, and even in the 17th and 18th 06®*
tunes England copied French models. C)ne
vessel was launched in 1511 which created a
vast sensation. This was the Great Michael,
which was built at Newhaven, on the Forth,
the sipall but picturesque suburb of Edin-
burgh, the last place where one would look for
such an exploit nowadays. She was 240 feet
long by 36 feet wide, inside measurement, her
sides were 10 feet thick, sh© consumed all the
available oak from Fife (excepting that from
the forest of Falkland) and Norway and cost
.£30,000, an enormous sum in those days. She
carried many heavy guns, 300 mariners, 120
cannoneers, and 1,000 soldiers. Her comman-
der was the famous sailor. Sir Andrew Wood,
whom in 1510 James lY. had created Admiral
of the Seas. She was sold to Louis XII. in
1514 and is said to have been suffered to rot
in the harbour of Brest. The Grdce de Dim,
built bv Henry VHI. in 1514 — probably' ae a
counterblast to the Great Michael , — ^was of
1,000 tons burden, contained 700 men, and
carried 120 guns; but in the 16th century
England, in spite of defective types, could hold
her own with Spain and Holland. In 1637
appeared the Sovereign of the Sms, the first
English three-decker; but in the beginning of
the 19th century the United Kingdom, and
still more America, took the lead. The Balti-
more clippers were the first to demonstrate the
advantage of sharp over rounded bows, and the
square^ngged clippers of the Chinese tea-trade
were a further revelation in this direction.
The discovery of steam caused a great revolu-
tion, bnt United Kingdom still clttug to
faulty theories, wMoh Aiherica discarded in
favouir M practioal advantage. The B%r%m
(1836) was the first steamer that went to





( 23T )


ShlftndUU:^.


imenoa* and tlie firat iron was the Great
Britain, constructed in 1843. The last three*
lecker built for the narr was the Dvice of
Wellington. The Great Eastern g-ave an im-
pulse to the building of large nessels. As
Djrpes of two different styles, one may look
it the graceful lines of the City of Rome
ind the straight, perpendicular bows of the
uunarders. The invention of the screw was one
>f the greatest improvements in the construc-
bion of ships, since it enabled large veesela to
3nter harl^urs which would have been im-
possible for broad paddle steamers. Another
innovation appeared with the 20th century,
wrhen steamers were propelled by an adapta-
iion of turbines acting directly on the screw
ihaft. Steamers thus driven were tested in
L901 and 1902 on the Clyde with entirely satis-
factory results, and certain of the crose-Chan-
ael steamers were afterwards equipped with
turbines. It was found that they made the
trip in somewhat quicker time than the screw
>teamers and, what was of infinitely greater
mportance on such a run, had a distinct ten-
ienev to reduce the liability to mal de mer,
Che Keel, which was so important in a wooden
ship, of which it was the backbone, is not of
JO great importance in an iron ship, which is
txilted together, and whose parts mutually
jupport each other. The keel is formed of
plates riveted together, and from these arise
die ribs. Which are held rigid by iron beams.
Ihe skin of plates is riveted on to these ribs
3 y thousands of rivets, and sometimes there is
in inner skin, which adds to the stabilitjr and
lafety of the vessel. The same object is ad-
ranoed by the watertight compartments, longi-
mdinal and transverse, which axe now almost '
El constant feature of newly-built ships. When
a ship in ready for launching, parallel timbers,
calleu “ways," are arranged under the keel on




each 6ide> and upon these are loose timbers,
well-gtoa^, and rea<diing alihoet to the ves-
sel, wedges of soft wood driven in be-

tween these timbers and the ship's side ; the
whole apparatus is called a cradle. At the
moment of the launch the wedges are knocked
away, and all fastenings, except a cable and
anchor which drags luong the ground and
checks the impetus of her enormous weight,
are loosed, and she glides with the greased
Umbers down the ways into tlie water. There
is not so much uniformity of type and de-
sign among modern ships of war as in mer-
chant and passenger steamers, since authorities
arc at perpetual variance as to the merits of
different desi^s. When the United King-
dom adopted Free Trade she rapidly became
the world’s carrier, which led to an immense
development of the mercantile marine in many
oountries and on all oceans and seas, of which,
however, there were signs even before the
epoch-making era of 1846. The great competi-
tion was to secure the traffic with the United
States, for which purpose the Cunard CJom-
pany was formed. It was named after Samuel
Cunard, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, a weallhy
and ent?rprieinff Quaker, who soon induced
George Burns of Glasgow and David Maciver
of Liverpool to join hands with him. The
company was formed with a capital of
£270,000 and obtained for seven years the
contract for a fortnightly mail service between
Liverpool, Halifax and Boston. By 1840 the
first four boats of their fleet were on the sea.
It became apparent that since Boston harbour
could not be guaranteed ice-free in winter, a
port farther south would have to be the Ameri-
can objective. So the company selected New
York and dropped the call at Halifax. In
1850 the Collins Lino, heavily subsidised by
the United States Government, challenged the




nd^lMdiaiaff.


< 238 )


flbiptolL:


Ctiuard flupreiaacy, Tbut, tliough it prfonned
temarkable passages, lavish expenditure and
several terrinie msaeters ultimately put an
end to its rivalry. In the same year the
Inman Oempany was started from the English
side> running from Liverpool to Philadelphia
at first and afterwards to New York. The
Ouion Company, founded in 1866, did not seem
to have a proper chance until it went to the
Clyde for its boats, and it is interesting to note
that it was to the Alanha (6,400 tons) of this
corporation that the epithet of “greynound of
the Atlantic*' was first expressly applied. In
1870 another concern destined to achieve fame
on the Atlantic made its dihut as the White
Star. It was established by Ismay Imrie and
Company, of Liverpool, and went to Harland
and Wolff of Belfast for its eteamers. The
National Linens America, in June, 1884, made
the eastward run in 6 days, 14 hours, 8
minutes, an achievement that was immediately
capped by the Oregon (built for the Guion but
purchased by the Cunarders, under whose flag
the double-first was won) making both tripe—
that is, out and home — within the month of
August. W’^hen records came to be taken note
of the old Inman Line under its new title of the
Inman and International (the “1. and I/’) did
some magnificent work with their second City
of Paris and their City of New York. Then
came the era of German competition, for in
1897 the Kaiser Wilhelm der Crrosse, built by
the Vulcan Company at Bredow, near Stettin,
for the North-German Lloyd, made some won-
derful trips, which were eclipsed in 1900 by the
Deutschland, from the same yards, of the Ham-
burg-American Line. These vessels were fol-
lowed by the Kronprinz Wilhelm and Kaiser
Wilhelm II. In being able to tap Central
Europe at Bremen and Hamburg, France at
Cherbourg, and England at Southampton, the
Germans have a manifest advantage in re-
spect of passengers and goods. Their area is
almost a whole continent, whilst British ship-
ing companies have only their own islands to
raw upon. Hie Cunaraers did not seem dis-
posed to run risks for the sake of saving a few
hours over a course of 3,000 miles, but when it
was evident that safety and express speed were
not incompatible, their magnificent Lusitania
made her maiden voyage from Queenstown to
New York in 5 days and 54 minutes (Sept. 8-13th,
1907), the quickest run westwards, though not a
record for the journey. It was also .signifi-
cant that in 1907 the White Star transferred
several of their express steamers from Liver-
pool to Southampton. In France the great
shipping companies are the Compagnie Trans-
atlantique and Messageries Maritimes, tho lat-
ter running to the Far East. Th® Cape route
formerly was mainly worked by the Union
Company of Southampton and the Castle Line
of London, owned by Sir Bonaid Currie, a oom-
petii^ service that has been amalgamated as
the Union-Castle, The Royal Mail caters for
the West Indies and South America and the
Peninsular and Oriental (the “P. & 0.'’) at^d


Orient Companies run to Australia and the
Far East. Jn addition to these there are mauy
companies and private shippers whose steamers,
fast and splendidly equipped, navigate every
ocean with a certainty and celerity Bi«,t would
not discredit any of the gigantic obrporations
which have been specifically mentionea.

Shipka, a pass across the Balkan mountains,
Bulgaria, between Gabrova, 14 miles to the
uorui, and Eazanlik, 9 miles to the south of
the range. It has an altitude of 4,376 feet
above the sea. In the Russq-Turkish war of
1877-8 the Russians held the pass in July,
1877, against repeated attacks of the Turks,
and on January ^h, 1878, a large Turkish force
was obliged to surrender here. The village of
Shipka is 3 miles south of the pass.

Shipley, a town of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, about 3 miles N.W. of Bradford,
of which it is virtually a suburb. Much of the
surrounding country is picturesque, since it
opens out into the well-wooded and beautiful
district of Lower Airedale. The manufacture
of worsted is the predominant industry and
there are several quarries in the parish. Pop.
(1901), 25,573.

Sh^-Mouey^ the name of a tax imposed
at different periods in England for the naval
defence of the country, and laid generally upon
seaports and maritime counties, certain privi-
leges being granted in return. We meet with
it as early as 1007, to furnish defence against
Norse rovers, and in the time of Elizabeth it
was resorted to as a means of providing a fleet
against the Spanish Armada; but the question
of ship-money came to the front in politics in
the reign of Charles I. He in 1634, by exer-
cise of his prerogative, imposed this tax upon
London and other seaport towns, giving the
authorities leave to raise it by assessment. Ho
met the obiections to paying it with obstinacy,
and extended it to the whole kingdom. In
1637 John Hampden, by refusing to pay,
brought the question to a legal trial in the
Court of Exchequer. A majority of eight out
of the twelve judges decided in favour of the
Crown, and Hampden was condemned ; but one
of the first measures of the Long Parliament,
in 1640, was to declare the exercise of preroga-
tive illegal.

Shiptoiif Mother, the prophetess, has
been identified, on indifferent evidence, with
Ursula Sonthiel, who was born at Knares-
borough, in Yorkshire, in 1488, married Tony
Shipton, a carpenter of Skipton, and died at
Clifton, in Yorxshire, in 1561. In reality, how-
ever, most of the tales concerning her are
derived from the Life and Death of Mother
Shipton (1677), bv Richard Head (.?1637-?1686),
a dissolute blactguard, whose authority can
carry little weight. It was no doubt owing
to his representations that the stereotypeu
portrait of Mother Shipton as a hideous old
woman obtained its vogue. The ^aewife was
probably as mythical as Mrs. Hairris. The



( 289 )




oldest collection of lier propliecies now in exiet-
once was publisliod in 1641.



MOTHER BHIPTOM.


SMp-worm. [Txbebo.]

ShiraBf the capital of the province of Fars
(Farsistan), Persia, 120 miles E.N.E. of Bushire
on the Persian Gulf. It lies at the border of
a plateau 5,(X)0 feet above the eea, and hae
suffered severely at times from earthquake,
lie city itself is cramped and dirty, but has a
eood bazaar, some handsome mosques, and a
few fine private houses. In the neighbourhood
are the famous rose-gardens, fruit orchards,
and vineyards celebrated by the poets Hafiz
and SaMi, whoee tombs lie in their midst. It
•^as probably founded in the 8th century, and
has once or twice been the capital of the em-
pire. It has manufactures of wine, rose-water,
inlaid work in wood and metal, silver-ware,
glass, and textiles. Pop. (estimated), 50,000.

Shird, a river of South Africa, flowing out of
the southern end of Lake Nyasa, in a direc-
tion mainly southerly, and falling into the
Zambesi at Shamo, after a run of about 370
miles. But for the falls and rapids between
Matope and Katunga, of which Murchison
Falls are the most conspicuous, a distance of
some 80 miles, it would be navigable through-
out its course. It was discovered by David
Livingstone in 1859.

Jambs, dramatist, was born in London
on September 18th, 1596, and educated at Mer-
chant Taylors’ School, and St. John’s College,
Oxford, whence he removed to Catherine Hall,
Cambridge. He took holy orders but resigned
his living in con8e<]^uence of his conversion to
the Roman Catholic religion, and became a
master at St. Albans grammar school. How-
ever, finding the occupation distasteful, he in
1625 established himself in London ae a play-
wright. Among hie most notable pieces were
the comedies of Hpde Purh (1632), The Ball
(1632), and The Gamester (1633), and the tra-




gedies of The Traitor (1631), The MoyaH Master

O , and, probably Ms masterpiece. The
\nal (1641). After the closing of the
theatres by the Puritans (1642) he again
earned his living by teaching. His iSays
reappeared on the stage after the Restora-
tion, but he did not produce any new ones.
Shirley and his wife died on the same day
in November, 1666, in distress and want*
having lost their all in the Great Fire, and
were buried in St. Giles’s Churchyard, Lon-
don. Charles Lamb calls Shirley “the last of
a great race “ — i.e., the Elizabethan dramat-
ists. His works display the same characteiv
istics as those of his predecessors, but much
that in the latter is tne product of original
genius must, in his case, be attributed to mere
stagecraft.

Shishak, the name of several Egyptian kings
of the 22nd dynasty. Shishak I. sheltered Jero-
boam after his escape from Palestine during
the reign of Solomon, and afterwards made
war on Rehoboam and captured Jerusalem.
Events connected with this expedition are de-
picted on the monuments of Karnak.

Sho^ the southernmost of the three kingdoms
or divisions of Abyssinia, lying between the
Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile, and the Hawaah.
Its limits have not been closely determined*
but its area is approximately estimated at
20,000 square miles. Its surface is largely
mountainous, some peaks reaching an alti-
tude of nearly 14,000 feet above the sea. Be-
sides the boundary rivers the soil is watered
by their numerous affluents. It includes the
towns of Ankobar (2,000), the former capital,
Addis Abeba (35,000), the present capital of
Slioa and Abyssinia, and Addis Alam (4,000),
where the king has a residence. Up till 1889
an independent kingdom, in that year Menelek
(b. 1842), its ruler, ascended the throne of
Abyssinia, thereby consolidating the empire.
Pop. (estimated), 1,000,000.

Shocks the group of symptoms produced by
some profound impression affecting the nerv-
ous centres, either directly, as in great mental
disturbance, or indirectly, as in the case of
severe injury affecting the peripheral nerves.
The symptoms of shock are partial or cpfii-
plete loss of consciousness, muscular weak-
ness, cold, clammy skin, feeble, rapid pulse,
quickened respiration, lowered temperature,
and loss of control over the sphincter muscles.
In the case of head injuries the variety of
shock sometimes spoken of as concussiou of
the brain occurs. When recovery from the
condition of shock sets in, a period of reaction
supervenes, with raised temperature. The treat-
ment of shock consists in the maintenance of
absolute rest in the horizontal position, in
applying heat by means of warm fiannek, hot-
watw bottles, and the like, and, in certain
cases, in administering stimulants, with cau-
tion^ however* and always under medical advice.




.fliltpddar. ' ( 240 } « SllOVtllSII&


Slioddij origiimllj denoted tlie waste from ibe
tnanulactttze ^ wool, wbioli in tbe first in*
flrtance was not turned to account indiitmllj ;
but afterwards this waste* togetber witk cut-
tings of fiannel, wool, etc., was redeyilled,
spunk woven into cloth, being called new
snoddv, to distinguish it from similar cloths
manufactured from old clothes, this latter being
called old shoddy. In the same way we have
new mungo, formed from clippings of milled
cloth, ana old mungo, formed from old cloth.
Shoddy is sot so lasting as the original good
material 6f which it may be largely composed,
but is much cheaper. Since fabric was
inferior and insubstantial, the word came to
be applied figuratively to persons and things
that were, though pretentious and showy, vul-
gar, trashy and essentially worthless.

flllOO-Bill Stork {Baltmiceps Tex\ a sub-
family of the Stork family of the order of the
Herons. It occurs only in the waters of the
Upper Nile region. l3r. Brehm, the distin-
guished Oferman naturalist, regards it as so
characteristic of Africa that, along with the
ostrich, it might be taken to typify flie mysteri-
ous continent. To the Arabs it presented it-
self as the guardian of the sacred stream. Its
popular name is derived from the resem-
blance which its bill oilers to a shoe, while its
scientific names, which mean “Whale-head”
and “King,” are a tribute both to its fantastic
form and to the atmosphere of fable with
which the bird has been enveloped. It is one
of the largest of birds and preys upon fishes,
frogs, lizards and the like.

ShoeburTnesSf or South Shoebuey, a town
of Essex, England, on the northern shore of
the Thames estuary, opposite Sheernesa on the
island of Sheppey, Kent, with the Nore light-
ship about midway, about 4 miles E. of
Southend. There are artillery barracks at the
fort, and it has a gunnery school and ranges
for practice and for testing new ordnance.
Occasionally insufficient car© is shown in the
seaward practice and ^ot has been observed
to fall dangerously near shipping, possibly
causing more amusement to the artillerists
than to the passengers on board the Koh-i-noor
and BoydH Sovereign. Pop. (1901), 4,081.

Sholftptirt a District in the Deccan Division
of Bombay Presidency, India. It occupies an
area of 4,542 square miles. The surface is flat
or undulating on the whole, though there is
hilly ground In the north and west. The chief
rivers are the Bhima and its affluents, the
Man, Nira and Sina. The principal crops are
millet, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, cotton and medi-
cinal plants, lliere are considerable herds of
cattle and buffaloes and the sheep flocks are
large. The manufactures include silk, cotton,
blankets, oil and saltpetre, besides dyeing,
^lolapur (74,621) is the capital. Pop. (1901),
720,978.

SllOVOi Jane, the mistress of Edward IV.. was
the wife of William Sholie, who is said! to have


been a goldsmith in lombard Street. la con-
sequence of her with the long she

abandoned by her husband. After Edward’s
death she attached herself to Lord Haatifigs,
and was accused of conspiring with him to
injure Eichard III. by unholy spells; but, this
charge proving groundless, she was forced to
do penance at »t. PauPs Cathedral for her
immoral life. She afterwards became the
mistress of the Marquis of Dorset. She was
still living in 1513, when Sir Thomas More
wrote his Life of Richard III., in which
there is a graphic description of her beauty.
She is believed to have died in poverty in 1626
or 1527, but the story of her miserable death
in Shoreditch is unfounded. There is no
authority for the statement that Shoreditch
was called after her, the name having been in
use long before her time.

Shorekam, Hew, a seaport at the mouth of the
Adur, Sussex, England, 6 miles W. of Brighton.
A suspension bridge carrying the high road
to Worthing was erected across the stream in
1832 by the Duke of Norfolk. Old Shoreham,
a mile inland to the north, has a remarkably
picturesque timber bridge and a very interest-
ing parish church (St. Nicholas’) of flint with
stone dressings, the tower and other features
being of Norman date. The two Shorehams
are situated on the left bank of the Adur.
Ella, the first king of the South Saxons, landed
at New Shoreham to effect the subjugation of
England and from this port Charles II. mad©
goexi his ©scape to Fecamp after the battle of
Worcester (1651). The church of St. Mary the
Virgin (restored in 1876) is the only remain-
ing portion of a more ancient and beautiful
cruciform structure. It contains some fine
Transition work and the nave a three-light
Perpendicular window. The trade of the port
chiefly comprises coals, com and timber, but
some shipbuilding and fishing are carried on.
Pop. (1901), 3,837.

Skortliand is the name given to the systems
of abbreviated writing which enable a person
to express his own ideas, or the ideas of
others, in a much shorter time than would
be practicable by the use of longhand. The
modern practice of reporting speeches in full,
anil the great increase in public speaking, are
the immediate cause of the study of shorthand,
though the employment of a system of short-
hand was known to the ancients (a system
being ascribed to Tiro, a freedman of Cicero),
and in England in the 16th century. Most
people who writ© much employ habitually a
few oontraotione, mostly well-recognised and
legible by everyone, but for professional pur-
poses a general system of many signs is re-
quired, which must likewise be of common know-
ledge, since others than the writer have to read
what he has written. Ihe system most in us6
i^ that invented in 1837 by Sir Isaac Pitman.
The whole syateim is too complicated and too
long for any attempt here at detailed descrip-
tion, and books on it are so easy lo come by


( 241 )






that it is needless, Stiffice it to say that
eounda are classified as formed by the lips,
teeth, palate, throat, and nose; that lines and
ottrTes thick and thin are used to form oonson*
ahle; that the Towels are rendered by dots
and daihes; that phonetics are utilised; that
there are many combinations ; and that many
words of constant occurrence are rendeied by
grammalogues. Other systems are Script,
which some hare preferred to the Pitman
system, Oxford shorthand » and the system as>
fiociated with the name of Sir Edward Clarke,
the Well-known lawyer and politician, who,
after having tested it for a long period in his
private practice and other requneraents, intro-
duced it to public notice towards the close of
the year 190o.

Shorthousei Joseph Henry, novelist, eldest
of the three sons of Joseph Shorthouse, chemi-
cal manufacturer, was bom on September 9th,
1834, in Great Charles Street, Birmingham.
His parents belonged to the Society of Fnends,
and nis mother, by teaching and example, im-
planted the religious principles which so deeply
affected his spiritual outlook. He received a
private school education, proved a diligent
pupil, and revelled among books. At sixteen
he entered his fathers otfice, hampered by a
distreesing stammer and often longing “that
the earth would open and swallow me \ip.“
Amidst the intellectual atmosphere of his
hpme-life, with frequent travel in North
Wales, Cumberland and Scotland, he grew to
manh<^. In 1867 he married Sarah Scott,
whom he .first met at the age of four in the
school where nervous excitement caused the
stkmmer. Their married life, though childless,
was of unbroken happiness. Their interests
were identical, and his sympathies for writers
of the 17th century instinctively led him to
the study of Anglicanism. In August, 1861,
husband and wife were baptised together and
became members of the Church of England,
though this step involved the severance of
come valued friendships. A serious illness in
1862 secured him ampler leisure for literary
study and by 1866 he was able to try to realise
his wish to write a book, “If it was only quite
a little book which nobody read.’* For ten
years he worked upon it, reading it only to his
wife as each page was written, finishing it at
Llandudno in 1876. Two publishers declined
it and for four years John Inglesant, in MS.,
lay undisturbed until its author determined to
print a hundred copies for intimate friends at
nis own expense. A copy came into the hands
of Mrs. Humphry Ward, who enthusiastically
introduced it to Alexander Macmillan, by
whom it was published in September, 1881.
Its success was extraordinary. It won W. E.
Oladstone’s commendation, yet the unknown
Midland manufacturer remained unspoiled by
his sudden fame. Probably his father’s appre-
ciation pleased him best of all. Already a
classic it is interesting to hear Shorthouse de-
scribe it^ motive : *“l5ie book is a protest on

208 — N.E.


bsh^nlf of tn^ltnre of every kind against faiaat»
icism , and'.'Auj^rstitioa' .'ifi, form." But
admirers should not neglect Lord AoWs (Lei-
tere to Marp.0iad8tone) piais»a and oomplainttl.
The book has overshadowed his later works, TAe
LiUle Sf^hoolmaster Mo^rk (IGQ&); Sir Perciml*
(1886), its author’s favourite; The Countem
Eve (1888), and Blanche, Lady Ealaue (1801).
The last three years of hie life were full of
suffering. He was relieved from the cares of
business by hie brother, and death came
“ gently as a friend . . . into the house at
eve ’* on March 4th, 1903. His Life, edited b|r
his widow, was publidied in 1905.

Short Sight. [Eye : Errors of He/Taetion,'}

Shoshone FaJls. a magnificent cataract of
the Snake Eiver, Idaho, united States. The
river flows in a deep cafion between precipit-
ous walls of volcanic rock, which are 1,000
feet high where the Snake takes its single leap
of 210 feet, the width of the atream at the
point of the descent being almost 1,000 feet.
The leap is 40 feet greater than that of
Niagara Falls, which are, however, of wider
expanse and, owing to their surroundings and
situation, more imposing and more majestic, if
less forbidding, than the Shoshone cataract,
which ranks next to them in North America.
Some four miles farther up the Snake occur the
Little Shoshone Falls, the stream, parted by a
huge rock, falling in two cataracts a distance
of 180 feet. The word is pronounced in three
syllables (Sho-sho-nee).

Shoshoneau (** Snake ”) Indians, a wide-
spread North American people, whose domain
extends from Oregon, California, and Idaho
in a south-easterly direction through Nevada,
Utah, Colorado, parts of New Mexico and
Texas, nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. Formerly
parts of Montana, Wyoming, Indian Territory,
and even Kansas and Arkansas were also oc-
cupied by this great family, all of whose mem'*
bers speak dialects of a common, stock lan-
guage. The principal branches are: Shoshoni
and Bannock (3,092), chiefly in Fort Hall Ee-
serve, Idaho, with a considerable number in
Wyoming and some in Nebraska ; Chemehuevi,
Comana^e, and Tobikhar (4,000), in various
Colorado, Arizona, Indian Territo^, and Cali-
fornian Agencies; tJte (2,700), in Colorado and
Utah Agencies ; Piaute, Paviotso, Tusayan
(Moki) 8,730, still at large in Or^n. Cali-
fornia, Nevada, and New Mexico. Their num-
bers throughout the States do not fall far
short of an aggregate of 19,000.

Shot, in artillery, denotes any solid prpjectile
discharged from a cannon. All shot, however,
is not absolutely solid, since the so-called Pal-
liser shot has a cavity within it containing
powder or other explosive substance, and this
is exploded by force of impact, no fuse being
employed. The introduction of longitudinitl
shot has almost rendered obsolete such com-
binations as bar-shot, chain-shot, canister, and
grape. In the first of these, two shots were


(242 ) "




joined by an iron bar^ in tbe second by a
chain ; canister was a hollow ball canister
containing a number d bullets, which were
scattered by the discharge; and grape con-
sisted of a number of bullets connected like
grapes on a stem. Shot for sporting-guns
varies in ske from buck-shot, the size of a

ea (during W. E. Forster's tenure of the Irish

ecretarysnip in 1880-2 he bore the odious
nickname of "Buckshot Forster"), to the
smallesti dust-shot. The uniformity of the shot
is obtained by dropping the mplten lead from
a height into a tub of water, arsenic being
sometimes added to give a greater degree of
hardness. The shot towers on the Surrey side
of the Thames are conspicuous and not un-
picturesque features in the London riverside
scenery. The shot is sorted by being rolled
over sloping sieves which have various-sized
round orifices which just fit the different types
required and reject imperfect shots. Having
been thus sortea, they are polished by being
placed in rotary barrels containing a certain
quantity of black lead.

ShottorFf a village of Warwickshire, England,
onei mil© west of Stratford-on-Avon. It may be
reached by a pleasant walk across the fields. It
is mainly memorable for the cottage in which
resided Anne Hathaw^ before she married
William Shakespeare. The cottage, a beautiful
example of a thatch-roofed dwelling, stands in
a garden of old English flowers and is in an
excellent state of preservation. It belongs to
the Shakespeare Trust, to which has been
committed the custody and maintenance of
the buildings in Stratford identified with the
life-history of the dramatist.

ShottSv a parish and village of North-East
Lanarkshire, Scotland. The village is fully 6
miles E. by S. of Airdrie. It contains great
iron and coal works. It was the birthplace
of Janet Hamilton (1795-1873), the self-taught
poetess, who contributed several of her com-
positions in prose and verse to the earlier pub-
lications of John Caesell. The place is said
to have been first called Bertramshotts, "shot "
being Saxon for ground and the identity of
Bertram being now untraoeablo. The parish
church stands clos© to the site of the old church
of St. Mary and St. Catherine of Siena, erected
in 1450 and demolished about 1819, and a well
near the church is still called Kate's Well.
Pop. of parish (1901), 15,562.

SllOtlldeir Joint, the ball-and. socket-joint
which is formed by the articulation of the
rounded head of the humerus with the glenoid
cavity of the scapula. In popular language,
the shoulder-blade, collar-bone and arm-bone
constitute the shoulder joint. The shoulder is
a joint which is not infrequently dislocated;
indeed, it is said to be more frequently in-
volved in this accident than all the other joints
together.

ShovoH, SiE CLOWDistBY, admiral, was
bom at Cockthorpe, Norfolk, England, in 1650.


Many of tl^ Shovells and the Clowdieleye (hia
mother's folk) served in the Navy and so to
sea this young Shovell went in 1664. He
speedily rose through the humbler ranks, served
as lieutenant under Sir John Narbrough against
Tripoli (1676). He was present at the actions
in Bantry Bay (1689), after which he was
knighted, and off Beachy Head (1690), and took
a very prominent part in the battle of La
Hogue (1692). He subsequently served under
Sir George Rook© in the Mediterranean, and
in 1705 became Commander-in-chief of the
British Navy, co-operating in that capacity
with th© Earl of Peterborough (1706-^. Dur-
ing bis voyage back to England his fleet was
borne by strong westerly winds and the action
of the currents (not then understood) amongst
the Scilly rocks. Most of the ships escaped de-
struction with difiiculty, but the AseocicUion^
carrying Shovell's flag, and two other vessels
were wrecked (October 23rd, 1707). Nearly
thirty years later a woman on her death-bed
confessed that when Shovell's body came ashore
life was not yet extinct, but that she had
quenched it in order to secure the emerald ring
he wore.

Shoveller, a bird belonging to the genus
Spatula, of the Duck family, with five species,
which are found in the temperat© regions of
both the Old and the New Worlds. Iney are
met with as far south as India in the jne and
Guatemala in the other. The hind-toe is free,
and the bill greatly expanded at the tip, from
which feature is derived its scientific name.
The Common Shoveller (S. clypcata) visits Great
Britain in the winter. The plumage of th©
male is boldly marked with white, and is
handsomely coloured; that of his mat© is uni-
form liver-brown. The bird is reckoned one of
the best ducks for the table, though its habits
in India — where it may be seen on the banks
of the foulest ponds — would not lead one to
fancy it. In the British Isles, however, it is
a shy bird, avoiding the society of man (for
good and sufficient reasons), and is as unobjec-
tionable as any other waterfowl that falls to the
gun.

Sliowbread, or Shewbbead, amongst thi>
Jews, the bread which was placed every Sab-
bath before Jehovah on the table of shittimr
wood (acacia) overlaid with gold, set in the
holy place, on the north side of the altar of
incense. Golden urns containing frankincense
stood beside the loaves. The bread was mad©
of fine flour, unleavened, the dough being mixed
with water only. It was baked in a Camber
on ike north side of the temple court in loaves
moulded in the shape of a brick of considerable
size. They were twelve in number, corres-
ponding to the twelve tribes of Israel, and were
stacked on two salvers, six on each. They re»
mained on th© table for a week. On the Sab-
bath four priests of the retiring rotation re-
moved the week-old bread and frankineense,
followed by four of th© incoming rotation, two
carrying salvers with the new loaves and two





( 243 )


SliMiniliwy.


tite urm of freah franldncettse. Each sat of
priests^ however, was scrupulous to effect the
change so that not even for a moment was
the table destitute of bread. The old frankin-
cense was burned on the great altar and the
old loaves were eaten within the sanctuary pre-
cincts by the outgoing and incoming priests, a
share being reserved for the high priest.

ShxoWt an animal belonging to the Insectivor-
ous family Soricid®, with several genera, very
widely distributed but absent from Australia.
In appearance they resemble rats and mice,
from which they may be distinguished by the
presence of canine-like teeth and the character



BHUEW.


of the incisors, and by their long pointed
muzzle. In habit they are usually terrestrial,
though some are aquatic. Scent-glands are
present. The type -genus (Sorex) has two
British species. The Common Shrew {S. vuU
^ garis) is about the size of a mouse, with brown-
ish fur above and greyish below. It ranges
eastwards through Europe and Asia to North
America. It is found in dry places in the open
country and in gardens, ana feeds on snails,
slugs, worms, and insects. These creatures are
very pugnacious, and when two meet a fight
generally ensues, and the weaker is killed and
eaten, in late summer and autumn, probably
owing to scanty food-supply, numbers of shrews
are found dead, but snowing no signs of in-
jury. Moles, weasels, owls, and cats will kill
shrews, though puss will rarely eat them.
Shrews have been the subject of many super-
stitions. If they bit a cow (which they were
not at all likely to do) the animal would swell
at the heart and die. If one ran over the leg
of an animal, lameness and great pain would be
produced. Ihe cur© for such dreadful ills was,
as might b© expected, based on cruel credulity.
The part affect^ was to be treated with a twig
of shrew-ash, made thus: a hole was bored in
the^ tree and a shrew was put into the hole,
which was then sealed up. Th©ir mysterious
deaths formed the price paid by the shrews for
crossing a public path. The Lesser Shrew (S.
pygmfus) is smaller, and less common in Great
Britain than the first species, and is, in fact, the


smallest British maifimai. It ©xtends to Ire-
land, from which country S. 4ldgoriB is absent,
as is the Water-Shrew {Crossopus fodiens),
much larger than th© C^mon Shrew, and
having the feet fringed with stiff hairs. It
burrows in the banks of rivers and lakes, and
feeds on small crustaceans, insects and their
larva, and fifih-fry, though it has been accused
of carnivorous propensities and even of the
horrible habit of eating out the eyes and brains
of large fishes like carp and so destroy!^
them. From Great Britain it ranges eastwards
to the Altai Mountains. Aberrant forms of
the family are the mole-like tailless shrews
from Tibet and Assam, and the Tibetan Water-
Shrews, with webbed feet and adhesive pads on
their under-surface. [MusK-SHRUwe.]

Slirew Moles, a popular name for some
moles from North America which have the
muzzle elongated and the hind-feet webbed.
The Shrew Mole (Scaloj^s aquaticus), sometimes
called simply the Mole, and the Prairie Mole {S,
argentatiis) are widely distributed in the United
States. The latter is also known as th© Silvery
Shrew Mole, because its hair ie disposed in a
ringed fashion of white and lead colour, which
gives it a silvery aspect. The Texan Shrew
Mole {S. latimanus) is a very large creature,
exceeding seven inches in length, and is cob-
fined to Texas and Mexico. Two other Shrew
Moles (Brewer's Shrew Mole and the Oregon
Mole), though resembling the others in general
character, have been placed in a distinct genus
(Scapanus)^ because tliey agree with the Star-
nosed Mole {0 ondylura erhtata) in having forty-
four teeth, whilst the Shrew Moles possess only
thirty-six.

Shrewsbury, the capital of Shropshire, Eng-
land, on a bond of the Severn, here crossed by
several bridges, 30 miles S. of Chester. Under
the name Fengwerne ("alder hill”), it was
founded in the 6th century as a Border fort-
ress, held high rank among Saxon cities, by
whom it was called Scrobbesbyrig (" the town
in the wood ”), of which the present name is
a corruption, and after the Conquest played an
important part as the seat of several Parlia-
ments. It was the scene of the battle of July
2l8t, 1403, in which Harry Hotspur fell, and
the headquarters of Charles I. in 1642. The
castle built by Boger de Montgomery in 1083
was captured by the Eoundheads in 1646, par-
tially dismantled by James II., and is now to
some extent in ruins, two drum towers of the
time of Edward I., however, still remaining.
The church of the Holy Cross was tlie con-
ventual church of the Benedictine abbey erected
in 1087. St. Alkmond'a was rebuilt in semi-
Classic style in 1796, with the exception of
the Perpendicular tower. Of the olo church
of St. Chad only the chantry chapel, not now
used, is extant, but a new St. Chad's was built
on another site in the Classic style in 1792.
St. Mary’s Church of Norman, Early English
and other periods has a Jesse win&w. The
only surviving part of the old St. Julian'©



( 244 )




MkMm*


Oitircli^ dating from betoe the Cox^nest, is
the tower, partly Norman and par^y Perpendi-
cular, the itmctnre ofcherwiee having been re-
built in 1748* The Boman Catholic Cathedral
(1856) wae deeigned by Augustus Welby Pugin.
Ihe Oraxnmar School, one oi* the great public
schools of Enirland, was founded in 1551 by
Edward YI., opened in 1562, enlarged by Eliza-
beth in 1571, and transferred to its present
quarters in Eingsland in 1882. It owes much
of its fame to the headmasterships of Dr.
Samuel Butler (1798-1836), afterwards Bi^op
of Liehheld, and Br. Kennedy (1836-66). The
old school-buildings are now tenanted by the
County Museum and Free Library. Other
noteworthy buildings are the fine old market-
house (1595), the new market hall, the council
house, the infirmary, the Eye, Ear and Throat
Hospital, Drapers* Hall, and other examples,
in admirable, condition mostly, of the black
and white half-timbered houses (in High Street
and elsewhere), so characteristic of many of
the towns of the Welsh marches. Amongst the
monuments are the statues to Charles Darwin,
who was born in the town in 1809, and to
Lord Clive, who represented the town from
1761 to 1774 after his memorable career in
India, and the Doric column, 133 feet h^h,
oommemoiating the achievements of Lord Hill
(a Shropshire man) in the Peninsular War.
The industries include brewing and malting,
tanning, glass-staining, iron-founding, agricul-
tural implement-making, the making of brawn,
Shrewsbury cakes, thread, linen and canvas.
There is a considerable catch of ealmon here.
Pop. (1901), 28,396.


Shrike, any bird of the Passerine genus Lanins,
with fifty species, universally distributed ex-
cept in South America. The bill is hooked,
short and stout, the
upper mandible
bearing a strong
tooth, and their feet
are powerful. They
are chiefly insect-
eating birds, but
sometimes prey on
mice, young frogs
and lizards, and
small birds, and,
from their habit of
impaling their prey
on thorns, are often
called Butcher-
Birds. Tbe collec-
tion of their victims
thus spitted is popu-
larly known as the
Shrike’s Larder, and
it was the ferocity
of their habits that induced Linmnus and other older
naturalists to classify them in close proximity to
the birds of prey. The Red-backed Shrike* (X.
coUurio) is a well-known summer vieitor to
0reat Britain, though somewhat local;, it
migrates when the brood is reared. The Lesser



f/

aZO-BACKSD 6EBIIUE.


Grey Shrike (X. minor) is an occasional, an^
the Great Grey Shrike (X. excubiUir) a rtgulaa
winter visitor. The latter is about 9^ inchee
long and is of a Ujght blue-gre;^ oofour, itfi
cheeks and under suriace being white, its vringe
black dashed with white, and its tail black with
white feathers at the outer edge of its sides. It
is a pertinacious hunter and seldom allows
itself to be baulked of its prey. It is at-
tracted to its victims by hearing aa well as
by eight, and is said to be able to disoriminiate
between the call-notes of young and of old
birds. The Thickheads, which are the repre-
sentatives of the family in Australia, appear
to be much shyer in their habits than their
European relatives and to be much more ad-
dicted to insectivorous ways. Some of the males
are attractively coloured, a rich yellow being
tbe predominant note in the dress of the Grey-
tailed Thickhead.

Skrimpf The Common (Cranyon mlgaTu\ a
familiar crustacean that frequents the shallow
water of the coasts of Great Britain and other
temperate countries in the northern hemi-
sphere. It is about two inches long, of fragile
structure and almost translucent, and grey
speckled with brownish dots. It is admirably
protected from danger by its resemblance in
colour to the sandy bottom where it lives and
in which it buries itself adroitly to avoid cap-
ture. It hides during the day to escape the
vigilance of fishes and can afford to do this,
quite apart from the habit being a necessity of
existence, since it detects its food by scent and
is thus enabled to hunt during the night. In
England it has long been regarded as a tea-
table delicacy, and boils to a brown colour.
It is taken in roomy nets with close meshes,
the fisherman wading in the sea and pushing
in front of him the wooden framework from which
the capacious wide-mouthed bag is suspended.

Shropahiro, or Salop, a western inland county
of England, bounded on the N. by Cheshire
and a detached portion of Flintshire, on the E.
by Staffordshire, on the S.E. by Worcestershire,
on the S. by Herefordshire, on the S.W. by
Radnorshire, on. the W. by Montgomeryshire,
and on the N.W. by Denbi^shire. It occupies
an area of 1,346 square miles. On the west, in
the south and south-west and here and thepe
towards the centre, the surface is mountainous,
the chief heights being Brown Clee (1,805 feet)
and Titterstone Clee (1,750) of the Clee Hills in
the south, the Stiperstones (1,759), the Long
Mynd (1,074), Weniock Edge and Clun Forest
in the south-west, and the sugarloaf peak of the
Wrekin (1,342) to the north of Coatbrookdale.
The dominant river is the Severn which entere
from Wales near Mi^lverley, flows eastwards to
beyond Shrewsbury and then takes a bold
sweep towards the south-east leaving the
county for Worcestershire at the forest of
Wyre. Its Salopian affluents include, on the
left, the Yyrnwy, Ferry, Tern (with the Roden),
and Worf and, on the ri^t, the Meol (with the
Rea), Cound, Mor and Boris. Other streams



Ubaemm Ytte.


( 246 )




i»e the €l«n, Corve and Eea tributaries of the
Teme, whieh itself almost wholl;^ avoids the
shire. The mineral wealth oompriees coal (the
principal fields being Coalbrookdale, Forest of
Wyre, Shrewsbury, Clee Hills and Oswestry),
iron, lead, barytes and fire-clay, and there are
extensive quarries of lime and freestone. The
land in the Talleys is fertile, the leading crops
being oats, wheat, barley, turnips, potatoes,
mangolds, beans and peas. Orchards are nu-
merous and dairy-farming flourishes, Cheshire
cheese being* largely made. There is much
pasture land for cattle, sheep, pigs and horses,
all raised in considerable numbers. The In-
dustrie© include iron-founding, the mining of
coal, iron and barytes, woollens, pottery, por-
celain and earthenware, tobacco pipe©, bricks
and tiles, the making of machinery, agricul-
tural implements, tools and vehicles, linen,
thread, yarn and paper. Shrewsbury is the
capital and among larger town© are Welling-
ton, Wenlock, Oswestry, Bridgnorth, Much
Wenlock, Madeley, Broseley, Newport and
Ludlow. The county was originally occupied
by the British tribes called by the Romans
the Ordovices and Cornavii, and Caractacus
(Caradoc) made his last stand against Ves-
pasian (a.d. 60) at Caer Caradoc in the forest of
Clun, two miles north of the Teme. Watling
Street, the famous Roman road, entered from
Staffordshire at Weston - under - Lizard and
Wroxeter, is built on the site of the Roman
TJriconium and has yielded many interesting
relics. Of the dyke which Offa, the Mercian
king, built in 780 against the encroachments of
the Welsh, many portions yet remain, roughly
following the Montgomeryshire border. Most
of the general history of the county centres
round Shrewsbury. Pop. (1901), 239,783.

Shrove Tide is the name given in England
to the time immediately preceding Lent, and
is generally applied only to the Tuesday
(Shrove Tuesday) before Ash Wednesday. The
name is derived from the old custom of going
to confession, or of being shriven, on that day,
which was regarded as a fast. Hence the cus-
tom of eating pancake® on Shrove Tuesday;
but in modern time® carnival festivities have
ousted the fast. In Germany the day is called
Fast Nabht, and in Franc© Mardi Gras.

Shllltil% a fortified town of Bulgaria, con-
spicuously eituated on the northern outliers of
the Eastern Balkans, 60 miles W. of Varna, a
port on the Black Sea. It© position is of great
strategic importance, because it is the con-
verging point of the roads from the Danubian
strongholds of Rustchuk and Silistria and also
from the fortresses of the Dobrudja for the
passes across the Balkans to Slivno, Adrianople
and the south. As a Turkish fortress it suc-
oessfully withstood the Russian assaults of
1774, 1810, and 1828, but changed masters on
June 28th, 1878, when it was handed over to
the Russians at the cloee of the Russo-Turkish
War. Turks yet forin a considerable portion of
the community, and own several mo^ues, the


remainder of the imhabitafitji being mostly
Bulgarian and Armenian Chr^tians and Jews.
The industries comprise weavings tanning, the
making of red and yellow slippers and richly
embroidered dresses for women, and the fabri*
cation of goods in copper and tin. Pop. (1901),
22,928.

Stall* Yosli ItaSva (‘*B|ack-clad Infidels *')^
the pagan inhabitants of Eafiristan on the
southern slope of the Hindu Kush, so called by
their Mohammedan Afghan neighbours. Theye
appears to be no collective national namt]^
though Kamoji, that of the most important

S , is sometimes applied to the whole
i ; nor are there any true tribal divisions,
or at least those that do exist are of topo-
graphical origin, as was perhaps inevitaole
from th© physical character of their country.
Such are the Vaigal, Rangal, and Bashgal,
answering to the three principal river valleys,
with a total estimated population 600,000,
under their own chiefs. Their speech is a
Galcha language, intermediate between Iranian
and Sanskrit, and occurs in ten different varie-
ties. Th© people are of distinctly Caucasio
type, with regular features, blue and dark
eyes, hair of all shades between light • brown
and black, broad open forehead, tall stature,
shapely figures ; but General Abbot distin-
guishes between this noble type, that of the
aristocracy (who claim descent from the Mace-
donian conquerors), and a very dark type, that
of the non-Aryan aborigines.

SialagognOf a substance which promotes
salivary secretion. There are two classes —
topical and remote. The former include dilute
acids, ginger, rhubarb, mustard, horse radish,
tobacco and the eight and smell of savoury
dishes, and act by exciting a salivary flow
through the sensory nerves of the mouth. Re-
mote sialagogues comprise, amongst others,
jaborandi, mercury, physostigmine, iodide of
potassium and tobacco, and act by ©timulating
the secretory nerves of the salivary glands.
Increased flow of saliva may be necessary to
facilitate mastication, to ease the movement of
the tongue in speaking, to assist and promote
digestion (since it not only has a aigestiv©
power on starch, but also stimulates the in-
crease of the gastric juice), to relieve parched
throat, and to alleviate the pain and reduce the
congestion of toothache and earache.

Sialkoty a District in the Rawalpindi Division
of the Punjab, India, forming an oblong tract
occupying the submontane portion of the
Rechna or Ravi-Chenab doab, measuring fully
60 miles from south-east to north-west, with an
average breadth of 44 miles and covering an
area of 1,991 square miles. Beside© the two
boundary rivers mentionedi the chief stream
is the Degh. The surface is, on the whole, a
level plain presenting, in consequence of its
proximity to the Himalaya, a greener aspect
than is usual in this part of India. Tbei© are
no minerals excepting limestone nodules, salt-



:gimi


< 246 )


petre and potter's clay. The scanty fauna in*
eludes a few wild hogs, wolves, anteldpes, quail
and waterfowl. The principal crops are wheat,
harley, maize, millet, rice, sugar-cane, pulse,
oil**seeds, vegetables and tobacco. The live-
stock, though considerable, does not suffice
for local needs and cattle are imported. The
manufactures comprise, among other things,
damascene work, shawl-edging, chintz, pottery,
silk, saddlery, cloth, brass vessels, cutlery and
paper. Sialkot (67,966) is the capital. Pop.
(1901), 1,084,616.

SiWIf a kingdom occupying the central part
of the Indo-Chinese, and extending into the
Mal^ Peninsula, being bounded on the N. by
the ^an States, on the W. by Burma, on the
E. and N.E. by Anam and Tonking (French

territory), and on
the S. by Cam-
bodia (also owned
by France) and
the Gulf of Siam.
The limits in the
Malay Peninsula
may be defined by
an imaginary line
bounding the
southern parts of
Kelantan, Patani
and Kedah. It
occupies an area
of 220,000 square
miles. In 1896 an
arrangement was
agreetl to, and con-
firmed in 1904, be-
tween the United
Kingdom and
France, by which
they guaranteed to Siam the integrity of the terri-
tory embraced in the basins of the Menam, Mekong,
Peshaburi and Bangpakong rivers, and by which
France was confirmed in the possession of Cam-
bodia; and Siam is practically confined to the
valley of the Menam. This is the most fertile
part of the kingdom, the alluvial soil, watered by
yearly floods, yielding an inexhaustible supply
of rice, which is brought down the stream to
Bangkok for shipment. To the west of this
valley the Mewang and Meping bring their
tributary waters through a more rugged
country embracing several rich plains, whilst
close to the Burmese frontier the Toongyeen,
flowing north, waters teak forests and cinna-
mon groves. To the east of the Menam there
is much sterile and sandy land (the Eorat
plateau), with swampy and unhealthy river-
flats at intervale. This plateau is bounded on
the south by a range stretching into Cambo-
dia, and famous for precious stones, especially
rubies and sapphires, whilst the mountains to
the north contain many valuable minerals, the
natiw only extracting a Httle iron. Tin is
found in considerable abundance in the Malay
Peninsula and other parts. Gold is obtained
both by mining and washing ; lead, silver, iron,




antimony, zinc, manganese and copper are
abundant, but little worked. Besides rice (the
national food and staple export), other products
are pepper, sesame, cattle, salt, dried
hemp, tobacco, silk, cotton, coffee and teak, in
the piling of which the elephant plays su<h a
useful part. There is some trade by caravans
through the Shan States with Yunnan and
China. The climate is enervating and in the
rainy season malarial fever ih prevalent. Big
game still abounds, including the elephant,
tiger, leopard, honey-bear, ewth-bear, rhino-
ceros, wild hog, gaur and water buffalo, but
several kinds of bat, monkey, and snake (some
poisonous) are met with, besides the crocodile
and water monitor. Buddhism is the national
religion. Despite the efforts to suppress slavery,
the institution occasionally rears its hideous
head. The white elephant is the national em-
blem. It is, of course, an albino and, partly
in consequence of its rarity and principally as
the incarnation of Buddha, is regarded with
great veneration. Its colour, according to Sir
John Bowring, is a dull brownish yellow, white
only by contrast. Even this, however, is a good
deal lighter than that of the elephant which
P. T. Barniim bought of King Theebaw of
Burma and which he allowed to be on exhibition
at the Zoological Gardens in London in 1884 on
its way to New York. Save for patches of pink
on its ears, part of its face, trunk and fore
knees, it could not bo described as different
from an ordinary elephant. It stood seven and
a half feet high and was a shapely beast with
a pair of beautiful tusks — the only white things
about it. Nevertheless in Siam the creature is
considered to be sacred and therefore almost
priceless. To possess one is more honourable
than the renown of conquest of territory or
victory in battle. The government is a mon-
archy, nominally but not necessarily hereditary,
the sovereign being entitled to nominate his
successor. The old office of “second king,^’ the
functions of which were too intangible for
coherent definition, is extinct. The king is ad-
vised by a cabinet of several ministers of de-
partments and there is a Legislative Council,
consisting of the State ministers, at least 12
nominees of the Crown, and an indefinite
though not too great number of other members.
In the event of temporary disability of the
Crown, this Council has the power to pro-
mulgate laws without the Royal assent. The
Siamese dominions are divided into provinces
or districts, each administered by a Commis-
sioner aided by a subordinate governor.* Siamese
interests as a whole are committed to the Min-
ister of the Interior. Besides Bangkok (pop.
from 400,000 to 600,000) the capital, Chantabun,
Meklong, Paklat, and Paknam are important
coast towns, Eiang-Eong on the upper Mekong,
Phitsalok and Ayuthia on the Menam, Baheng
and Lapoon on the Meping being the chief
places inland. Siam was first yisited by
Europeans in 1511, but it was not until 1866
that the Siamese relaxed their exclusive policy,
and since that date British interests on the



.Yfviiis*




C247)


west and Frencli in the east and 8outh'*east
hare acquired ^eat importance.

EtMmogy, The dominant inhabitants of
Siam call themselves 'Thai Free/* Noble **),
and are a branch of the widespread Shan race>
Siam being merely a corrupt form of Shan
through the Portuguese 8iao. The Siamese
proper, most civilised of all the Shan peoples,
are concentrated chiefly in the Menam basin
and in the Malay Peninsula as far south as
about 8^ N., where they are conterminous with
the Malay race. They retain in a somewhat
modifled form all the physical traits of the
Mongoloid Shans: broad features, high cheek-
bones, small nose, slant eyes, black lank hair,
beardless face, small stature, olive complexion.
Their culture has been developed under Hindu
influences, their monosyllabic Indo-Chinese
language being largely charged with Sanskrit
elements and written in a syllabic alphabet de-
riyed through the Pali from Bevanagari; hence
a corrupt form of Buddhism is the prevailing
religion. Of the inhabitants of Muang-T’hai
(“Land of the Free”), as Siam is officially
called, not more than 2,500,000 are Siamese
proper, tne rest being Laos (Eastern Shans),
about 2,000,000; Chinese, 1,500,000; Malays,
1,000,000; Cambojans, 300,000; Burmese, Ta-
laings, Karens, and wild tribes, 700,000; but
since the cessions to France in 1893 these
figures are said to have been considerably re-
duced, and the present population is variously
estimated at from five to ten millions.

Siamese Twins, a Insus riaturrp, born in
Siam, of Chinese parents, in 1811. They were
rabies, and were called Eng and Chang re-
spectively, and were for many years exhibited
in different parts of the world. Their bodies
were united by a band of flesh and cartilage
containing certain inter-communicating vessels.
The brothers were 6 feet 2 inches high, were
well made and muscular, and could lift a
weight of 20 stone. They were active, swam,
walked and ran, and played chess and draughts.
In many respects they were one, and their
emotions, impressions, .and wants were in com-
mon, so- that they had little need to speak to
each other. On the other hand, towards the
end of his life Chang took to drinking, and
could get drunk without affecting Eng, and
the latter was not aware of Changes death (on
January 17th, 1874) till he woke, he himself
dying within three hours afterwards, it is said,
of mental shock caused by Changes death. An
elaborate post-mortem examination was made.
Both men were married and had children.

Sibbes, Eichabd, Puritan divine, was bom
at Tostock, Suffolk, England, in 1577, and edu-
cated at the Grammar School of Bury St.
Edmunds and St. JTohn^s College, Cambridge.
Having taken holy orders he was, in 1610,
^pointed to the lectureship at Holy Trinity,
Cambridge, a portion of which he was deprived
five years later in consequence of his Puritan-
ispa. In 1617 he waa elected preacher at Gray's
Inn, XiOndon, and, in 1626, became master of


St. Catbarine'i Hall, Cambridge* Jn 1629 ap«
peered his Saint*s Oordiah In the following
year. The Bruised Beede uritd Smoahing Fltix,
the book to which, eo it is said, Bichard Bax-
ter owed his religious impressions. In 1634 he
published T/ie Saint's Se^etis in Skill Times and
77ie Churches Visitation and, in 1836, The Soules
Conflict , He died at Gray’s Inn on July 6th, 1686.
Several volumes of sermons and other devotional
works were issued aftei^his death.

Siberia (Russian, Bibir), a vast territory in
Asia, comprising roughly the northern hall
of the continent and forming the major part of
the Russian empire in Asia, bounded on the
N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by Bering
Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk and the northern part
of the Sea of Japan, on the S. by China (Man-
churia and Mongolia) and the Provinces of the
Steppes (Semipalatinsk, Akmolinsk, Turgai and
Uralsk) and on the W. by Russia in Europe
and the Ural Mountains. It is divided into
the provinces (pr.) and governments (gov.) of
Tobolsk (gov., 536,739 square miles), Tomsk
(gov., 327,173), Yeniseisk (gov., 981,607), Ir-
kutsk (gov., 280,429), Yakutsk (pr. 1,530,253),
Trainsbaikalia (pr., 229,520), Amur (pr.,

172,826), Primorskaya or the Maritime Pro-
vince (712,685), and" the northern half of the
island of Sakhalin (about 15,000 square miles,
the southern half being ceded to Japan on Sep-
tember 6th, 1905 : the total area of the island
is 29,336 square miles). It covers an area of
4,785,132 square miles, and lies between
59^^ E. and 170° W. (Cape Dezhnev or East
Cape) and between 50° N. (42° N. at Vladivos-
tok in Primorskaya) and 77° 40^" N. ^Cape
Tchelyuskin, the most northerly point of the
mainland of the Old World). The northern sea
was successfully navigated for the first time by
Baron Nordenskiold in the Vego in 1878. Sail-
ing eastwards he wintered off the coast of
Siberia and in the early summer of 1879 made
Bering Sea and proceeded thence to Sweden by
the Japanese and Chinese Seas, the Indian
Ocean and the Suez Canal. The surface may
be broadly divided into four zones, namely, the
mountainous south-east, the belt of prairie and
steppe to the north of this, the marsh lands
still farther north, and, in the extreme north,
the terrible tundras or water-logged plains
^frozen for half the year), which are interest-
ing, however, to natural history as having
yielded the mammoth in an excellent state cn
preservation. The chief mountains are the
Stanovoi (the highest points of which exceed
8,000 feet) in the Amur province, which are
continued westward® by the Yablonoi (highest
points about 9,000 feet) in Transbaikalia, the
Sayan group (9,000 feet highest point) separat-
ing Mongolia from Irkutsk and the Altai,
reaching in Bielukha or White Mountain a
height of 14,800 feet and in the Pillars of the
Katunya a height of 12,800 feet, or possibly
even 15,000 feet. To the east of the Lena are
the Verkhoyansk and Kolyma Mountains, not
exceeding 5,000 feet, and in the peninsula of




( 24 $)




Kawtchatkft are aereral Teleaiiic p^ajka, of of 860 leet-^tlie fomer lieing by far tlie grea^^^

wbich KUutolieirakaja, actire 15,750 eet depth of aaj lake ia the world* Xu ge^

fe^ high. Siberia contaiiu) aohiia maguifk^nt logic time it ia Miered to have been oonUeeted

waterwayti but the uaefuluese of most of them with the Arctic Ocean and its seal is said th ba

is seriously affected by climatic conditions. identical with the Arctic P4oca

Though their mouths are too often obstructed climate is excessively trying, the heat of the



SKETCH.MAr OF SIBKRIA.


by frost and ice to allow of certainty in com- short summer being intense and the cold of

merce, yet their higher waters are navigated winter appalling in its severity, central Siberia

by steamers for great distances. To the Arctic being called the cold pole of the earth. Towards

flow the Ob or Obi (2,000 mile^, its chief tribu- the south is an immense belt of forest— pine,

taries being the Irtish and Tom; the Yenisei spruce, oak, maple, beech, birch and poplar —

(about 3,000 miles), its main affluents being without rival in extent in any other continent

the Angara and the three Tuhguskas; and the and covering an area of 650,000,000 acres. In

Lena (a, 700 miles) and its tributaries the Vi- the more fertile regions of the south-west and

tim, Olekma, Vifyui and Aldan. The Amur the south-centre the leading crops are hay,

(2,680 miles), wittt its headwaters the Shilka wheat, rye, oats, potatoes and barley, more

and Argun and its principal feeder the Ussuri, than 11,000,000 acres being under grass and

falls into the Sea of Okhotsk and is navigable over 9,000,000 under grain. The fauna com-

nearly throughout. Other Arctic streanas are prises, amongst other animals, the bear (in-

^ Jiolyma, Indigirka aud Yana, while the eluding the Polar bear), tiger, panther, seal,

^lenga is a southern affluent of Lake Baik^, walrus, whale, glutton, eiusle, marten, fox,

w largest and only important lake in Siberia. lynx, ermine, wolf, boar, beaver, lemmings

This lake measures 376 miles in length from wild horse, wild ass, argali, antelope, reindeer

north-east to south-west, has an average and camel. The mineral wealth includes goldi

breodtdi of 87 miles, lies 1,560 feet above the silver, lead, copper, platinum, coal, salt,

sea, has an area of 13,600 square miles and phur, chromium, graphite, and merobry, be-
maximum depth of 6,618 feet and a mean depth J sides pxeeious stones, espeeially the emerald





•n»7L


( 249 )


And t 0 |MLs. It 18 impossible to say with any
#«actnes8 what is the extent of the mineral
fiches, for they have not been developed in
other than a crude manner. There can,
hxmevtt, be little doubt but that Siberia
will prove to be one of the grandest mineral
regions on the earth's surface. In many
mines are employed a large number of the
exiles that have made Siberia a byeword
in civilisation, the only offences which the
vast majority of those unfortunate creatures
have committed being either political or re-
ligious. The Transiberian railway is the
longest in the world, there being through-com-
munication from St. Petersburg and Moscow
ind Samara, Kurgan, Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk,
round the southern end of Lake Baikal (com-
pleted in 1904), to Strelensk, where the line
branches to Vladivostok in one direction and
to Port Arthur and Peking in a more southerly
direction. It was begun in 1891 and practic-
ally completed in 1904, though capable of in-
denuite extension by means of branch lines.
From St. Petersburg to Port Arthur the full
length is 5,620 miles. Two- thirds of the popu-
lation are Russians and the remainder consists
of Turkish Tatars (Yakuts), Mongolians (Kal-
mucks, Buriats and Tunguzes), Jews, Chinese,
Japanese and Korean settlers, and Hyper-
boreans (Ainus in Sakhalin, Koriaks and
Kamtchadales in Kamtchatka, Yukaghirs,
Chukchis, Ghilaks and Eskimo in the far
north-east, and Samoyedes and Finns in the
far north). The Russians profess the Greek-
Orthodox faith, or various Dissenting aspects
of it, the Turks arc Mohammedans, the Mon-
golians mostly Buddhist and the Samoyedes and
Hyperboreans Shamanists. In the order of their
population the principal towns are Tomek
^3,533), Irkutsk (49,106), Vladivostok (38,000),
Blagovychensk (37,368), Krasnoyarsk (33,337),
Barnaul (29,850), Tyumen (29,651), Nikolsk
(22,000), Tobolsk &1,401), Irbit (20,064).
Russians connection with Siberia dates from
1580, when Cossack marauders ousted the Tatar
occupants and effected settlements on the
Tobol and Irtish rivere. These, however, were
only points d*appui for further incursions to
noirh, east and south. By 1618 the town of
Yeniseisk was founded, and by the end of the
17th century the eastern seas were reached
and Kapitchatka was annexed. The Amur
e«tuary was discovered in 1849 and the
boundary with China was delimited between
1857 and 1860. As a result of the war with
Japan, which ended in 1905, Russia ceded to
Japan the lease of Port Arthur and certain
adjacent territory, the railway between Chan
Oknn Port Arthur and the northern half
of Sakhalin, and her sphere of influence in the
extreme far east was circumscribed and crip-
pled, Pop. (1904), 6,493,400,

mhrh a name given to certain prophetic virgins
t-4en or more in number— of ancient times, the
inoet noted of whbm was She of Cumae, This
fibyl it is Who is said to have offered the nine


mmsr^


sibyRiiie boolcs to at a Pertain

pnoe. He declined to pniipiaee them at the
extortionate flgure demanded, whereupon she
burnt three, and c^ered the remaining siat
at the same price. Again ho refused, and again
she burnt three, finely offering thP three left
at the original price. The king was impressed^"
by her singular persevefrance and consented to
acquire the 'books. They were examined and,
being discovered to contain prophecies 6f the
fortunes of Rome, were deemed to be so valu-
able that first two and then ten priests wpte
appointed to tako chj^e of them and stU^y
their interpretation. The keepers were after*
wards increased to fifteen. In 83 b.o. the books
with the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitolino
Hill, in which they were preserved, were burnt.
Researches for others were made in different
countries, the result being that about 1,000
sibylline utterances were discovered. They
were revised from time to time to eliminate
forgeries, and were more than once in danger
of destruction by fire ; and even as late as a.p,
270 it was proposed that they should be con-
sulted. A supposed collection of those remaining
was piiblishea at Amsterdam in 1689.

Sicilian Vespers is the name given to a
massacre of the French in Sicily in 1282.
Charles of Anjou, who was king of Naples
and Sicily, governed tyrannically, and a certain
Giovanni di Procida went to Peter of Aragon,
who had married Constantia, daughter of Man-
fred, and invited that king to attack Charlee>
promising aid both in men and money, Peter
consented, and fitted out an expedition, osten-
sibly against the Moors of Africa. Meanwhile,
on March 30th, 1282, all the French in
Palermo were massacred, the vesper bell being
the signal. This example was followed by
Messina and other towns. Charles thereupon
laid siege to Messina, but the approach of
Peter compelled him to raise the siege and
flee. Constantia'o rights wero acknowledged*
and the crown was settled upon her second
son. The crowning outrage which precipitated
the colossal massacre — the number of victims
amounting to 8,000, neither age nor sex being
spared — was said to have been the infamous
insult offered by a French soldier to a young
Sicilian bride.

Sicily, an island of triangular shape (hence its
classicaf name of Trinacria, or three-cornered,
the three corners being Cape Faro in the north-
east. Cape Passaro in the south-east, and Cape
Boeo in the west), in the Mediterranean at the
south-western extremity of the Italian pen-
insula, from which it is separated by the
Strait of Messina, only 2^ miles broad at its
narrowest. From east to west tho island mea-
sures about 185 miles, the distance between ex-
treme north and south being 12Q miles and tho
total area 9,828 square miles, ar> inclndi^ thO
adjacent islands of the .^gades, of the Inpari
or JEolian group and Dstica, 0,935 square miles.
Cape Passaro is only 66 milee north of Malta
and Cape Boeo 80 miles north-oast of Capo



( 2S0 )






Boa ia Taais. The iaterior is rery aiouataia-
ous> for the Peloric aad Kebrodiaa rahges, ez-
teasioas of the Apeaaiaee, rise to the heijs;ht
of several thousaad feet (to 6,467 feet ia Pmo
d'Aateaaa), aad there are detached aiasses such
as Etaa, the still active volcaao (10,874 feet),
ia the s6uth-east. Fine plains, however, spread
here aad there alon^ the coast, possessiag the



deepest and richest alluvial soil, and each with
a good harbour — e.g., Palermo and Castella-
mare in the north, Catania and Syracuse in
the east, Terranova in the south, and Trapani
and Marsala in the west. Lentini, about 7
miles from the Gulf of Catania, is the only
lake of considerable size in the island and its
area is only about 4| square miles. The rivers
are really mountain torrents and not navigable.
In nearly every district even tropical fruits will
grow, and the island served as the granary of
ancient Rome. Wine is abundant. The up-
lands feed merino sheep, but the old pastoral
habits have decayed. Mules and asses are
rai.sed in great numbers as beasts of burden
and cattle for labour. There are valuable
forests on the flanks of the mountains, and
the great mineral wealth remains almost un-
explored, though sulphur, alum, nitre, rock-
salt, and marble are exported in addition to
the olive-oil, white wine, oranges, lemons, raw
silk, barilla, and fieh that form the staples of
trade. Mining and agriculture are the leading in-
dustries, manufactures having been paralysed by
many years of past misgovernment, of brigand^-
age, religious mendicancy, priestcraft, and by
the recurrence of earthquakes. The lawless secret
society of the Maflia and the primitive Ven-
detta are abominations that still disturb public
tranquillity. Serious troubles have occasionally
arisen through the system of local administra-
tion, which presses severely on the agricultural
olasm, and from the pernicious system of land
tenure, involving much sub-letting. Sicily
first appears in history as the seat of the pre-
Aryan Sioani, who were, in the llth century


B.c,, reinforced by i^e Aryan Siculi. Then the
Phoenicians made settlements in different parts
and after them, in the 7th and 6th oenturiee
B.c,, came Greek colonies. The island played an
Important part in the struggle between Athens
and Sparta, and also in the history of Rome
until reduced to a province at the end of the
second Punic War (202 b.c.), though for a
long period before this Syracuse had grown
famous under the rule of several able and en-
lightened Tyrants. After the collapse of the
Empire Sicily fell for two centuries into the
hands of the Saracens, from whom it was
wrested by the Norman Crusaders between
1071 and 1090, soon afterwards becoming in-
corporated with Naples in the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies. Several times was this union
dissevered, and many changes of dynasty oc-
curred, but the Garibaldian movement of 1860
enabled the Sicilians to throw off the Bourbon
yoke — become intolerable under the despicable
Bomba (Ferdinand II.), whoee infamous treats
ment of political prisoners in loathsome
Neapolitan cells, W. E. Gladstone publicly de-
nounced in 1851 — and join United Italy. The
island is now divided into seven provinces —
namely, Palermo, Messina, Catania, Siracusa,
Caltanissetta, Girgenti, and Trapani, the
Governor having his residence at Palermo.
Pop. (1901), 3,629,799.

Sickingen, Franz von, feudal baron, was born
at Sickingen, Baden, Germany, on March let,
1481. As a leader of the Rhenish knights, he
wielded great influence and enjoyed the friend-
ship of the Emperor Maximilian I., who made
him bis chamberlain. He incurred the Ii^erial
displeasure for disturbing the peace of Worms

S and afterwards waged war with the
of Lorraine, Metz, Philip of Hesse and
otherpotentates. At the instigation of Ulrich
von Hutten, he threw in his sympathies with
the Reformation, many of whose leaders, in-
cluding Martin Luther, Martin Bucer, Johann
Reuchlin and Johannes (Ecolampadius, he be-
friended. He supported the election of Charles
Y. to the Imperial throne and took part in the
war against France in 1521. His attack on
the Archbishop of Treves, however, in the fol-
lowing year, at the head of a mercenary army,
create a strong counter-movement in support
of the prelate. One stronghold after another
was taken from him and, mortally wounded in
the siege of Landstuhl, near KaiserslauteTn,
he died there on May 7th, 1523.

Sicyon, a city in the east of Achaia, ancient
Greece, 2 miles S. of the Gulf of Corinth and
about 10 miles N.W. of the city of Corinth.
Under the strong rule of Tyrants *it attained to
reat power in the 7th and 6th centuries b.b.,
ut was of especial importance owing to its
influence as an art centre. It was famous for
its bronzes and pottery (particularly terra-cotta
vases). Pamphilus and Apelles, the painters,
and Lysippus, the sculptor, were natives, the
two former studying at its art school. It was
notable for its market and fruit gardens and for






Slddom.


(251 )


its manufacture of shoes. In 251 b.c., under
Aratus, one of its sons, it joined the Achaean
Xeag’ue and, when Borne destroyed Corinth in
146 B.O., Sicyon gained in territory and strength
and obtained the presidency of the Isthmian
Games. As Corinth revived, however, it de-
cayed and, by the 2nd Cnristian century, was
almost uninhabited. Its site is now occupied
by the village of Vasilika.

Siddons, Sarah, actress, was born at Brecon,
Wales, on July 6th, 1755. Her father, Boger
Kemble, was the respectable manager of an



MRS. BiDDONs. {By Thovias Gainsborough^ JJ.A.)


itinerant theatrical comioany, and she received
as good an education as it was to

give to the child of strolling players who was
obliged to travel with her parents. She ap-
peared on the stage at a very early age, and
in her nineteenth year became the wife of an
actor named William Siddons, who belonged to
her father’s company. In 1775 she played
‘^Portia” to Garrick’s “Shylock” at Drury
Lane without attracting much notice, but her
subsequent successes at Birmingham, York,
Bath, and elsewhere were eo extraordinary that
in 1782 she appeared a second time at Drury
Lane, her rSle being now “ Isabella ” in The
Fatal Marriage. Her success was immediate
and complete, and from that time forward she
was recognised as the leading actress of the
day. In 1803 she joined her brotner, John
Philip Kemble, at Covent Garden, and played
at that theatre till her retirement from the
stage ou June 29th, 1812. She died in London
on June 8th, 1881. Of the numerous tragic
parts especially associated with her name,
Lady Macbeth,” Queen Catharine,” “Con-
stance," " Isabella," and " Belvidera" are those
in which she reigned supreme. She was the
greatest actress in tragedy England has ever
produced, but was not formed to shine in


flidfwiole*


comedy, She owed much her physical gHts
— a noble face, tall, graeef^ and oommanaing
figure, and dignified carnage. Her private
life was beyona reproach. Of numerous por-
traits those by Phomas Gainsborough in the
London National Gallery and by Sr Joshua
Beynolds (representing her as the Tragic Muse)
in Dulwich Gallery and in Grosvenor House,
London, are famous.

Sidereal Clock is a specially-regulated olo^k
for measuring sidereal time. Accuracy is the
great essential of observatory clocks, and so
carefully are they now made that their varia-
tion seldom exceeds a second per day. Jewel-
ling the holes has greatly diminished the errors
due to friction, but careful compensation of the
pendulum, so that its length is the same what-
ever be the temperature, has been the chief
cause of the accuracy now attainable. Time
measured in an observatory begins, not at noon
as in an ordinary clock, but at the moment^
when the vernal point of intersection of ecliptic
and equator — the first point of Aries — crosses
the meridian, and from this point the hours
go on till 24 o’clock. The time of the clock is
constantly checked by means of the transits of
certain stars. A number of such reference stars
have had their right ascensions very accurately
determined. Every day some of these are ob-
served, and give the error of the clock. To
find the right ascension of any celestial object,
the time of its transit is noted, and its angular
right ascension is got by converting the time
into angles at the rate of 15^^ for each hour.

Sidgwick, Henry, philosopher, son of the Bev,
William Sidgwick, was born at Skipton, York-
shire, on May Slat, 1838. Educated at Bugby
and Cambridge, where he had a brilliant
undergraduate career, “going out” as a
wrangler and Senior Classic in 1859, he was
elected Fellow of Trinity. After holding a
classical lectureship for ten years, he exchanged
it in 1869 for one in moral philosophy, to
which he felt drawn, aiming at the foundation
of a school of philosophy in the university.
His views having undergone serious change,
he felt constrained to resign his Fellowshm.
His action strengthened the agitation for the
abolition of tests, a measure which was carried
in 1871. Sidgwick was esteemed so highly
he was permitted to retain his lectureship and
until his death continued to lecture in differ-
ent capacities. In 1874 his Methods of Ethics
appeared (to which he subsequently aaded sup-
plements in 1878 and 1884), a work which
stimulated thought by its careful examination
of ethical questions. He endeavoured to dhow
that a rational basis of morality may be found
which takes the general happiness for its
standard. Appointed praelector on moral politi-
cal philosophy in Trinity College in 1875, in
1883 he was elected Knightbridge professor of
moral philosophy, and in 1885 his college re-
elected him to a Fellowship. Interest in specu-
lation did not debar him f^om engaging in
practical matters, particularly in the question



( 252 )






of fomate ©ducation, Newnhani CoUeg<^ is a

emanent meiiiidi^ial of tJb« energy

o cbampioded tlie xiglit women to share in
the advantages of university teaching. His
private mhnTfleehce dften came to the aid of
schemes which were in jeopardy. Newnham
College was opened in 1876. in which year
SIdgwick ittaiTi^d Eleanor Mildred Balwur.
^^hen North Hall was added to Newnham the
Sidgwicks went to reside there, Mrs. Sidgwick
becoming ^ice-president Under Mies Clough on
whose (math. In 1892, she became principal.
From its foundation in 1882 until 1899 Sidg-
wick was a member of the General Board of
Studies ; an active member of a mendicity
society in Cambridge; and, holding that some
“ direct proof of continued individual existence
was essential to morality, he became one of
the founders of the Psychical Eesearch Society
and of the Metaphysical Society. In discus-
sion his courtesy, humour, dialectical skill and
freedom from self-assertion made him an in-
valuable link between exponents of opposing
beliefs. In the early part of 1900 he learnea
that he was afflicted with an incurable disease.
He resigned his professorship though feeling
‘‘full of vigour and vitality and wim splendid
courage faced the inevitable, joining in social
intercourse and maintaining his interest in
the undertakings with which he was identified.
He died at the house of his brother-in-law,
Lord Eayleigh, on August 28th, 1900. His
Principhs of Political Economy appeared in
1683. His discussion, therein, of the proper
functions of government has been pronounced
“by far th^ best thing of the kind in any
language.” In 3886 The Scope and Method of
Economic Science was published, followed, in
1886, by Outlines of the History of Ethics
and, in 1891, by The Elements of Politics^ an
attempt to supply an adequate treatise starting
from the lines of Bentham and Mill. He also
contributed reviews on literary and philosophi-
cal subjects to various journals.

Sidi-SeLAbMs, or Bel-Abb^3S, a town of
Western Algeria, 40 miles S. of Oran, with
which it is connected by rail. It was founded
in 1843 by French colonists on a site aban-
doned by the Beni Amer tribe, who had re-
treated to Morocco. It is situated 1,550 feet
above the sea and enjoys a healthy climate.
Gardening and farming flourish, and a thriving
trade is (Tone in the export of fruit, vegetables
and grain. Pop. (1901), 25,739.

Sidmoutll, a watering-place, Devonshire, Eng-
land, at the mouth of the Sid, 14 miles S.E.
of Exeter, It was an important seaport in the
reign of Edward III. and contributed two
vessels to the siegfe of Calais, but the harbour
silted up and its commerce decayed, though
fishing boats and small vessels can still make
the qti^. It is picturesquely situated between
Peake Hill and Isalcombe Down and is especi*
sHy adapted for invalids and sufferers from
^hest complaints. The west window of the
church of St, Nicholas was presented by*


Queen Yictoria In 1866 in memory of her father^
th© Duke of Kent, who died here in 1820. The
Duke and Duchess and the Princess Yictoria
then occupied Woolbrook Glen, a mansion at
the west end of the town. The public buildings
include the market, Yolunteer hall, Masonic
hall, baths and cottage hospital. Pop. (1901),
4,201.

Sidmouthl, HENEY ADDINGTONi 1 st VXSOOTOT.
statesman, was the son of Dr. Anthony Ad-
dington, Lord Chatham’s family physician, and
was born at Beading on May 30bh, 1767. He
was educated at Cheam, Winchester and Brase-
nose Collejge, Oxford. He studied for the bar,
but, possibly on tho advice of Williain Pitt,
with whom he kept up almost a lifelong friend-
ship, he took to politics, and in 1788 became
member of Parliament for Devises. From 1789
to 1801 he filled the Speaker’s chair, when,
on the solicitation of George III., who knew
he shared his Majesty’s narrow views about
Catholic emancipation, he accepted office as
Prime Minister. A pompous, dull man, of
irreproachable character, his administration
was feeble to a degree and he retired from
office in 1804. In the following year he was
created Yiscount Sidmouth and in 1812 entered
the Cabinet of Spencer Perceval as President of
the Council and, after Perceval’s assassination,
became Home Swretary under Lord Liverpool.
He was called to office at a grave crisis in
the social affairs of his country. Luddite riots
and general distress found him unprepared with
any remedy but repression and force. He was
seriously compromised by the Peterloo mas-
sacre at Manchester in 1819 and his share in
the proceedings against Queen Caroline en-
hanced his unpopularity. He left office in
1821 and retired from the Cabinet in 1824, be-
cause he disapproved of the recognition of the
independence of Buenos Aires. He died on
February 15th, 1844, and was buried at Mort-
lake.

Sidney, Algernon, republican, son of Robert,
2nd Earl of Leicester, was probably born at
Penshurst, near Tunbridge, Kent, in 1622, and
was educated privately, accompanying his
father to Denmark in 1632 and to Paris In
1636, and charming everyone with his wit and
amiable disposition. After taking part in the
suppression of the Irish rebellion (1642), he
entered the Parliamentary army, and was
badly wounded at Marston Moor. In 1647 he
accompanied his brother, Lord Lisle, to Ire-
land as Lieutenant-General of the Horse, and
in 1648 he was made Governor of Dover. He
took no part in the trial and condemnation of
Charles 1., but he subsequently pronounced his
execution a patriotic measure. After the dis-
solution of the Long Parliament (1668), he
withdrew to .Penshurst, and there wrote his
Discourses concerning Government, a work ad-
vocating republican principles. He was en«»
gaged in diplomatic business at Stockholm
when* the Restoration occurred, and cotitinued
to rceide on the Continent till 1677, when he


( 258 3




nimm.


dlitoiiied permission to return. Hie mgotisL^
tions with the French ambassador, Banllon,
from whom he is said to have received money in
1680, have given rise to much conjecture. After
the death of Shaftesbury (1682) he became one
of the most active leaders of the Whig party.
There is no evidence that he was implicated in
the Bye House Plot; nevertheless, he was
brought to trial, which was presided over by
Jeffreys with more than his wonted brutality,
condemned to death on the testimony of a
single perjured witness, and beheaded on Tower
Hill, liondon, on December 7th, 1683. His
attainder was reversed in 1689.

Sidneyp Sib Philip, soldier, statesman and
poet, whose noble life and chivalrous death
have justly made him the ideal of knightly
heroism, was born at Penshurst, near Ihin-

bridge, Kent, on

■ November 80th,

1554. He was the
son of Sir Henry
Sidney (1629-
1686), an able
and upright Irish
Viceroy, and
Mary Dudley,
daughter of John,
Duke of North-
umberland, and
sister of Eliza-
beth’s favourite,
the Earl of
Leicester, He re-
ceived his educa-
tion at Shrews-
i)ury school and
Christ Church,
SIB PHILIP siDNST, Oxford. In 1672

he set out on the

grand tour, and was at Paris on the night of the
Massacre of 8fc. Bartholomew. At Frankfort he
made the acquaintance of his lifelong friend, the
scholar Hubert Languet. After visiting Italy, he
returned to England in 15p, and, aided by the
patronage of his uncle Leicester, rapidly made
his way at Court. In 1577 he went as ambas-
sador to the Emperor Rudolph for the purpose
of effecting a permanent union of the Protes-
tant states — an impossible project, for the
failure of which Sidney is not to be blamed.
Having incurred Elizabeth’s anger by a bold
address, pointing out the evils which would
result from a marriage with the Duke of An-
jou, he withdrew from Court in 1580, and lived
for a time with his sister, the Countess of Pem-
broke, at Wilton. In 1583 he married Frances,
daughter of Sir Fiancis Walsingham, although
for several years he had cherished an ardent
affection for Penelope, Lady Rich. In 1585
l^e was about to set sail with Sir Francis
Drake on an expedition against the Spaniards
in America, when he received a messa^ from
the Queen forbidding him to leave England.
He was, however, allowed to accompany Leice^
ter, who was sent to the Netherlands to aid


the Dutch in their itruMe ^th the Spaniards^
and there, through a noulWiAct courage and
self-sacrifice, he lost hia life on the batlleield
of Zutphen (September 22nd, 1586). Parched
with thirst and carrying a fatal wound in his
leg he called for drink, when he reached the
English camp. A bottle of water was brought
to him and he was about to partake when he
caught sight of a dying soldier's eyes fixsd
hungrily on the vessel. Sir Philip at once
passed him the bottle with the words, ‘'Thy
necessity is yet greater than mine," which along
with the incident illustrate without furi^^r
argument or rhetoric the whole duty of un-
selfishness. As a poet Sidney appears at his
best in Astro j)hel and Stella (1591), a series of
beautiful sonnets commemorating his hopeless
passion for Penelope Devereux, sister of the
Earl of Essex and wife of Lord Rich. His
pastoral romance. The Countess of Pembroke's
Arcadia (1690), occupies an important position
in the development of English prose, and was
very popular in its own day, but it is too
prolix and artificial to please the present i^e.
Another prose work, Tne Defence of
first called an Apolome for PoHrie (1595)— still
keeps its place as a classic.

Sidon (modern Saida), an ancient Phoenician
city which was situated on a plain on the coast
of the Mediterranean, about 20 miles N. of
Tyre. It was probably the earliest Phoenician
settlement, ana attained great commercial pros-
perity before the Jewish immigration, being
subsequently eclipsed by its off-shoot IVre.
Cyrus and Alexander successively conquered it,
and the Egyprians, Romans, and Turks became
its masters, existing village lies west of the
ruins of the city, and belongs to the Pashalik
of Acre. Pop., 11,000, mostly Mahommedans.

SidonixLS Apollinftris, a Christian writer
and bishop, was born at Lyons about a.d. 430.
He married the daughter of the Emperor Avi-
tus (456), and in 472 became Bi^op of Cler-
mont in Auvergne. His works, which possess
considerable historical value, include nine
books of letters and panegyrics in verse on
three emperors. He died in 483.

Siebengebirge (German, “the Seven Moun*
tains"), a group of hills in Rhenish Prussia,
Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine,
forming part of the Westerwald, 8 miles S.B.
of Bonn. The loftiest peak is the Olberg (1,522
feet), but the most famous is the Drachenfels
(1,066 feet). They are crowned with the mine
of baronial castles and afford a good building
stone which was largely used in the construc-
tion of Cologne Cathedral.

Siedlcey a government of Russian Poland,
bounded on the N. by Lomza, on the E.
by Grodno and Volhynia, on the S. by Lublin,
on the S.W. by Raaom and on the N.W. by
Warsaw. It occupies an area of 6,528 square
miles. It is bordered on the east by the Bug
and on the west by the Vistula i Tne surface
la mostly level plain, hut there k much marsh



(254 )


BimMmimL


land in the north and eontb-east ai%d hilly
ground towards the centre. Bye» wheat* oats,
and barley are the grain crops, and potatoes
are very entensiirely cultivated and livenstoclc is
raised on a large scale. Brewing and dietilling
are the chief industries. Siedlce (23,714) is the
capital. Pop., 776,326.

Sitga sitting down before’’) is the name
given to a particular mode of attacking a forti-
fied towi| which cannot be taken by surprise or
by direct assault. The siege diners irom a
blockade in that the latter consists in simply
preventing ingress to or egress from a place;
' though sometimes the two are combined, as in
the case of the siege of Antwerp in the 16th
century. The first ming necessary in establish-
ing a siege is to overpower any outlying forts
that might harass the attacking party. Bat-
teries are then established within easy cannon-
range, and the attack is opened. Meanwhile
a gradual advance is made upon the strong-
hold by means of trenches, which are protected
nt intervals by parallels, and which are carried
on by zig-zags, so as to avoid being swept by
the enemy’s fire. In the case of a moat, mining
is employed if possible. Provision is made in
the trenches and parallels for accommodating
a sufficient number of troops to repel any sortie
attempted by the besieged garrison, When a
breach is made in the walls by mining or
direct battery, the assault is delivered. Inere
were memorable sieges in the Peninsular War;
and in later times those of Sebastopol, in the
Crimean War, of Paris, in the Franco-German
War, of Plevna, in the Eusso-Turkish War, and
of Port Arthur, in the Kuseo- Japanese War,
were of much importance and historically in-
teresting.

Sieg en, ti town of Westph.alia, Prussia, about
60 miles E. of Cologne, on the Sieg, a right-
hand affluent of the Rnine, into which it falls
opposite Bonn. Iron-founding, iron-smelting,
tanning, paper-making, and the making of
machinery are the leading industries. Origin-
ally Siegen was the capital of a principality
belonging to Nassau, the junior branch of
which deriving from it (1606) its title of Naesau-
Siegen. in 1816 it was assigned to Prussia by
the Congress of Vienna. It claims to have been
the birthplace of Peter Paul Rubens, the
famous painter, in 1577. Pop. (1900), 22,110,

SiemonSf Sib William (Kael Wilhelm),
metallurgist and electrician, was born at
Leuthe, in Hanover, Germany, on April 4th,
1823, and received hie education at the Poly-
technic school of Magdeburg and the university
of Gdttingen. In 1843 he came to England in
order to patent a process for electro^llding,
invented by his elder brother, Ebkst Webneb
VON Siemens (born at Leuthe on December
13th, 1816; died at Berlin on December 6th,
1892), and himself. A second journey to Eng-
land in 1844, in which he brought with him
his **ohronoinetric” or differential governor,
was followed by his permanent settlement in


the country, Wilhelm conducting the affaire
of ** Siemens Brothers” in En^and, whilst
Werner, also an able electrician, for the most
part resided in Prussia. Wilhelm'e genius re^
oeived ample reoc^ition, and in 1862 he was
President of the British Assocmtion. He was
knighted in 1883 and died at London in the
same year on November 19th. Among his more
important inventions were the regenerative fur-
nace, the selenium eye, and various electric
railways. He also devised the steamer Faro*
day for laying the Direct United States Cable
in 1874.

Siena, or Sienna, a province of Italy, and its
capital. The former has an area of 1,471 square
miles in the centre of Tuscany, the northern
portion being mountainous, but yielding fine
marbles, whilst the plains and valleys are fer-
tile. In 1905 its population was estimated at
240,281. The city, picturesquely built on three
steep hills at an elevation of 1,000 feet above
the sea, was in the Miadle Ages a strong and
wealthy place, the centre of a republic which
rivalled Florence and Pisa. Its cathedral
(11th to 13tli century) is the noblest existing
specimen of Italian Gothic, and contains many
beautiful works of art, including the magnifi-
cent pulpit designed by Niccolo Pisano (1274).
The cathedral library, founded by Cardinal
Francesco Piccolomini-Todeschini (afterwards
Pius III.), contains Pinturicchio’s famous fres-
coes. The unive..sity founded in the 14th cen-
tury still flourisiies, though restricted to the
faculties of law and medicine. Other public
structures are the city library, the Institute of
Fine Arts, the Palazzo del Governo containing
the Sienese archives, the communal palace, one
hall of which was decorated by native artists
in memory of King Victor Emmanuel and
opened in 1891, the Buonsignori Palace and
the Opera del Duomo with numerous examples
of art. The narrow winding streets are charm-
ingly picturesque, and the many churches,
such as San Giovanni, San Francesco and
San Domenico, are full of treasures, either
architectural or pictorial. There are manu-
factures of textiles and hats. Pop. (1901),
28,355.

Sienldewicz^ Heneyk, novelist, was born at
Okreya, Radom, Russian Poland, on May 4th,
1846, and was educated at the Gymnasium and
University of Warsaw. In 1869 he was editor
of a Warsaw journal called Slowo and in the
following year published his first novel, In
Vain, In 1872 appeared his Save in his own
Country^ and in 1873 Hania and other storie®,
the realism and sentiment of which had begun
to captivate the public. Travels in Germany,
France, the Britm Isles and the United States
occupied the years from 1876 to 1878, and
among the stories published after his return
was Barieht in which he utilised some episodes
of the Franco-German War. In 1884 he struck
the vein of historical romance that brought
him into universal recognition. F^e md
Sword (1884), The Deluge (1886), and Fan



MUnm


( 265 )


Mickad (1888) wero a trilogy dealing with
Polish subjects. In 1890 he published Without
Dogma, a study of Slav psychology, and in
1891 he travelled from Egypt to Zanzibar and
also visited the Carpathians, Venice and Borne.
In 1895 appeared his masterpiece Quo Vadis, a
Christian romance of the days of Nero, which
has been translated into most of the languages
of the globe. Since that brilliant success he
has written other novels, of which Soldiers of
the Cross (1900) is perhaps the best. In a
little book published in 1901, Sea Story, he
reviewed the significance of his work as the
national novelist of Poland.

Sierra Leouei a Crown colony belonging to
Great Britain, situated on the west coast of
Africa between Rivieres du Sud (French
Guinea) on the north-west and Liberia on the
south-east. The river Searcies divides it from
the French possessions. Sierra Leone proper
consists of a peninsula about 26 miles long by
12 miles broad, terminating in Cape Sierra
Leone, but the colony has a coast-line of 180
miles, extends inland to distances varying from
8 to 20 miles, includes the Yellaboi islands off
the north coast and Sherbro off the south and
has an area of about 4,000 square miles. Be-
yond this there is a Protectorate running as far
inland as the Futa Jallon region and having an
area of 30,000 square miles and a population
of 1,000,000. Some of the lofty ground in tho
hinterland reaches a height of nearly 3,000
feet and the colony is well watered. Ihe cli-
mate is distinctly unhealthy (they call it “the
white man’s grave”) and the average annual
rainfall is 170 inches, though it may exceed
200 inches. The fertile soil yields rice, maize,
yams, plantains, pumpkins, cassava, sugar,
coffee, indigo, ginger and cotton. Amongst the
fruits are cocoanut, banana, pine-apple, orange,
lime, guava, papaw and pomegranate. Gold
and silver are mined. The chief exports corn-

rise palm oil and kernels, ginger, ground nuts,

ola nuts, indiarubber and cotton. The colony
was established in 1787 and colonised by liber-
ated negroes. Freetown (34,463), the capital,
is the greatest seaport in West Africa and has
a supreme court, Furah Bay College (a train-
ing college for teachers, affiliated to the Uni-
versity of Durham) and a botanical garden. It
is one of the few places on the earth’s surface
where the white man is held cheap because he
is white. The Freetown darkey’s choicest
phrase is, “White niggahs and black genel-
men." Pop, of colony (1901), 76,656.

fiiBtVB, Heirada (“ Snowy Range ”), the name
given to the most southerly and most elevated
of the parallel systems that cross Spain from
east to west. It traverses the whole of Gran-
ada from Alhama to Baza, a distance of over
100 miles, and contains the peaks of Mulhacen
(11,678), and Veleta (11,378), the snow-line being
drawn at about 9,500 feet. In geological forma-
tion the range ' resembles the Pyrenees, and
is rich in iron, copper, silver-lead, zinc, and




antimony^ Olives^ chestnuts* and oranges
abound.

Sitm Hnundny a great mountain chain
of North America, which runs parallel to the
Rocky Mountains between Cfalifornia and
Utah, and forms the western boundary of the
state of Nevada. The range, which is the verit-
able buttress of California, extends from 37® to
42® N., being the watershed of the Sacramento,
the San Joaquin, and other Californian riveipe.
The best-known peak is Mount Shasta (14^000
feet), but there are many others of superb con-
tour, amongst them Mount Whitney (14,898),
Fisherman (14,448), Corcoran (14,093), Brower
(13,886), Lyell (13,042), and Dana (13,225). Its
valleys, which include the famous Yosemite,
are bounded by walls of rock several thousands
of feet high and present features of extras
ordinary grandeur and beauty. One of its forest
marvels is the Sefpwia gigantea. In formation the
range is volcanic, and it possesses great mineral
resources, silver being especially Abundant.

Sieyds, Emmanuel Joseph, commonly known
as the Abbe Sieyfes, the most intellectual of the
politicians who took part in the French Revo-
lution, was the son of the director of the post-
office at Fr€jua, in the department of Var,
where he was born on May 3rd, 1748. After
receiving his early education from the Jesuits
of his native town, he studied philosophy and
theology at St. Sulpice, in Paris, and was ap-
pointed vicar-general by the Bishop of Chartres.
In response to Nccker’s invitation to French
writers to make known their views concerning
the manner of assembling the States-General,
he published several political pamphlets, in-
cluding the famous Qii'est-ce que le Tiers^Mtat?
(“What is the Third Estate?”), which un-
doubtedly hastened on the Revolution. When
the States-General met in 1789, he appeared
as deputy for the city of Paris. It was he
who suggested that the three estates should
form a single assembly, and proposed the name
“National Assembly,” which was adopted by
the unified body. He was but a poor speaker,
but he maintained his position as an abstract
, politician and a framer of constitutions, win-
ning new laurels by his published speech op-
posing the royal veto. In the Legislative A^
sembly he sat in the Centre, but he had not the
courage to defend the Girondists, and sank into
comparative obscurity, only coming forward
at the installation of the Goddess of Season to
renounce his faith in the Christian religion.
In 1796 he was one of a commission appointed
to frame a new constitution, but his proposals
were rejected. In 1798 he was sent as am-
bassador to Berlin, and began to intrigue with
Napoleon. The coup d'iiat of 18 Brumaire
(November 9th, 1799) was followed by the estab-
lishment of the Third Consulate, composed of
Napoleon, Sieves and Ducos, but Sieyfes was
outwitted by his great colleague, and was glad
to retire to an estate at Crosne with the title
of count and a handsome pension. After the
second return of the Bourbons he fi4d to Bel^


( 256 )




■%iu»dXL


gium. but in 1830 1 m Mtumod to
lie died on June 30tii, 1836.

SigilUactK, a genus of fossil cluB^moeses,
bel<^g^ng probably to the order Selaginellaoess,
■which Jonned one of the chief types of the
iregetation of the Coal Measures. They had
large and lofty stems, either unbranched or
dichotomous, covered with the scars of fallen
leaves in vertical rows. The leaves were nar-
row, linfar and sedge-like, reaching eighteen
inches in length; but generally only the cushion
of attachment is preserved. The roots, known
as Stigmaria, are found in the fire-clay below
coal-seahis, and in the Devonian. They reach
twenty or thirty feet in length, and are cylind-
rio and dichotomous. Their outer surface is
pitted with the soars of the rootlets, and they
have a medulla and a vascular cylinder of
scalariform traoheids, growth being apical.
The cone of fructification, known as Sigillario-
sttobus, is rare. It resembles Lepidostrobus,
that of Lepidodendron, and was probably
heterosporous.

SigislilllSidi the younger son of Charles IV.,
'OeriUanAemperor, was born on February 14tb,
1362, and succeeded his father as Margrave
of Brandenburg in 1378. Having married
Maria, daughter of Ludwig of Hungary, he was
elected to fill that throne. In 1410, on the
death of Euprecht, Palatine of the Ehine, he
was put forward by a strong party as candi-
date for the imperial dignity, and after some
disputes received the unanimous vote of the
Diet, being crowned in 1414. Under his aus-
pices the Council of Constance was held in the
same Tear, and his reign was one continual
struggle with the Hussites, whose leader he
treacherously burned in 1416. His later years
were passed in wars against the Turks, from
whom he took Belgrade. With him the Luxem-
burg dynasty eno^, as at his death at Znaim
in Moravia, on December 9th, 1437, he left only
a daughter. By the sale of Brandenburg to the
burgrave of Nuremberg he laid the foundation
of Qie Prussian kingdom. This was the em-
peror of whom Thomas Carlyle wrote in his
Frederick the Great (Book II., chap. 14) — “I
call him in my Note-books Sigisinund ^Super
Qrammaticam, to disting^uish him in the im-
broglio of Kaisers." The historian alludes to
the lofty, not to s^ supercilious attitude of
the emperor at the Diet of Constance. A Car-
dinal mildly ventured to tell him that the word
mhkma was neuter and not feminine as the
Kaiser had supposed. Sigismund's answer was
superb — ^*‘Ego sum Eex Eomanus et super
Qrammaticam (“I am King of the Eomans,
and above grammar*’).

Signalliiig, the means of conveying from a
distance information to the eye or ear of intel-
ligence that cannot otherwise readily be made
known. Among the contrivances made use of
are flags, boards, lights, guns, belle, steam-
whistles, etc. In the navy signalling is especi-
.ally required, and has also been largely adopted j


in military x^rations. Signalling At sea was
much aimpli&d by the iniroductton, by CAp^
tain Frederick Marryat ^792-1848), the novelist
(whose adaptation gained him in 1819 the FeV
low^ip of the Boy al Society), and later ex-
perimentalists, of a system of codification,
whereby a limited set of signals wae made to
do duty for some fourteen thousand words and
phrases. A new international code of signals
was introduced in 1901. Ihe international code
of signals, which was first known as the Com-
mercial Code, was prepared and published in
April, 1657. Another committee was appointed
by the British Board of Trade in 1887 to
bring it up to date. That committee made
its &al report in 1897, and it was proposed
to introduce the new code on the first day
of 1899. However, the time occupied in the
necessary negotiations with foreign Powers
was greater than anticipated, and so a further
delay took place. The advantages of the new
code over the old one may beat be brought
home to the lay mind by a statement of the
number of signals possible under both: —

Old. Kew.

One flag signals 4 ... 26

Two flag signals... ... 216 ... 660

Three flag signals ... 4,600 15,600

Four flag signals ... 20,600 ... 828,800

84,319 846,076

The new code provides a flag for every letter of
the alphabet. Moreover, Sie abolition of all
four-flag hoists for general signals very greatly
increases the rapidity T^ith which communica-
tion can be held. The two codes were used con-
currently for a year, but after the first day of
1902 only the new one was recognised. Of
course the Board of Trade has no statutory
power to compel shipowners to employ it, but
there is a general agreement among the chief
maritime Powers to "adopt it, and that is an
overwhelming force in matters of this kind.
Eailway signalling is accomplished principally
by the use of semaphores, coloured lights, and
detonators, and occasionally by means of flags.

Signattire, a natural marking npon a plant,
formerly supposed to be indicative of some
special use. It was a quack theory that could
only prevail in a backward condition of know-
ledge. The doctrine of signatures, as it waa
magniloquently styled, applied to minerals and
other substances as well as plants. It affected
to trace some relationship between colour and
disease — as, for instance, between yellow flowers
and jaundice and bloodstones and bleeding —
and also found hidden significance in shape, m
in the mandrake, and other physical features.
The doctrine left its mark in the uoinenclature
of certain plants and grasses, such as ecorpion-
grass, serpent-grass, "iimich were ignorantly be-
lieved to possess mysterious prophylactic or
curative qualities.

Signorelli, Luca, hr Luca i>a Cobtona,
painter, was bom at Cortona in Tuscany, Italy,
in 1441, and becoming the chief of the Tuscan







Sigimvilf.


( 2B7 )




icliool wa4 iitirited to Bomo in

1478, wlieto ke painted one of tke frescoes in
the Sistine Ckapel. His best #ork, however,
is to be seep in the cathedral of Orvieto,
^'The Last Judgment ” having supplied Michael
Angelo with suggestions for his own great pic-
ture. Whether this were so or not, there is
little doubt but that Michael Angelo recognised
the enormous energy and uncompromising
drawing of his forerunner. Signoreui seemed
to sacrifice everything— colour, l^auty, charm —
to absolute truth, fie returned to Cortona in
1602, on the completion of these grand frescoes,
but was summoned to Bom© in 1608 to under-
take, along with other painters, the decoration
of the Vatican for Pope Julius II. But a still

f reater man had now come on the scene and
ignorelli and the rest retired to make way for
Eaphaei. Several of his altar-pieces exist at
Cortona, and other pictures in oils are pre-
served in Continental galleries, but genuine
specimens are rare. He died in Cortona about
1625.

Sigourneyf Ltdia Huntley, author, was
born at Norwich, Connecticut, United States,
on September 1st, 1791, her father being Ezekiel
Huntley, a soldier of the Be volutionary period.
She began life as a teacher, but the success of
her first book, Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse
(1816), gave her a definite bent towards litera-
ture, which her marriage (1819) with Charles
Sigourney, a merchant of literary and artistic
tastes, enabled her to satis^. She then took
up her home in Hartford, Connecticut, which
she never left save during 1840, when she
made the European tour recorded in Pleasant
Memories of Pleasant Lands (1842), and where
she died on June 10th, 1865. She was always
practically interested in benevolence and made
the welfare and happiness of the poor and
needy, the deaf and dumb and blind, and the
slave her constant care. Her literary activity,
too, was immense. She wrote 46 separate books
and more than 2,000 articles. If not of a high
order, her poetry was graceful and sometimes
felicitously phrased and her prose elegant.
Her most popular works were Sketch of Conneatiout
Phrty Years Since (1824), Letters to TouTig Ladies
(18B3), Letters to Mothers (1838), Pocahontas, and
other Poems (1841), Voices of Floreers (1845), Olive
Jjea/ces (1851), and The Man of U%, amd other

Sihoii is traditionally represented to have been
Bing of the Amorites and his territory was
bounded on the N. by the Jabbok, on the E. by
the desert, on the S. by the Arnon flowing into
the Bead Sea, and on the W. by the Jordan.
Ihe liraelitea, having beon refused permission
to pass thrbugh his country to reach Jordan
and invade Canaan, settled the difficulty by at-
tacking Sihon at Jahaz, defeating his army and
slajjiuff himi Ihey then captured Heshhou, his
capital, and annexed his dominion, and thus,
without meaning it, became masters of Gilead,
^ar© seems reason to believe, however, that
the traditional account is at fault in several
209— ir.B.


partiduiars, ahd that |mli|abty Sihon was a
miswriting for Cush ih Itblth Arabia.

SiUlBf t.e., ** Disciples,” members of a peculiar
sect, which was founded in the Punjab by Nanak
in the 16th century, atid which may be described
as a monotheistic reformation of Brahminism
developed under Moslem influences. Its tenets
are embodied in the Granth or Sacred Books,
which are accepted both by the Khalsa or Old
Sikhs and the Singhs (“lions**), as the re-
formed Sikhs call Qiemaelve®. The term has
acquired a certain ethnical significance ftdia
the fact that all the Sikhs belong to the Jit
race, and are distingui^ed by their fine de-
velopment, courage, and loyalty,

Spddm, a feudatory state in the Himalaya,
India, bounded on the N. by Tibet, on the E.
by the Tibetan district of Chumbi, on the S.
W the British district of Darjiling, and on the
W. by Nepal. From north to south it measures
70 miles, from east to west 60 miles and covers
an area of 2,818 square miles. By a treaty be-
tween Great Britain and China, ratified on
August 17th, 1890, a British protectorate over
Sikkim was recognised and exclusive control
over the foreign affairs and internal adminis-
tration was vested in the British Government.
The Maharaja proving recalcitrant, he was in-
vited to reside in India for a period and re-
turned to JSikkim in 1895. The inhabitants of
the state call themselves Bong, but to the
Ghurkhas of Nepal they are known as Lepchas,
and their reli^on is the Lamaism of Tibet.
The surface of the country is entirely mountain-
oue, but the valleys yield crops of rice, maize,
millet, tea, cotton, oranges and other fruits.
Copper is mined and the forests are of great
value. The jungle is infested with leeches,
which are not only a nuisance to human bein^,
but a positive pest to the horses and goats.
The chief towns are Tumlong and Gamtak.
Pop. (1901), 69,014.

Silage, A method of preparing green fodder for
cattle and horses by storing it under pressure
in silos, or pits, or in stacks above the ground,
.water being excluded carefully. Ensilage, as
the process is called, is of great antiquity, but
the practice of convertmg green fodder iuto
sour hay was revived in (?ermany in 18|8 and
became established in the Unitea State<^ about
1880 and in the United Kingdom in 1883. The
silo was an underground chamber, airtight and
watertight, in which the fodder was closely
packed and then covered over and submitted
to very heavy mechanical pressure. It was
thus exposed to fermentation which, if not al-
lowed to go too far, was found to be beneficial,
the fodder thus treated being in a condition
analogous to that of sauerkraut, which is pro-
duced by the fermentation of cabbage. The con-
struction of silos was always a matter of expense
and ths practice might not have become general,
but for the discovery in 1887 that silage might
be made in stacks, the convenienpa a®^ cheap-
ness of which rendered this method popular.



Bilbwef


( 268 )


SileMft.


Stock partake of sweet and eour silage wltli
apparently equal pelisk. Sweet silage is pre-

S ared 1^ postponing tke pressure for two or
iree diys until the temperature of the
material has reached 130^ to 140° F., a tem-
perature high enough to kill the bacteria which
produce the acid fermentation, and then apply-
ing pressure and covering the top of the eilo.
Sour silage is obtained by applying the pres-
sure iipmediately the silo is nlled with fodder.
Grasseit^ clover, cereals and most kinds of
green stuff excepting roots lend themselves to
treatment by ensilage.

Silbury Hill. [Avebury.]

SUohester, a village of Hampshire, England,
7 miles N. of Basingstoke. It was the site of


charge. He accompanied him to India, and is
generaHy depicted as a fat and drunken old
man riding on an ass, and surrounded by a
ri<^U8 crew of fauns and bacchantes. He re-
ceived most veneration in Elis and Arcadia.

Silesia, Austrian, a province of Austria,
bounded on the N. by Prussian Silesia, on the
E. by Galicia, on the S. by Hungary, and on
the W. by Moravia. It coverb an area of 1,987
square miles. The surface is mountainous in
the west, where outliers of the Sudetic moun-
tains occur, and in the south, where the Car-
athians border the country, which is watered
ythe Vistula and Oder and certain tributaries.
Dairying and the raising of live-stock are
carried on in the upland districts, while tex-
tiles, iron and steel industries and coal-


mining flourish. The province sends 12
members to the Eeichsrat. Troppau
(26,748) is the capital. Pop. (1900),
680,422, of whom fully half are Slava
(Poles, Czechs and Slovaks) and the
rest Germans.

Silesia (German, Schleden\ a pro-
vince of Prussia, bounded on the N. by
Posen, on the E. by Russian Poland,
on the S.E. by Galicia, on the S. by
Austrian Silesia, Moravia and Bohe-
mia, on the S.W. by Saxony, and on
the N.W. by Brandenburg. It occu-
pies an area of 15,668 square miles.
From the 10th to the 12th century this
tract was under Polish government,
and from the 12th to the 14th century
it was divided into two duchies. Upper
and Lower Silesia. After the 14th cen-
tury it became broken up into a number
of petty states : Schweidnitz, Glogau,
the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum, the Oels, Jagerndorf, etc., over most of which Bohe-

ground plan of which, thanks to the unremit- mia exercised suzerainty. In 1637 the Duke of

ting labours of private archaeologists and the Liegnitz left his dominions to Brandenburg, and

Society of Antiquaries, has been, to a surpris- thus gave rise to the struggle between Austria

ing extent, disclosed by excavation and re- and Prussia for the possession of this tepitory,

search. Near the middle of the town was the which was only brought to an end with the

forum, adjoining which stood a Christian Seven Years* War. Prussia then got the greater

church (the earliest in England), while farther share (15,568 equare miles), and Austria 1,987

off were two square temples, a round temple square miles. The capital of the Prussian pro-

and a building which is conjectured to have vince, which embraces some of the richest and

been an inn, furnished with baths. Remains of the most picturesque land in Germany, is

of some “self-contained *’ houses, each standing Breslau (422,709). In the south the surface is

in its own garden, of shops (including a bakery, mountainous, where the Riesengebirge, whose

dyehouse, and a silver refinery) as well as of highest point is the Schneekoppe (5,266 feet),

the streets, which intersected each other at a portion of the Sudetic system, are the chief

right angles, have been made out. Pottery, physical features. The province is drained by

coins, ornaments, tools, and such smaller the Oder and its tributaries. Cereals, potatoes

articles have been discovered in large numbers, and beet-root are the principal crops and live-

though few if any examples of outstanding stock (especially cattle, pigs and horses) are

merit have come to light. Many of the relics raised in great numbers. The mineral wealth

have l^n deposited in the museum at Reading. is of first-rate importance and includes coal,

The village is thus one of the most interesting iron, zinc, lead and silver. The industries are

places in England. Pop. (1901), 390. amongst the foremost in Germany and com-

prise iron smelting and founding, flax-spinning,
Sileniui, in classical mythology, was a demi- linen-weaving, sugar-refining, brewing and dis-

1^, the son of Hermes or Pan and a nymph, tilling, besides manufactures of glass, poroelaii^,

the youthful Bacchua was committed to his earthenware, chemicals, paper, leather, textiles





KUumi^. ( 259 ) fmiw ItiOiew^


and tobacco. Pop, (1800), 4,668,857, of whom
three-fotirths are uerman, the rest being mainly
Poles.

SiUlOUette, a profile portrait which is filled in
iu black upon a white ground. It derives its
name from Etienne de Silhouette (born at
Limoges in 1709; died at Brie-sur-Marne in
1767), who was French Finance Minister in
1759, according to eome, because he delighted
in making these portraits. Silhouettes can be
cut from black paper and pasted on a white
ground, or can bo traced from shadows on the
wall. They may be enlarged or reduced by an
instrument called the pantograph.

Bilica consists of the oxide of silicon repre-
sented by the formula SiO^. It is very plenti-
ful upon the crust of the earth, both in a free
state and combined with other oxides, and ie
by far the most abundant oxide. It also oc-
curs in many grasses and bamboos, as well as
in birds* feathers. In minerals it occurs free: —
crystalline, as quartz and tridymite, and in a
non-crystalline form as the opal. Flint is also
a form of silica, while the agate and chalce-
dony are mixtures of the amorphous and crystab
line varieties. Sand and sandstone, quartzite
and some other rocks consist chiefly of silica.
In combinations it acts the part of an acid,
uniting with other oxides to form silicates, and,
according to the quantity of silica present,
rocks are known as acid, intermediate, or
basic. It may be prepared artificially as a white
powder, insoluble in acids, except hydrofluoric,
possessing a specific gravity of 2*2. It ie very
infusible, but may be meltl^ in the oxyhydro-
g«n flame. Many hot springs and geysers con-
tain silica, as it is soluble in alkaline hot
solutions. The compound is precipitated from
the water as it cools and evaporates, and by
this means great deposits of silica may be
found, as in the “sinter*’ terraces in Yellow-
stone Park and other localities.

SiHoates are compounds which may be re-
garded as derived from silicic acids W re-
placement of the hydrogen by metals. Owing
to the complicated nature of most of the sili-
cates, however, they are more usually written
as compounds of silica and other oxides, the
real nature of **he compound being unknown.
They are almost all insoluble, the ^kaline sili-
cates being the only exceptions. Sodium sili-
cate (NaSiOa) is known as soluble glass, and its
solution is employed for rendering wood, etc.,
fireproof. Many rocks consist almost entirely
of silicates, as do most of the minerals which
form the earth’s crust. Glass also consists en-
tirely of silicates; thus flint-glass consists of
alkaline and lead silicates, other glass of sili-
cates of calcium, sodium, potassium, etc.

Bilioio AoidSy acids from which the silicates
may be regarded as derived, but which cannot
be regarded ae always eidsting free.

Bilieon (chemical symbol, Si ; atomic weight,
28) is a non-metallio element which was first pre-
pared by Berzelius in 1810. It is only prepared


with difficulty, although its obinpounds are very
numerous. Next to oxygen it is the most abun-
dant element in the earth’s crust, occurring,
however, always in the combined state as silica
or silicates. It may be obtained as a brown
powder which burns if heated, forming the oxide
silica. It may also be obtained in a crystalline
form as black hexagonal tablets, somewhat re-
sembling graphite, and also as octahedral crys-
tals. It unites with hydrogen to form a gaseous
hydride, and forms interesting chlorides, bro-
mides, and iodides. In its chemical deportment
it exhibits many striking similarities to carbon.
Many organic compounds containing carbon
thus are represented amongst silicon com-
pounds, the only constitutional difference being
the replacement of carbon by silicon. Thus,
silico chloroform (SiHCl^) corresponds to chloro»
form (CHClO, etc. Its oxide is known as silica,
and forms the basis of a large number of com-
pounds known as silicates.

Siliqua (Latin, “ husk “ ; “ pod a dry syn-
carpous superior fruit, typically made up of two
carpels and two-chambered, though having
parietal placentation. It has a replum, or per-
sistent septum, formed by outgrowth from the
placentas, and valvular dehiscence, the two
carpels separating from below, leaving the seeds
attached to the replum. The siliqua is generally
flattened, either parallel with the (broad)'
replum, when the fruit is termed latisept, or
at right angles to the (narrow) replum, wnen it
is called angustisept. The typical siliqua is
elongated and pod-like, as in the cabbages,
mustards, wallflowers, etc. When shorter than
its breadth, it is called a silicle (silicula), as in
the shepherd’s purse, the two varieties forming
the typical fruits of the order Cruciferro. Ex-
ceptionally (Tetrapoma) there are four carpels;
or the siliqua is transversely constricted between
the seeds, as in radishes. It is then termed
lomentaceous. A fruit much resembling a
siliqua occurs in Chelidonium and Glaucium, be-
longing to the allied order Papaveracess.

Silistria (Turkish, 2)ri8f.ria)y a fortified town
in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube,
§7 miles N. by E. of Shumla. The Durostorum
of the Romans, it was a prominent town of the
province of Moesia Inferior, and a place of aome
importance under the Byzantine emperors.
Turkish rule began towards" the end of the 14th
century, and it continued to be the most pros-
perous town on the Lower Danube. The Rus-
sians captured it in 1810, and before they retired
demolished the fortifications, which were, how-
ever, restored, and, in 1828-9, enabled the towns-
folk to offer strenuous resistance to the Rus-
sians, who were repelled in 1864. Inyested in
the Rueso-Turkish War of 1877-8, it was sur-
rendered by the Turks on the termination of
hostilities. The industries include tanning,
weaving, and milling. Tobacco is cfiltivatea,
and there are large vineyards in the vicinity.
Pop. (1900), 12,133.

Silini XtalictLS. Latin epic poet, was born
in A.D. 26, but his birthplace is unknown. He


•ilk.


( 280 )


Silk.


began bis career as a politkian and Wter, and
must bate been a man of undoubted administre*
tlve capaoityi for be was consul in $9, tbe year
of Kero's death, and proconsul i)Of Asia at a later
date. Tbe younger Pliny gives bim a bigb
character, and it is known that be was a student
of literature and art, an enthusiastic collector,
and a worshipper at tbe shrine of Cicero and
Yirgil. He owned the former's estate at Tus*
culum, and the latter's at Naples, and much of
bis lat^* life was spent in meditation by Yirgil's
tomb. Finding himself smitten with incurable
disease, be starved himself to death in 101. His
epic poem, Punica, deals with the second Car-
thaginian war in smooth and correct lines that
never rise into grandeur nor sink into bathos,
though it is abundantly clear that the subject
was far beyond his powers of imagination, in-
vention and execution.

Silk (Anglo-Saxon, seolc), a fibrous substance
prepared from the cocoon of the silkworm, and
used as the material of costly stuffs and gar-
ments. The name was derived through Latin,
Greek, sBrikm, from the Greek
name of the silkworm, borrowed from the
Chinese sze or si (in Korean sir) , Seres, the name
of the Chinese themselves, had the same origin,
Tht Silkworm. The silkworm is the larva or
caterpillar of various moths belonging to the
Bombycidae, Saturnidae and other families of
the order Lopidoptera.
The most important is
the Bombyx mori, a
moth about an inch long
(or in the case of the
female somewhat larger),


SlLKWOEJf, aHOWlNQ MOTH, FEMALE MOTH ANP

WORM, COCOON, AMO OHBYdALIS. EOQS.

with dark wavy lines on its yellowish-white
wings. It takes its name from the morns or
mulberry-tree, the leaves of which form its
principal food. The female lives but a short
time alter 46positing her eggs on the leaves of
the mulberry, and the m^es have also an
ephemeral existence. The caterpillar, on emerg-
ing from the egg, is about J inch long, but
before entering on the chrysalis stage at the
end of six or eight weeks it attains the length
of 3 inches. It is a hairless yellowish-grey in-
sect, with a peculiar horn-like protuberance
near its tail, puring the larva stage it casts
its skin four times. When the time for spin*
Mg approaches, it ceases to take any food.
The gummy substance from which the silk is




produced is secreted in two long glapds which
run along each side of the body, ami end in a
single opening on the lower lip, called the
** spinneret " or “ seripositor ." U nder the micro-
scope the have or thread of the cocoon is seen to
consist of two filaments (brins) ejected from the
two glands, which are supposed to adhere to-
gether in consequence of their own glutinous
properties. The cocoon is of a white or golden-
yellow colour, and about as large as a pgeon's
egg. The spinning occupies about five days,
and is followed by a period of pupa life lasting
some two or three weeks. 'The Bombyx mori
produces but one generation annually ; in other
cases two or more are produced, but the silk is
then inferior.

Cultivation of the Silkworm. Success in seri-
culture depends in great measure on the leaves
on which the worms are fed. It is important
that the quality should be good and the suimly
abundant — conditions which are best secured in
a high situation and on a dry soil. In Europe
the Morus alba is generally preferred to other
varieties. The eggs are now hatched by stove-
heat, the temperature being gradually increased
from 64° to 82° F. through a period of eight or
ten days. Pieces of paper with small perfora-
tions are laid over the trays in which the hatch-
ing takes place, in order that the caterpillars
may creep through the holes and thus rid them-
selves of portions of shell which might cause
their deatn through constriction. It is impor-
tant that the rearing-house should be roomy
and well ventilated, and that overcrowding
should be prevented, sfo as to allow each worm
its due share of food and, at a later stage, suf-
ficient space in which to spin its cocoon. This is
done in branches of brushwood or bundles of
twigs placed for the purpose above the shelves
or trays. If the silk is to be reeled, the moth
must not be allowed to form within the shell and
burst through the cocoon. The pupa is there-
fore killed by placing the cocoon in hot water,
or more usually in an oven heated by steam.
The cocoons selected for breeding are laid on
a cloth in a darkened room, the temperature of
which ranges from 66° to 72° F. The sorter
must be able to tell from the appearance. of the
cocoon whether the pupa is dead, and, if it lives,
whether it will become a male or female moth,
the sexes being distinguished by their difference
in sl^ape and size. Silkworms are liable to
various diseases, the most important of which
are pebrine and muscardine.

The Manufacture of Silk. Silk is either
reeled or spun, the latter treatment being
adopted only in the case of waste silk — i.c.,
damaged cocoons, the floss and husks of reeled
cocoons, and the pieces of thread broken off in
the processes of reeling and throwing, togethef
with certain wild silks. Waste silk is spun into
yarn in much the same manner as other fibres,
The first step in the preparation of the betteir
kind of silk is to place the cocoons in shallow
basins of warm water, so as to soften the gnin
which holds the filaments together. The loss
having been removed by means of a small brush




Silk.


<261 )




Kuade of twigs, the main filaments are caught,
and, as they are unwound from their several
cocoons, three or five are brought together so as
to form a single strand, which is passed through
an eyelet in tne reeling machine. Care must oe
taken to preserve the thickness of the strand by
supplying thread from a fresh cocoon when one
of the former threads breaks or becomes ex-
hausted. The silk thus produced, called “ raw
silk>” is made up into hanks. After the raw silk
has been washed, it Js subjected to a series of
operations called “throwing,” the purpose of
'vmich is to form it into stronger yarn. The
hanks are first fixed on reels called "swifts,”
resembling those used in the former process,
and as the swifts move the silk is wound on
bobbins. The cleaning which follows is effected
by passing the filament through a slit called
the " cleaner,” the silk being meanwhile reeled
from one bobbin to another. This slit is the
gauge of the thread, and presents an obstacle
whenever there is any irregularity or coating of
dirt. The silk is then passed over a smooth rod
of metal or glass, and through a second guide
to the bobbin on which it is wound. After this
the thread is twisted so as to make it ready for
doubling — i.e., removing the silk from several
bobbins on to a single large bobbin, which is
placed in the throwing machine. It is there
wound by a reel into hanks, which are subse-
quently wound on reels and bobbins for the
weaver. Raw silk may be either : (1) " singles,”
consisting of one strand of twisted silk composed
of the filaments of eight to ten cocoons; or (2)
" tram,” in which two or three strands are com-
bined without being twisted before doubling;
or (3) "organzine,” composed of two or some-
times three twisted strands which have been
spun in the opposite direction to that in which
each was twisted.

History of the Industry. For many centuries
sericulture and the manufacture of silken goods
were confined to China. According to a Chinese
work entitled The Silkworm Classic y Se-ling-she,
wife of the Emperor Hwang-te, herself reared
silkworms and caused the mulberry-tree to be
grown and silk to be reeled as far back as 2640
B.c. The industry made its way through Korea
to J^an at the beginning of the 3rd century of
the Christian era, and a little later it became
known in India, whence it spread to Persia and
the regions of Central Asia. In the early days
of the JRoman Empire raw silk and silken goods
were imported extensively from the East, but
the worm was not reared nor looms set up before
the time of Justinian. Subsequently the silk
trade fell into the hands of the Arabs, who
introduced it into all their settlements from
Asia Minor to Sicily. After the fall of that
people it continued to flourish in Apulia, and
was also planted in Florence, Venice, Genoa,
and Milan, which maintained their celebrity as
silk-producing towns throughout the Middle
Ages. Silk-weaving and the rearing of silk-
worms were introduced into France in the reigns
of Louis XI. and Francis I., but did not prosper
greatly ; the extraordinary progress of the in-


dustry in that country at a later date was due
.to the protective policy of Jean Baptiste Col-
bert (1610-83). The English manufacture, which
had been established the 15th century, re-
, ceived a great stimulus from the immigration
of Flemish weavers in 1585, and still more from
the influx of skilled French artisans which
followed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(October 18th, 1686). These mostly settled in
Spitalfields, and the industry afterwards ex-4
tended to Coventry, Derby, Macclesfield, Congle-
ton. Leek, and other provincial towns. SfitCe
the French treaty of 1860, which admitted
French silks duty free, the English trade has
greatly declined.*^ Prance holds the foremost
rank among silk-manufacturing countries, con-
tributing between one-third and one-half of the
textures produced throughout the world; to a
large extent these are made from raw silk pro-
duced on French soil.

Silk-Cotton, the silky hairs covering the seeds
of the tropical American species of Bombat, a
genus of Sterculiaoeee, an order related to
the Malvaceee, to which cotton belongs. That
from B. malaharicum is known in Holland as
kapok. It is used for stuffing beds, pillows, etc.

Silkstone, a town of the West Riding of Ifork-
shire, England, 4 miles W. of Barnsley. The
parish abounds with coal of excellent quality,
and mining forms the prevailing interest. It
was in one of the collieries here that the great
Coal Strike Riots of 1893 broke out in the month
of August. The colliery was guarded by police
day and night, and a company of soldiers was
quartered in the district as an additional pre-
caution. The church of St. Nicholas contains
some varied architecture. The buttresses are
Late Decorated, with quaint gargoyles ; there is
a Norman arch on the north side of the chancel;
on the south side a Perpendicular arcade con-
ducts to a chapel that once belonged to the
Wentworths ; and the roofs of the nave and the
aisles and the oak rood-screen contain some
choice examples of Perpendicular timber work
and carving. In the church a memorial has been
,, erected to Joseph Bramah, inventor of the lock
’named after him, who was born here in lf49.
Pop. (1901), 1,698.

Silkworm. [Silk.]

SillimaxL, Benjamin, scientist, was bom in
North Stratford (afterwards Trumbull), Con-
necticut, United States, on August 8th, 1779,
and after being educated at Yale College, and
making a tour in Europe, he settled down as
professor of chemistry at that instif^ution, to
which he had been appointed in 1802. In 181.8
he started Silliman*s Journal, for mahy years
the chief scientific periodical in America, and
he delivered hundreds of popular lectures on
chemistry and geology. In 1853 he retired from
his professorship, and in the same year pub-
lished an interesting record of his last visit
to Europe in 1851. He was a prominent aboli-
tionist, out died at New Haten, Connecticut,
on November 24th, 1864, before his views had


smotii.


( 262 )


SilnriMi System.


triulnphed. His son Betnamin, born at New
Haveii in 1816« succeedea him as editor and
professor, wrote several useful manuals, chiefly
on chemistry, and died at New Haven in 1885.

Sillotlly a seaport of Cumberland, England, 19
miles W. of Carlisle, of which it may be regarded as
the port. It is almost wholly of modem creation,
consisting so recently as 1837 of only a few scat-
tered houses. After the railway came to it,
docks and a harbour were constructed, and there
is not onW regular communication with Liver-
pool and Dublin, but a thriving ex^rt and im-
port trade. Owing to its healthy climate, it has
oecome a watering-place and holiday resort of
repute, and possesses an excellent golf-course
and tennis courts. One interesting item is the
export from the Solway Firth of sea-turf, which
is justly in high esteem for the laying of bowl-
ing-greens in London and other parts of
England. Pop., 2,700.


soil around and underneath until, in a few
hours, by the force of gravity, or by dint of
various tugs by the beetles themselves, the body
is lowered, in some cases to the depth of a foot,
and the loose soil closes over it.'' The mother
beetles then lay their eggs in the carcass, every
scrap of which is devoured, the number of
beetles thus engaged depending on the size of
the buried body. « Some small members of the
family are less than one-sixth of an inch in
length ; these belong to such genera as Choleva
and Colon. The family also comprises a group
of Cave beetles, which are blind and found only
in the remote parts of the caves in Carniola,
conceared in fissures of stalagmites, or clinging
to stalactites on the walls. They walk slowly,
their body raised on their long legs, and when
a sound is heard suddenly lie flat on the ground,
with outstretched legs and raised antennae. They
are of the pallid colour which characterises cave
insects.


Siloanii a rock-cut reservoir in the south-east
of Jerusalem. It measures 52 feet by 18 feet,
but was once 62 feet square. It communicates
by means of a channel hewn in the rock and
leading south-eastwards with a larger recep-
tacle which was known as the Old Pool. For-
merly its water was sweet and abundant. It
was undoubtedly supposed to possess healing
virtues, but its flow, probably owing to the
season of drought frequent in such a country as
Palestine, was intermittent. Since the 12th cen-
tury the water has suffered from the neglect
that has overtaken so many things in the Holy
Land, both natural and artificial, and is now
foul and bitter. An interesting discovery was
made in 1880, when a Hebrew inscription, in
Phoenician letters, was found on the wall of the
tunnel, under the old city wall on the ridge of
Ophel, conveying the water from the spring
known as the Virgin’s Fount to Siloam. When
deciphered it was a record, conjectured to have
been cut by the workmen themselves, of the
construction of the tunnel in the 7th century b.c.

SilpMdm, or Carrion Beetles, a family of
beetles belonging to the group Necrophaga, and
including the largest of the Burying Beetles;
these belong to the genus Necrophorus, which
are often an inch in lengthy. Some species are
to be seen in England, the handsomest having
broad bands of bright orange and rows of yellow
hairs, Henry Walter Bates, the eminent
naturalist, thus describes the process of bury-
ing : — If we would see them in greater number,
and at work, we have only to place upon light
soil in a field, in some suitable situation known
to be favourable to insects generally, a dead
mouse, or similar small animal, and examine it
a day or two afterwards. If the weather be
fine, a number of Necrophori, sometimes of two
or three distinct species, may then probably be
caught in the act of burying the dead body. If
we luckily time our visit at the commencement
of the operation, we shall see them flying one by
one from a distance, and settling near me edge
of the carcass. They proceed by excavating the


SilnreSf the original inhabitants of South-
Eastern Wales and the ancient territory in
England. They were dark, curly-haired, and
probably of the pre-Aryan Iberian or Basque
stock, though th^ assimilated with the Celts in
course of time. They were a warlike folk, and
offered stout resistance to the Eoman invaders.


Silurian Sntem, the name originally
applied by Sir Koderick Impey Murchison in
1835 to those rocks below the Old Red Sandstone
that occupy the former territories of the Silures
on the South Wales border. He afterwards ex-
tended the name downwards to all rocks below
the Old Red Sandstone that contain trilobites,
thus including the equivalents of the rocks de-
scribed by Professor Adam Sedgwick under the
name of Cambrian in North Wales. To obviate
this conflict of nomenclature, when it had been
shown by Mr. Etheridge that between the
Archman and the Old Red Sandstone there are
three distinct faunas, the name Ordovician was
proposed by Professor Charles Lapworth for the
Lower Silurian of Murchison or Upper Cam-
brian of Sedgwick. As now defined, the Silurian
system is a series of sandstones and shales, with
three bands of limestone, having a total thick-
ness of from 5,500 to 7,000 feet, occupying in
England a large area on the Welsh border, and
in the Lake district, and found in deep borings
to the north of London. Its sub-divisions are
as follows ; —


Ludlow Series, with
Kirkby Moor Flags
and Bannis-
dale Slates.


Ledbury Shales
Downton Sandstones
Upper Ludlow Shale
with bone-bed
Aymestry Limestone
. Lower Ludlow Sliale


300

100


900

30-40

900


Wenlock Series, with
Denbigh and
Coniston Grits.


f Wenlock or Dudley

Limestone . . 100-300
Wenlock Shale 640-1,400
Woolhope or Barr
Limestone . . 40

Tarannon Shale 1,G00-"1,500


Upper LUndetfcry^ or May Hill Series


1,500



Silwoidy.


( 263 )


SilTtr.


Besides May Hill, in Gloncestershire, the
Lickey Hill quartzite, in Worcestershire, be-
longs to the tfpper Llandovery sandstone series.
The limestones of the Wenfock series, which
though thin are crowded with fossils, are burnt
into quicklime. The bone-bed in the Upper
Ludlow, though less than a foot thick, is trace-
able over 1,000 square miles to the south of
Ludlow. There is an unconformity at the base
of the series, and though near Ludlow it passes
conformably up into the Old Red, in North
Wales it has been tilted, crumpled, faulted, and
cleaved before being covered by that formation.
Land plants are represented in Silurian rocks;
a fish has been found in the Lower Ludlow, and
others occur in the bone-bed ; Palsechinus, a sea-
urchin, occurs in the Upper Llandovery; and
Pseudocrinites, a cystidean, in the Wenlock
Limestone. This light grey limestone is full of
corals, crinoids, trilobites, and brachiopods, and
also contains the enrypterids, Eurypterus and
PUrygotus, The chief corals are* Omphyma,
FavoaiteSf and Halysitea; the chief trilobites
Calymentt Phacops, liomalonotuSt and Illcenus;
the chief brachiopods OrtJus, Phynchonella,
Strophomma, Air^pa^ and Ptntamtru&\ and the
chief cephalopod is Orthoceras.

Siluroidg, a large family (Siluridse) of Physo-
stomoiis Fishes, chiefly from the rivers and lakes
of all temperate and tropical regions, though a
few are coast fishes. The skin is without scales;



MALAPTKRURUa ELECTBICUS


barbules are always present, and there may be
an adipose fin. The Sheat-fish (Silurus gldnis),
the European Siluroid, found in rivers east of
the Rhine (though there is a record of one being
taken in a tributary of the Shannon and it used
to occur in Haarlem Meer in Holland), attains a
weight of from 300 lbs. to 400 lbs., and its flesh
is well-favoured. It has been captured in the
Bug sixteen feet long, and it is stated that one
seized near Thorn, on the Tistula, contained the
entire, body of an infant, while in another,
caught in Hungary, was found the body of a
woman with a purse full of money at her girdle.
The fat is used in dressing leather, and from the
air-bladder gelatine is made. Two species of
Charias, from the Ganges and East Indian
Archipelago, when the water dries up, make
their way over the mud in search of water by
means of their fins, when they are readily ca^


tured. The Electric Siluroid
ttiem) is found in the Nik alia the rivers of the
west coast of Africa. The electric organ extends
over the whole body, and is placed below the
external skin. The creature, however, is dan-
gerous only to small animals. Its flesh is edible,
and the natives value it for its imaginary heal-
ing properties, which are developed by burning
the tissue and allowing the patient to inhale the
fumes. Most of the South American Siluroids
are small.

SilTer (chemical symbol, Ag ; atomic weighty
107‘93). This metal has been known since very
early times; it is frequently mentioned in the
Mosaic and other Scriptural writings, while
often in the other works of antiquity notice of
it occurs. The sources whence the ancients ob-
tained their supplies are not certainly known ;
Spain appears then, as now, however, to have
been one of the chief seats of its production,
while Nubia, Ethiopia and Greece also possessed
silver mines. Small quantities only occur in
Great Britain, though mention of former silver
mines is made by Strabo. The principal locali-
ties now noted for the presence of silver ores are
Spain, Hungary, the Harz, the Urals, Saxony,
Mexico, Peru, Colorado, Nevada, New South
Wales and Queensland, while it is also feund
largely in numerous other districts. The metal
seldom occurs in the free state, but is sometimes
met with, crystallising in forms derived from
the Cubic system. Its chief ores arc the sul-
phide, or silver-glance, and chloride, or horn-
silver. A crystalline compound with mercury is
also found in Sweden, Spain, Chile, etc., which
possesses a variable composition, and is known
as “ amalgam.'" The ores are usually associated
with large quantities of other metals, so that
they never contain more than a small proportion
of the theoretical amount of silver. It occurs
to a .small extent in most lead ores, and large
quantities of the metal are obtained in lead-
smelting, as the lead can be profitably desilver-
ised when the proportion of silver is as low as a
few ounces to the ton. [Pattinson’s Process;
Paekes’s Process.] For the extraction of silver
.from its own ores, the methods are well per-
fected, and can be performed on ores with only
*05 per cent, of silver. The processes differ, how-
ever, with the various ores and local conditions.
Silver is, when pure, a bright white metal with
a high lustre. It is very ductile and malleable,
and is capable of being hammered into very fine
sheets and drawn into very thin wire. It has a
specific gravity of 10*5 to 10*6, and is an excel-
lent conductor of both heat and electricity. It
melts at a temperature of 1,000° C., and at a
higher temperature volatilises with the forma-
tion of a purplish blue vapour. It is very stable,
and does not rust in moist air ; it becomes coated,
however, with a film of black sulphide if ex-
posed to the action of sulphur compounds, and
to this is due the blackening of silver ayticles
in rooms where gas is burnt. It alloys very
readily with other metals; the silvef, employed
in English coinage consists of an alloy of 92*5


Bianaliau


( 264 )


SiiMom*


eilrer* with 7*6 of copper, most foreign coins
containing a smaller Quantity of silyer. Silver
containing 11 oz. 2 awt. silver to the pound
(Troy) is known as ** sterling” silver, and is
stamped With the ” Hall mark ” of a Lion, or if
11 oz. 10 dwt. (96*6 per cent.) of Britannia. If
melted in air, silver absorbs oxygen to the ex-
tent of twenty-two times its volume, the whole
being again liberated when the metal solidifies.
It dissolvei readily in nitric acid, forming silver
nitrate, which crystallises in soluble triclinic
tablets and is the most important salt of silver.
Fused and cast in sticks, it is known as lunar
caustic and employed as a cautery. The chlo-
ride, bromide and iodide are all insoluble in
water, and are extensively used in photography.
The metal is employed in multifarious ways in
the arts, crafts and industries. It is usually
detected by the precipitation of its insoluble
chloride by hydrochloric acid, and may be esti-
mated eitner in the same way or by the dry
method known as cupellation.

Simaltli or PuLO Babi (the Malay name having
been given to it in reference to its shape, hahi,
meaning ” hog ”), an island of the Dutch East
Indies, 70 miles off the nearest point of the
north-western coast of Sumatra. It is of vol-
canic origin, and is comprised in the province
of Great Atcheen. It yields a variety of tropical
products, and particularly a tobacco of choice
quality, for which the soil, largely composed
of decayed pumice stone, appears peculiarly
adapted. The principal plantation belongs to
a British company. On January 21st, 1907, a
tidal wave of extraordinary proportions de-
stroyed the southern shore, the off-lying and
smaller island of Simalu Tchoot being wholly
engulfed. It was found almost impossible to
calculate the loss of life caused by this calamity,
but it was estimated at no fewer than 1,500
persons.

Simanoas, a town of the province of Valla-
dolid, Spain, on the Pisuerga, a right-hand
tributary of the Douro, 8 miles S.W. of Valla-
dolid. It is of peculiar interest as being the
depository of the national archives of Spain,
which have been kept since 1663 in a building,
formerly a castle, called Archive General del
Eeino. They comprise over 30 million docu-
ments, and occupy some fifty, rooms, and consist
not only of State papers, but also of much
private correspondence. The archives are open
to inspection and examination. Pop,, 1,250.

Simbirslr, a government of Russia in Europe,
bounded on the N. by Kazan, on the E.
Samara, on the S. by Saratov, and on the W.
by Penza and Nijni-lSrovgorod. The Volga is a
natural boundary on the east. The province
occupies an area of 19,110 square miles. Though
nowhere exceeding 1,000 feet in height, the sur-
face is hilly in the east, and in other parts an
undulating plain, with tracts of forest in the
north and lakes and marshes in the west. The
principal rivers are the Sura, Sriyaga, XjBa,'aud
Syzran. Agriculture is thp leading indnstry.


the chief crops being rye, oats, potatoes, wheat,
and barley, while of the live-stock the breed of
horses is excellent and in brisk demand. The
industries include flour-milling, distilling, tan-
ning, and the making of glass and starch. Vil-
lage manufactures comprise, amongst others,
all kinds of wooden ware, boots, gloves, metal

f oods, ropes, and fishing nets. The capital,
imbirsk (44,111), stands on a hill commanding
a fine view of the Volga, and is rather an attrac-
tive town owing to the numerous gardens laid
out in different places. Pop., 1,647,817.

Simeon, Chables. evangelist and commentator,
fourth son of Richard Simeon, was born
at Reading, Berkshire, England, on Septem-
ber 24th, 1759. Educated at Eton, whence he
went in January, 1779, with a scholarship to
King^s College, Cambridge, he succeeded, in
1782, to a Fellowship, which he held until his
death. To a conscientious preparation for his
first communion at the University, helped by a
careful study of Bishop Wilson’s manual on The
Lor^*6 Supper, Simeon’s conversion was due.
Easter Day, April 4th, 1779, was often referred
to by him as ” a season much to be remembered,”’
” when my deliverance was complete,” and he
soon became distinguished for his passionate
evangelicalism. He was ordained deacon in
1782, and priest in 1783. After serving as
honorary curate in the parish of St, Edward’s,
he was appointed minister of the Church of the
Holy Trinity, Cambridge, by his father’s friend.
Bishop James Torke, of Ely. The parishioners
wished the then assistant curate appointed ;
Simeon had been willing to make him his ” sub-
stitute ” and allow him all the profits of the
benefice. The parishioners imperatively peti-
tioned the bishop, but he was not to be coerced,
so they chose the assistant priest as lecturer, an
office which still exists apart from the incum-
bency. On Sunday mornings, when Simeon had
a right to the pulpit, his rival’s supporters
absented themselves, and locked the pew-doors,
leaving only the aisles for the congregation
which might assemble. Insulted in the streets,
Simeon found scarcely a house open to him, and
comforted himself during years of admirable
patience with the thought, ” The servant of the
Lord must not strive.” His piety wore down oppo-
sition, and his benevolence during the famine
of 1788 conciliated his adversaries. Simeon’s
distinctive principles made him widely known,
and he became an acknowledged leader. When
Charles Grant was appointed a director of the
East India Company, Simeon was invited to act
as his adviser in the selection of chaplains, and
he induced Henry Martyn and other capable
men to undertake mission work in India. This
eventually led to the formation, in 1799, of the
Church Missionary Society for Africa and ths
East, founded chiefly by Simeon and John Venml
It was soon the most important missionary
agency of the Church of England, a position it
honourably maintains. When the British and
Foreign Bible Society was founded, in 1804, it
was regarded *wlth suspicion ; but Simeon i)e]>



( 266 )


Simoii.


SintferopoL


Buaded his fellow-Churchmen to support it, and
remained its steady friend. On his first visit to
Seotland, in 1796, he preached in the pulpits of
the Church of Scotland upon this principle:
** Presbyterianism is as much the established
religion in North Britain as Episcopacy is in the
South, there being no difference between them
except in Church government.” With Mr. Hal-
dane he went on a
tour. They climbed
Ben Lomond, “then
went to prayer and
dedicated ourselves
afresh to God,” and
then surveyed the
view, which they con-
sidered “inexpres-
sibly majestic."’ On
his second visit to
Scotland the Moder-
ate majority in the
General Assembly
prevented him from
preaching in their
churches. He held his
living for fifty-four
years, exerting an in-
fluence which is still
felt by the founda-
tion of a body of
trustees who admin-
ister the patronage
they have acquired in
accordance with his
views. He died in
his rooms at King’s
College on November
13tb, 1836, and was
buried in the great vault beneath the antechapel.
Besides various tracts and devotional treatises his
great work was a series of 2,536 sermons, forrning
a commentary on the Old and New Testaments,
entitled Horce Homiletiem, for the copyright of
which he was paid ^5,000, three-fifths of which
he devoted to missionary purposes.

Simferopol, capital of the province of Taurida,
Russia-in-Europe, on the left bank of the
Salghir, Crimea, 35 miles N.E. of Sebastopol. It
was originally a Tatar settlement called Ak-
metchet (White Mosque), but was captured by
the Russians in 1736, and, after the conquest of
the Crimea in 1784, received its present name.
It has a well-built European quarter and an
uninviting Tatar quarter. It occupies a pic-
turesque site in beautiful surroundings. The
manufactures are inconsiderable. Pop. (1900),
60,876.

Simift, a Linnean genus comprising all the
apes and monkeys, which is now restricted to
the Orang Outan.

Siuilftf a British sanatorium, the capital of a
district of the same name, in the Delhi division
of the Punjab, India. The district has an area
of 102 square miles, and occupies a spur of the
Central Himalaya. The town of Simla stands at


a height of 7,084 feet above sea^level, and i»
170 miles N. of Delhi, and SSiiailes N.E. of the
railway station at Kalka, which is 1,116 miles
N.W. of Calcutta. It is superbly situated on a
crescent-shaped ridge, terminating eastwards in
the peak of Jakho (8,000 feet), clotned with
deodar, oak, and rhododendron, and ending west-
wards in the grassy height of Prospect Hill.


Such is the beauty of the northern offshoot, run-
ning at right angles to the main ridge, that it
has received the epithet of Elysium. Since the
administration of Lord (then Sir John) Law-
rence, in 1864, Simla has been the summer
capital of the Government of India. The prin-
cipal structures are the Viceregal Lodge, the
Foreign Office and other Government buildings,,
the Town Hall, the English Church, the Eipon
•Hospital, the Bisnop Cotton School, the Mayo
Industnal Girls’ School, and several other
educational institutions. The industries consist
of brewing and printing, and considerable tra^C
is done in catering for the requirements of
visitors, while there is export of opium, fruit,
nuts, and fine wool for shawls. Pop., about
15,000, probably doubled during the season.

Simon, or Simeon, the son of Cleopbas and
Mary, spoken of as the brother of Jesus, ^as oner
of the first disciples. After the death of Jamea
he was elected bishop of the Church of Jeru-
salem, which he governed for over forty years,
suffering martyrdom, so tradition tells us, under
Trajan about 107.

Simoni Jules, or FuAKoofs JtTLEs Suisse,
statesman, was bom at Lorient, d^artment of
Morbihan, France, on December 27tii, 1814,
and became a teacher at Rennesi irbeBoe ha



SIMLA ; GENERAL VIEW FROM JAKBO.
(Photo: Poumc <& Shepherd, Calcutta.)


fllaum.


( 268 )


flisnoB’s Town*


passed to the llcole Normale in Paris at the
inTitation ol Victor Cousin* whom he succeeded
as Professor of Philosophy at the Sorbonne
In 1847 he left literature for politics,
founaed La LiherU de Pen$er, and entered the
Chamber in 1848 as Deputy for the Cdtes-du-
Nord, joining the Moderate Left. The coup
d Uat for a time excluded him from public life
as a teacher or a legislator. He retired to
Nantes and devoted himself to writing, publish-
ing Lt Devoir (1864), La Religion Natwrtlle
(1&6), La Liherti de Conscience (1867), La
Liberii (1859), and UOuvAkre (1861). In 1863
he was returned as Deputy for the Seine, and at
once took the lead of the Ultra-Liberals and
Free Traders. In the Government of the De-
fence he became Minister of Public Instruction,
Worship, and Fine Arts, and resumed that p<^t
under Thiers. In 1675 he was chosen a life
senator, and at the end of the year formed a
Ministry, which lasted until 1877. In 1879 he
opposed Jules Ferry's bill for suppressing non-
authorised religious bodies, and evinced a strong
interest in labour questions and the develop-
ment of Socialism. He was made an Academi-
cian in 1875, and secretary of the Moral Science
branch in 1882. In the scanty leisure of his public
life he contrived to produce several books of great
interest and importance, amongst them being
Le Ttamil (1866), La Famille (1869), Le Libre
J&ohange (1870), Dimi, Patrie, Liberty (1883), and
Victor Covsin (1887). He edited the SUcle from
1876 to 1877 and the Gaulois from 1879 to 1881,
and was a frequent contributor to the Mati%
Journal Acs DSbats^ Temps^ Figaro, and other news-
papers. He died in Paris on June 8th, 1896.


Simon, Eichaud, father of Biblical criticism,
was born at Dieppe, France, on May 13th, 1638.
His education began under the Fathers of the
Oratory in that city and, his talents winning
early recognition, he was enabled to pursue his
studies in theology and Oriental languages in
Paris, where, in 1659, he entered the Congre-
gation of the Oratory. The encouragement
shown to him aroused the jealousy of his
fellow-students, but he continued his course,
and when it was ended was sent to lecture
on philosophy in the college at Juilly. He
was soon recalled to Paris, and employed
in cataloguing the Oriental MSS. belonging
to his Order. The result of this opportunity
for further study of his favourite subjects ap-
peared later. In 1670 he entered the priest-
hood, and in the same year wrote in defence of
come Jews at Metz, against whom the oft-
repeated cruel charge of murdering a Christian
child had been brought. In 1678, being blamed
for having, it was said, compromised the Ora-
torians by his writings, he withdrew from that
body and retired to the curacy of Belleville.
Hndowed with great learning and a remarkable
memory, his bitterness tended to exasperate con-
troversialists. His criticism of Arnauld’s work
on the Eucharist aroused much indignation,
which was increased by his interference in a
lawsuit in which a friend of his was engaged


with the Benedictine^. But the scandal caused
by his Histoire Critique du Vieuz Testament
(1678) led the Oratorians to declare he was no
longer a member of their Order. This work con-
sists of three books: i., dealing with the text
and questions of criticism ; ii., an account of the
principal translations; iii., an examination of
the principal commentators. Simon remarkably
anticipated the speculations of German rational-
ism, msputing the Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch, and assailing tradition and the
writings of the Fathers. Roman Catholics and
Protestants alike were aroused by his frequently
sarcastic assaults on the integrity of the Hebrew
text, and when, through Bossuet's influence, the
Histoire was suppressed in France, it was pub-
lished in 1685 m Rotterdam. His Histoire
Critique du Texte du Nouveau Testament ap-

? eared in 1689, and his Histoire Critique aes
Ancipaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Testa^
ment (1693), considered the most important of
his many works (often published under assumed
names), is still oi value to scholars. Simon died
at Dieppe on April 11th, 1712.

Simonides of Ceos, a Greek philosopher and
poet, was born at lulis, in the island of Ceos,
in 656 B.c. He was a very accomplished man,
and enjoyed the friendship of his most distin-
guished contemporaries, excepting Pindar, who
seems to have been envious of his success and to
have spoken slightingly of him. He died a4
Syracuse, in SicOy, in 469. He is credited with
the invention of the Greek letters eta (the
long e) and omega (the long o). He excelled
in elegiac verse, and is said to have competed
successfully against .a^schylus. Simonides of
Amoroos, a satirical poet, flourished about 660
B.c. He was a native of Samos, and afterwards
settled in the island of Amorgos, with which his
name is customarily linked.

Simon Magus, or The Sorcerer, a native of
Samaria, and probably a Gnostic, was practising
his magical art in his native country when
Philip the Evai^elist began to preach and per-
form miracles, ^mon professed to be converted
and was baptised, but, on his offering money to
Peter for the gift of the Holy Spirit, he was
excommunicated. He then returned to his old
errors, upon which he grafted a system of his
own — the .35on8 or intermediate spirits, govern-
ing the world under the Supreme Deity, being
one of his inventions. The ecclesiastical sin of
simony derives its name from him.

Simon’s Town, a naval station on Simon’s
Bay, an inlet on the western side of False Bay,
20 "miles S. of Cape Town, Cape Colony, South
Africa. False Bay is an arm of the sea to the
south of Table Mountain, corresponding to
Table Bay to the north of it, is protected from
all quarters save the south, and provides safe
anchorage for the largest vessels. The forts and
batteries on the heaas (the Cape of Good Hope
being the western and Cape Hang-Klip the
eastern) afford complete protection to tho
Pop. (estimated), 4,000.



Simonsr*


( 267 )




Simon^y the act or practice of traflBcking m
sacred things, wfth particular reference to the
buying or selling of ecclesiastical preferment, or
the purchase of ordination, or the presentation
of anyone to an ecclesiastical benefice for money
or other reward. Though an offence against the
law of the Church, and forbidden by many
Councils, and severely punishable ecclesiastic-
ally, yet there were no more notorious simoniacs
than some of the Popes. The word is derived
from Simon Magus, who proposed to purchase
the gift of the Holy Ghost.

Simon Zelotes, or The Ganaakite, is an
apostle of whom little is recorded. The two
names by which he is known are really identical,
and probably indicate that he belonged before
his conversion to a fanatical and lawless sect
among the Jews; though many modern critics
consioher that the alternative title should not
be Canaanite at all, but Canansean, implying
thereby a man of Canan or Cana. In ecclesias-
tical tradition he is generally mentioned along
with Judas or James.

Simoom, or Simoon, a hot wind occurring in
the hot sandy regions of Africa, Arabia, and
parts of Asia. The sand, under the scorching
rays of the sun, gets extremely hot. It is too
bad a conductor to allow the heat to pass down-
wards, and the absence of water prevents it
from becoming latent in atmospheric moisture.
Hence the top layers become enormously hot,
the temperature sometimes rising to 200° F.,
nearly the boiling-point of water. Currents of
hot air rise, and more air rushes in to supply
their place; the result is that hot columns of
air, laaen with stifling clouds of sand, are swept
across the country, causing immense destruction
to animal and vegetable life. Extensive cara-
vans are often destroyed, and even whole armies
have been known to perish before it. Its advent
is usually signalled by the appearance of a
rapidly-spreading haze, extending from the
horizon till the whole sky is obscured by it ; then
follow hurricanes with their fearful columns of
heated sand. The sirocco of Italy, solano of
Spain, and samiel of Turkey are merely modi-
fications of the dread simoom. The hot winds
of the Sahara get saturated with vapour in their
passage across the Mediterranean, and appear
as the hot* moist, enervating sirocco of Sicily
and Italy.

Simplon (German, 8impeln\ a mountain pass
in the east of the canton of Valais, Switzerland,
forming part of the Lepontine Alps. The famous
road, 38 miles in length, and reaching a height
of 6,885 feet, leads from Brieg in Valais to
Bomo d'Ossola in Piedmont. It was constructed
bjr Napoleon between 1801 and 1807. The
Simplon railway tunnel, begun in 1898, was
opened on May 19th, 1906, by the King of
Italy. On the Swiss side it enters the moun-
tain at Brieg, and on the Italian at Iselle. It
is 12} miles long, the highest point it reaches
is 2,312 feet, ana it cost ,24*000,000.


8im|iioilt Sin Jambs physician, was

born at Bathgate, Linlithgowiiire, Scotland, on
June 7th, 1811. His father was a baker in
humble circumstances, but by dint of rigid
economy the family sent Jhmes to Edinburgh
University at the age
of fourteen. He had
a brilliant career in
the medical faculty,
and graduated M.D.
in 1832. In 1835 he
was elected senior
president of the
Royal Medical So-
ciety of Edinburgh,
and, four years later,
was appointed to the
chair of Midwifery
in the University, a
post he retained till
the end of his life.

In 1847, as the re-
sult of experiments
on himself and his
assistants, he was
enabled to introduce
the use of chloroform
as an ansesthetic, one
of the most beneficent discoveries ever made. It.
Is extraordinary to think, in tlic light of universal
experience, that Simpson had to contend strenu-
ously with the combined forces of dogmatic
theology and shallow superstition before he
established the incalculable advantages of the
new drug. He introduced many improvements
in the practical branch of obstetrics, and fore-
shadowed the discovery of the Rontgen rays.
His proposal of acupressure (1859) as a means
to arrest surgical haemorrhage by the pressure
of needles did not ultimately commend itself to
the profession. In 1866 he was created a
baronet, and at his death, on May 6th, 1870,
was accorded the rare honour of a public funeral
by the city of Edinburgh . p He was interred in
Warriston cemetery, in the north side of the
town. He was a man of winning personality, of
middle height, and had the head of a lion. His
ht)bby was the study of antiquities, and in 1873
a collection of his Archaeological Essays appeared
under the editorship of Dr. James Stuart.

Simrook, Karl Joseph, poet, was born at
Bonn, Rhenish Prussia, Germany, on August
28th, 1802, and studied at the universities of
Bonn and Berlin. He entered the civil service
of Prussia but, having been expelled for writing
a poem in praise of t& July revolution, devoted
himself to the study of early German literature,
and in 1827 produced an edition of the Nihelun-
genlied twhiai was subsequently enlarged and im-
provod. In 1850 he was appointed professor of
Old German literature at Bonn, ana edited the
chief poems and legends of the Fatherland, c.g.,
Parsifal » Peineke Fuchs, Tristan und Isolde, the
Minnesinq^s, and the Warihurghrieg. He also
translatea Shakespeare and the Frithiof Saga,
He died at Bonn on July 18th, 1876.


''. 5 ,.-..-,,,,,




S'


SIR JAMBS YOUNG SIMPSON.

(Photo: J, Moffat, Edinburgh.)





( 268 )


SimSf GBOBas Bobbbt, journalist ^
wriffliti was born in London on Septeinber 2nd,
1847, and educated at Stanwell College and
Bonn. In 1874 be was attached to the stafi*
of a weekly humorous periodical called F%n,
then edited by Tom Hood, a son of the great
poet. In 1877 the Refcr&t, a well-known London
weekly paper devoted to sport, the drama, and
things in general, was founded, and Sims con-
tributed; every week, under the pseudonym of

Bagonet," a series of notes entitled “ Mustard
and Cress,'* which became one of the most popu-
lar features of the paper. They were as pungent
as their title, and often partook of an aut^io-
graphical character. He wrote also regularly
for the original Wethly Dispatch and other news-
papers ana periodicals. He has frequently been
instrumental in directing public attention to
topics of first-rate ii:i^ortance, os in the cases
of Adolf Beck {The Daily Telegraph) and the
scandalous and cruel rearing of poor children
{Th^ Tribune), Many of his journalistic articles
were afterwards published in volume form, such
as his Dagonet Ballads, wWch had an enormous
vogue in the days of ‘‘penny readings," Three
Brass Balls, and The Memoirs of Mary Jane,
His knowledge of London is unique, and the
book on Living London which he edited for
Cassell and Company is a standard work on the
social aspects of the metropolis. He has pro-
duced several successful melodramas and other
plays, amongst them being Lights of London, In
the Ranks, Harbour Lights, Little Christopher
Columbus, The Trumpet Call, Rnglish Rose, Two
Little VagaJ)onds and Ikmdy Fifth,

SimgOlli Kobkbt, matbematioian, eldest son of
John Simson, of Kirktonhall, Ayrshire, was born
on October 14th, 1687. Being intended for the
ministry he entered Glasgow University and
studied under his uncle John Simson, professor
of Divinity, Preferring mathematics to theo-
logy, however, he came to London to pursue his
studies, became acquainted with Edmund Halley
and other eminent men, and on his return to
Glasgow, on the resignation of Robert Sinclare,
was elected professor of Mathematics in the
university on March 11th, 1711. He gp?aduated
M.A. in the same year, and in 1746 the Univer-
sity of St. Andrews conferred on him the
honorary degree of M.D., because in his youth
he had studied botany. In 1761 he resigned his
professorship, and died, unmarried, on October
1st, 1768. Ilis first work was an attempt to
restore Euclid's lost treatise on Porisms, which
are only known from the obscure hints given by
Pappus of Alexandria of what a porism was.
This class of propositions, highly valued by the
ancients, had for long baffled mathematicians.
Si^Bon^ defined a porism as " a proposition in
which it is proposed to demonstrate that some
one thing or more things are given, to which,
p^also to each of innumerable other things, not
indeed given, but having the same relation to
those which are given, it is to be ahown that
there belongs some common affection described
in the proposition." Naturally this led to much


discussion . His treatise De PmivmMikm Tmo*
talus was published among his posthumous
works in 1776. In 1736 \m Sedianum C mi*
carum Libri F. {^peared ; in 1738 his restoration
of Apollonius's Pfani Loci was completed, and
his best-known work, an edition of me Mhments
of Euclid, was issued in 1756, to which, in 1762,
he added the Dalu. For over a hundred years
its accuracy made this the basis of later text-
books.

Sinai, Mount, a peninsula between the Gulfs
of Suez and of Akabah, arms of the Bed Sea.
It measures 140 miles from north to south, its
contour presenting the outline of an inverted
pyramid, Ras Mohammed, its southern ex*^



MOUNT SINAI.

(Photo: Frith & Co., Meigate.)


tremity, being the apex. It is in general a
mountainous wilderness of forbidding aspect.
Towards the south is the mass of granitic peaks
upon which attention is universally centred,
since one must have been the scene of the giving
unto Moses of the Tables of the Law. The
principal speaks are Jebel Serbal (6,732 feet>
in the west, Jebel Katherin (8,537 feet), and
Jebel Shomer (8,449 feet). Opinions are divided
as to which is the Mount of the Law. Many
modern critics favour Serbal, but tradition
points to Jebel Musa (Moses' Mountain), the
southern peak of ICutherin, as the sacred hijl,
the northern peak being known as Mount Horeb.
Jebel Musa is about 7,500 feet, and qh its eastern
fiank stands a famous Greek monastery.

Binaloa. a maritiine state of Mexico, bounded
on the N. by Sonorui on the E. by CMhuahua
and Durango, on the S. M Topic (Territory) and
the Pacific, and on the W. by the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, It embraces ah area of 33,671 square
miles. In the weisl the coast is lat and sandj*



Sinelftit*


(my




l>ut ia the east the westera fiaaks of the tree*-
ooveted Sierra Madre reach ia places a height of
7,600 feet. The streaias are nuaierous, prac-
tically all raaniag from the Sierra to the sea,
the chief being the Fuerte, Sinaloa. Culiacan,
Qnila, Mazatlaa, and Hosario. Maize, 'wheat,
cotton, tobacco, sagar-cane, coffee, and fruits
are cultivated, but the mineral wealth is still
greater, and consists of gold, silver, copper,
iron, lead, and salt. Culiacan (10,380), the
capital, is connected by rail with the port of
Altata. Pop. (1900), 296,701.


SinolaiT; Sie Johk, economist, agriculturist
and statistician, son of George Sinclair, of
►tflbster, was born on May 10th, 1764, at Thurso
Castle, Caithness, Scotland. Educated at the
High School of Edinburgh and at the Univer-
sities of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Oxford, where
he matriculated in 1775, he was admitted to both
the English and Scottish bars, but having at the
age of sixteen succeeded to the family estate, he

t cided to devote himself to his duties as a land-
ed and to engage in political life. He was re-
turned to Parliament for Caithness in 1780, and
his political career, during which he also repre-
Ofinted Lostwithicl and Petersfield, extended
until 1811. He married in 1776, and after the


death of his wife, in 1785, made a long foreign
toiir, during which he gathered valuable in-
formation on commercial and economic ques-
;^j||ons. On his return he re-married. His reput a-
•^on as a financier was made by his History of
the Public Pevenue of the British Empire (1784).

: „The adoption of his plan for the issue of Ex-
. .(itohequer bills during the commercial troubles of
Cf}793aaved many manufacturers and others from
Hiif devotion to William Pitt was re-
warded with a baronetcy on February 4th,
1786, but subsequent disagreements with that
minister led to a rupture. In 1701 he established
a society for the improvement of the breeds of
sheep in Edinburgh, which, two years later, led
to the formation of the Board of Agriculture,
Sinclair being nominated its first president.
One of the earliest of British statisticians (he


introduced the words statistics ” and “ statis-


tical " into the English language), he originated
and carried through The Statistical Account of
Scotland (1791-9), which comprised a description
of every parish. Its value was recognised by
Jeremy Bentham and others, and seems to have
suggested a general census. At Pitt’s request,
in 1704, Sinclair raised a regiment called the,
Kothesay and Caithness Fencibles, and later a
regiment of highlanders. In 1796 he suggested
a loyalty loan, but their relations again became
strained, and were thus quaintly summed up —
^^Mr. Pitt valued his simple assent more than
his advice." Appointed a member of the Privy
Cotincil and Commissioner of Excise in 1810,
shortly afterwards he retired to Edinburgh,
Where he died on December 2lBt. 1835, and was
buried in Holyrood Chapel. He was a volu-
minous writer, no subject, from politics to
poetry, coming arniis to him. The 89 volumes
afid 367 pamphlets With which he is credited, in-


dlhdiiig,a tragedy, embrace giaiiy 'workil whidh
were useful in" their day,; 'Hto' auergy ' was uii»
bounded. He began rebuilf ihg-Tnurso ; hb
founded the herring fishery of wick; he en^
couraged sheep farming, ana he planted trees.

Sindi also written fiiNUH and Soindb, a d!vi>
sion of the Presidency of Bombay, India, com*
prising the districts of Earadbii on the west
coast, Thar and Parkar on the east coasts
Haidar abad in the centre, and Shikarpur in the
north. It covers an area of 47,006 square mileSi
within which is included the valley of the Indus
from Shikarpur to the sea, and tne less impor-
tant basin of the Narra, and the sandy tracts
to the east, with the mountainous district on the
Baluchistan frontier to the west. The upper
parts, under a system of irrigation, are moaer-
ately fertile, but the extensive delta of the river
yields support for the camel only. In many
physical aspects the country resembles Egypt.
The principal crops are rice, wheat, millet,
pulse, cotton, ana oil-seeds, but sugar-cane,
indigo, and tobacco are also cultivated. Salt
and saltpetre are the only minerals. Sind pro*
duces little for exportation except embroidered
cloths, nitre, timber, hides, and seeds. Most
of the goods shipped at Karachi come from the
north and west. Before 1843 it had been ruled
by various semi-dependent chiefs, but in tihat
year, after endless disputes, they were brought
under British rule by Sir Charles Napier. The
province was then divided into districts, and
placed under a Commissioner, who is subordinate
to the Bombay Government, and has his ad-
ministrative headquarters at Karachi (116,663).
The only other places of importance are
Haidarabad, Sukkur, Shikarpur, and Nowshera.
Pop. (1901), 3,210,910.

Sindia, or Sindhia, the name by which the
Mahratta Maharajahs of Gwalior are heredi-
tarily designated. The fortunes of the family
were founded by Ra.noji Sindia, a humble
peasant who was taken into the Peishwa’s ser-
vice early in the 18th century. His son, Mad-
HAVA Rao Sindia, was seriously wounded at the
battle of Panipat (1761), when Ahmed, Shah of
Afghanistan, overwhelmed the Mahrattas. In
1770 he assisted the Emperor of Delhi to expel
the Sikhs from his territory, the administrjition
of which was entrusted to him, and in 1784 he
captured Gwalior, and in later years subdued
the Rajput states of Jodhpur, Udaipur and Jey-
pore. D AXIL AT Rao Sindia, who succeeded to the
throne in 1794, a^ired to make himself the head
of the Mahratta Confederacy, and, having a fine
army (mainly organised by Frenchmen), began,
with his ally, the Bhonsfa of Berar, offensive
operations in 1802. He was defeated by Sir
Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argafim in 1803,
and both Gobad and Gwalior were captured by
Lord Lake. Temporarily pacified, he showed
sympathy with the Pindaris in 1617/ and lost
Asirgarh in consequence. He died idiildless, as
did his successor, Janakji, a nominee of the
British Government. BHAOiaA* Bao Sindia,
who took the name of AH Jah Jaiji BaO| was a


Slue.


( m )


Siiilciiig Fuad*,


distant cousin of Janakji* and, a boy of eight,
succeeded in 1843. Protected during his minority
by the British, he remained faithful, though
driven out by his rebellious troops during the
Mutiuy. He received the Prince of Wales in
1876, was made G.C.B., G.C.S.I., and appointed
honorary general in the British army. In 1886,
as a mark of their appreciation of his services,
the British Government restored to him the rock
fortress of Gwalior, which had been under their
surveillahce since 18l3. He died on June 20th,
1886, and was succeeded by his son, Madho Bao.

Siao is a trigonometrical ratio by means of
which an angle can be measured. If from any
point B in one line bouna-
y. ing an angle A, a perpen-
dicular B c be dropped on
3k other line, then the

\ ratio ®— is called the sine

\ ^ ^

\ of the angle A. With A as
yA \ centre and radius A B, we

O’ I describe the arc B D of a

A 0 D circle, then the old defini-

siNE. tion of sine referred to it


as a function of the arc B d,
while the line bc — not the ratio used above —
was said to be the sine of b d. The length,
B c, varied with the radius of the circle, but the


modern definition overcomes this difficulty, for
. - , , sine of the arc


sine of the angle A ==


radius of the circle*


Singapore^ the chief island of the Straits
Settlements, lies off the southern extremity of
the Malay Peninsula, from which it is divided
by a channel about three-quarters of a mile
wide, and is about 27 miles long by 14 broad,
with an area of 206 square miles, ^e surface
is low, undulating and jungly. The rich soil
yields cocoa-nuts, tapioca, gambler, aloes, nut-
megs, cacao and all sorts of tropical fruits.
The island was purchased in 1824 from the
Sultan of Johore for ;813,600 and a life annuity
of ^5,400. Pop. (1901), 228,655. The capital, of
the same name, is situated on the southern
coast, the roadstead affording safe anchorage.
Founded in 1819, it has become one of the most
important commercial centres of the East, serv-
ing as a depot for all the exports of Farther
India, China, and the Indian Archipelago, and
for the imports taken by these countries from
Europe. Camphor, indiarubber, rice, spices,
coffee, sago, pepper, canes, hides and tortoise-
shell are among the chief articles of trade,
which is largely conducted by Chinese. The
harbour is protected by several forts armed with
armour-piercing and medium guns, and by sub-
marine mines. The city contains the Governor's
Residence, the Anglican cathedral of St. An-
drew, the Law Courts, and botanical and zoo-
gardens. In further proof of its cosmo-
politan character it may be said that places of
worship include Chinese joss-houses, Hindu
temples, Moslem mosques, besides churches of
numerous Christian sects. Nor is recreation
neglected, since the city possesses a polo-ground.


racecourse, golf links, fields for cricket and
football, bowling alleys and many tennis courts.
The mean annual rainfall is 106 inches. Pop.
(1901), 193,089.

Singer, Isaac Merkitt, inventor, was born at
Oswego, New York State, United States, on
Octol^r 27 th, 1811. Being of •a mechanical turn
of mind he devoted years of close application
to the improvement of the sewing-machine, and
at last patented a single-thread chain-stitch
machine, and started a factory in New York.
Legal complications followed, but these were
eventually compromised, and finally Singer dis-
posed of his interest to a company and removed
to Europe, living first in Paris and afterwards
at Torquay, in Devonshire, where he died on
July 23rd, 1875.

Sing Sing, since 1901 officially known as
Ossining, a town of Westchester County, New
York State, United States, on the left bank of
the Hudson, 31 miles N. of New York City. It is
picturesquely situated on rising ground, and is
largely a residential quarter. It has manufac-
tures of machinery and drugs, besides iron-
founding, but is chiefly noted as the seat of the

f reat state prison founded in 1826. Pop. (1900),
,939.

Sinhalese, the inhabitants of the southern
half of Ceylon, the northern half being oc-
cupied by Tamil intruders from India, take their
name from Sinhaladvipa C Island "), one ofi**
the old designations of Lanka (Ceylon) in the
Hindu writings ; Ceylon itself is a corrupt form
of the same word. The Sinhalese appear to be
a mixed Aryo-Dra vidian people, conquered and
civilised at an early date by the Hindus. About
300,000 are Roman Catholics, converted during
the Portuguese occupation of the island, and
212,000 Mohammedans, converted by Arab mis-
sionaries at an earlier period; the rest are
Buddhists, Ceylon having remained the chief
stronghold of Buddhism in the south after its
suppression on the mainland. In 1901 their
total numbers were estimated at 2,331,046. They
are a mild, inoffensive, and somewhat indolent
people, who are being slowly encroached upon
by the Tamils of the northern districts. . .

Sinigaglia, officially Senigallta, the ancient
Sena GalUca, a watering-place of the province
of Ancona, division of The Marches, Italy, On
the Adriatic Sea, 16 miles W.N.W. of Ancona.
The church of Santa Maria della Grazia contains
a painting by Perugino, and other buildings are
the cathedral of St. Peter and the palace of the
Dukes of Urbino. Pius IX. was born here on
May 13th, 1792. It was the town of the Galli
Senones, and was sacked during the wars of
Marius and Sulla. Till 1869 it had been noted
for centuries for its annual fair of St. Mary
Magdalen (July 20th to August 8th). Pop.
(1901), 5,635, only one-fourth of that of the
commune.

Smkiilg Funds are formed by setting aside
revenue specially for the repayment of the
national debt of the United Kingdom. Sir



Sinope.


( 271 )


Bobert Walpole introduced the first (1716). In
1786 William Pitt, misled by the arguments
of Richard Price (1723-91), devoted jei,000,000
annually to purchasing Government stock, to be
held by commissioners who were to re-invest the
interest similarly. Thus, it was argued, the
fund would increase at compound interest. This
system, however, kept the debt unreduced and
so forced up the rate of interest on fresh loans,
and was stopped in 1829. Since then attempts
have been made to reduce the debt directly out
of surplus revenue (as by Sir Stafford Northcote,
afterwards Lord ladesleigh, in 1875), but it is
generally held to be unadvisable to accumulate
a fund for the purpose, since weak or time-
serving financiers are tempted to use it other-
wise in emergencies.

Sinope (Turkish, Sinuh)^ a seaport on the
southern shore of the Black Sea, in the province
of Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey, 335 miles W. of
Constantinople. Colonised at least five centuries
before Christ by Greeks from Miletus, it was an
important place until the decay of Greek and
Roman civilisation. It was the birthplace of
Diogenes the Cynic and Mithradates. It still pos-
sesses a naval arsenal, and enjoys some trade in
timber, salt, cordage, fruit, silk, hides, fish and
oil. The Bay affords the best anchorage on the
northern coast of Asia Minor. Here in 1853 a
Turkish fleet was destroyed by a superior Rus-
sian force. This was one of the immediate
tauses of tho Crimean War. Pop. (1900), 9,749.

Sinus. The term “ sinus ” is sometimes applied
to th| cavities which are met with in bones, as,
for eximple, the frontal sinuses ; the expression
“ lenous sinus ** is used to denote the dilated
channels which ocdn* in certain situations, par-
ticularly in the skull, and which serve for the
transmission of venous blood.

Sion (German, 8itten\ capital of the canton of
Valais, Switzerland, on the Sionne, 16^ miles
N.E. of Martigny. On an eminence to the north
stand the ruins of the episcopal castle of Tour-
billon, built in 1294 and burned down in 1788,
and on adjoining hills are the old castle of
Valeria, occupying the site of a Roman fort, and
the castle of the Majoria (or mansion of the
mayor), which was also destroyed by fire in 1788.
These castle-crowned heights and its situation
generally make Sion one of the most picturesque
towns in the country. Amongst prominent
buildings are the Gothic Cathedral, which,
though dating from the end of the 15th century,
has a tower of the 9th century; the church of
Notre Dame de Valfere, of the 9th to the 13th
century; the town hall; the Antiquarian
Museum; the church of St. Theodule, and the
residence of the Supersaxo family, in which there
is a fine Renaissance ceiling of 1505. Pop. (1900),
6,095.

SioiUCp one of the great families of the North
American Indians, whose chief divisions are
given in the article on Dakotas (q v.). To these
must be added the Omahas, Poncas, Raws
(Kansas), Osages, Quapaws, lowas, Otoes, Mis-


Mplioit.


souri, Winnebagos, and Mandans, all now re-
moved to reservations in Nebraska, Indian
Territory, Kansas, and DakotUv Their numbers
are not estimated at more than 41,000, of whom
about 2,000 are in British North America, tho
rest in the United States. The term ** Sioux,'*
now applied under the form Siouan to the whole
family, is a Franco-Canadian mutilation of the
Algonquin word “ nadowe-ssi-wa^ " the snake-
like ones," "the enemies*’). In 1876 a large
number of malcontent Sioux, enraged at the
invasion of their lands in South Dakota by
white prospectors for gold, broke out into open
rebellion and caused the War Department to
take the field against them. The Indians were
reinforced by several Cheyennes, and, under the
leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, on
June 25th, 1876, wiped out a small American
force under General Custer at the Little Big
Horn. The rebels were now hotly pursued in
all directions, and in April, 1877, Crazy Horse
surrendered with 2,000 men. Sitting Bull, how-
ever, still defiant, contrived to cross the Cana-
dian border, but he returned to Dakota in 1880,
and, along with 2,856 followers, surrendered.

SiotUK City, the capital of Woodbury county^
Iowa, United States, on tho left bank of the
Missouri, 100 miles N. by W. of Omaha. Among
the public buildings are Morningside College, a
Methodist Episcopal institution opened in 1800,
and Sioux City College of Medicine. The indus-
tries include meat-packing and slaughtering,
iron-founding, browing, machine-making, and
boiler works, besides manufactures of saddlery
and bricks. Pop. (1900), 33,111.

Sioux Fall^ capital of Minnehaha county.
South Dakota, United States, on the right bank
of the Big Sioux, 60 miles N.E. of Yankton.
The public buildings comprise, amongst others,
Sioux Falls College, Lutheran Normal School,
All Saints* School, and Government House. It
has manufactures of agricultural implements,
vehicles, and flour mills, and there are granite
quarries in the immediate vicinity. It is the
chief shipping-point for the agricultural pro-
duce of a rich farming region. The river
descends 100 feet in half a mile, thus con-
stituting the Falls, and supplying enormous
power to the factories in the town. Pop. (|900),
10,266.

Siphon is a bent tube used to remove liquids
from vessels when it is inconvenient to disturb
the vessel. One end of the siphon dips into the*
liquid; the other end is outside the vessel and
is lower than the surface of the liquid inside.
The tube may first be filled with the liquid, and
the ends c and a closed, while it is inverted and
placed in the position illustrated in the dia-
gram. On opening the ends, liquid will flow
from A as long as c is immersed. As the liquid
issues from a, it tends to form a vacuum at b,
but the pressure of the atmosphere at the nur-
face K of the liquid forces more fluid up the tube,
and so the flow goes on. If mn be the level of
the liquid, there is at A the pressure of the




tfiplioiiogljrplit, ( 272 )


tc^etlier with the hei^ 'of liquid
iC4« tending to drive the iiqtiid out; while only
the atmes^eric jpreesur© is tending to prevent
itd Ihe dinerenoe between the twp is the



head of liquid m a, and the liquid issues at that
pressure. The height of b above it must not be
greater than the height of a column of liquid
which is just supported by the pressure of the
air, or the tube b a will simply empty itself. If
the liquid be mercury, this height must not
exceed about 30 inches, and if water the limit
is about 33 feet.

Siphonoglsrphe. the ciliated groove or furrow
at one or both ends of the mouth of various
members of the Actinozoa or Alcyonaria. By
the vibration of the cilia a current of water is
started, and food and fresh water are carried
down into the oesophagus. It thus serves both
for respiration ana nutrition. It can be well
seen both in the Sea Anemones and Alcyonium,
the ** Dead Men's Fingers."

Siphoiiopliora, an order of Craspedote Hy-
drozoa (that is, Hydrozoa that have a velum or
inturned border along the margin of the
*^bell"), including a number of forms which
live on the surface of the seas, mostly in the
tropics. Thev are colonial in habit, and the
colonies are characterised by very marked poly-
morphism, i.e., the different zooids are special-
ised to serve different functions. They are all
free, and as a rule the stein is unbranched, but
is often expanded into a float or pneumatophore.
The order is divided into four sub-orders: —
(1) The Physophotida, including Physophora
and others with flask-shaped floats; (2) Phy-
salida, including the Portuguese Man-of-Waror
Physalia ; (3) Discoidea, with disc-shaped floats,
such as Velella and Porpita, and (4) Calyco-
phorida, in which the zooids are placed on an
elongated, tubular ccenosaro, as in Biphyes,
Abyla, etc.

iiiplioiiozooids, those individuals in an Alcy-
onanan which are much simpler in structure
than the normal individuals (autozooids). * They
have no tentacles or retractive muscles, and are


•Irm.


without reproductive organs. Among the Alcyo-
naria they occur in the Helioparidm or Blue
Corals, Pennatalidse, and in some Aloyonidas^

Siplmiiclei the long membranous tube wbicb
passes back through the shell of a cephalopod,
such as the Nautilus, and establishes a oou-
nection between the different chambers. Where
it passes through the septa, prolongatious of
these, known as Collars,^' pass back and pro-
tect it. The position of the siphuncle is of con-
siderable importance, as in Nautilus and its
allies it passes through the centre of the septa,
while in the Ammonites it cuts them at the
margin.

SiptinctiltLS, a genus of worms belonging to
the class Gephyrea and the type of the family
Sipunculidee. The three main characters of the
family are that the worm consists of only one
segment, has no hairs or setse, and has tentacles
around the mouth. A vascular circulatory sys-
tem is*present in most members of the family,
and its structure led to the view that Sipunculus
and the Gephyreans might be allied to. the Holo-
thurians or Sea-Cucumbers.

Sir, an appellation of respect and courtesy,
used generally without regard to rank. If
spoken emphatically, much will depend upon the
tone, for it may then imply reproach, or threat,
or anything but respect. Particularly, it is a
title of honour prefixed to the Christian names
of knights and baronets and very occasionally
to the rank itself (as, Sir Knight "), and was
formerly applied to the King (as in the form
“sire" it is still so exclusively used). It was
once given indiscriminately to bachelors of arts
and clergymen (being the free rendering of the
Latin dominus, “master"). Apparently “sir-
rah " was at first “ sir " uttered with contemp-
tuous force and latterly came to be synonymous
with “ fellow."

8ir-Baria. [Jaxartes.]

Siren is an instrument which produces a sound
by converting a steady current of air or some
other gas into a series of discontinuous puffs.
This may be done by an arrangement such as
that shown in the diagrams, a b (Fig. 1) is a
cylinder whose top consists of a disc o d per-
forated by a number of holes. Another disc



Fio. 1. rio. 2.


E E (Fig. 2) will exactly fit over c d, and by
means of © pin in the centre which can rest
in a slight hole at h, the top disc can rotate
quite freely over the lower one. The number
of holes in e e and c b is the same, but Iheir
directions are differept. If c d ahd a h (Fig. 3)
be holes in the lower and upper disc, a stream



tUxmii.


( 273 )


tlintitti.


of air sent up c will strike the side a of the
upper orifiee and so cause the movable disc to
rotate. This effect is proportional to the num-
ber of perforations in the two discs^ since they
are all superposed at the same
moment. By merely sending
air up the tube into the cylin-
der the upper disc rotates, and,
as it moves, the holes in the
upper and lower discs are con-
stantly changing from positions
of coincidence to disagreement.
Hence the air can only issue
from E F in puffs, and these puffs produce a certain
note. The siren can be used to determine the
number of vibrations in a note produced by any
means; it is then provided with an apparatus
which registers the number of revolutions in
any time, and with an adjustment for increas-
ing or decreasing the number of orifices. When
the siren is producing a sound exactly in agree-
ment with the other, the number of vibrations
per second in both is the number of revolutions
of the disc per second multiplied by the number
of holes in use. Sirens are frequently used as
fog-horns on ships and in lighthouses.

Siren iSiren lacertina\ a tailed Amphibian,
the sole species of its genus, from the swamps
of the southern states of the United States,
especially frequenting the stagnant waters and
marshy ground of South Carolina, where rice is
cultivated. The form is eel-like, hind limbs are
absent, and gills persist throughout life. Its
average length is 18 inches, but ^ecimens three
feet long are not uncommon. Though it lives
id the mud, it travels into the water, in which
it is a deft swimmer, and sometimes on land,
feeding on earthworms and insects. When it
has to inspire it rises to the surface, about three
times in 12 hours, and gets rid of some air under
water about once in two hours. Its body is
covered with thick mucus of disagreeable smell.
In pre-Abolition times the Sirens were killed by
the slaves, or mangled as poisonous and left to
be devoured by birds and beasts of prey.

Sir^nia, an order of marine Mammals, resem-
bling the whales and dolphins in form, but with-
out close relationship, though they were for-
merly classed together. The only living Sire-
uians are the Dugong and the Manatee. Though
Ungainly creatures, popular fancy in ancient
times regarded them as sirens, thence arose
the name of the order, conferred, apparently, by
Illiger the naturalist, to commemorate that
flight of imagination. Their body is long, com-
pact and cylindrical, without a dorsal fin, taper-
ing towards the tail, which ends either in forued
fluhes or in a flat expansion, in either case set
horizontally. Their fore limbs are well deve-
loped, flexible flippers. Their eyes are minute,
ears are wanting, and their muzzle is bristly.
Their skin is dark, tough, rough, sparsely hairy
or somewhat smooth. The extant genera have
teeth. The two mamm® are on the breast, close
to the arm-pits. Their brain is small, with few
convolutions, and their dense, heavy bones are
210-.2r.B. ,



no. 8.


the most Solid among mammals. They ar^ of
slow habit and exceedingly inoffensive. ThMr
food is wholly aquatic vegetation. Stellet^
Bhytina, the most whale-like in size and shape
of tail, became extinct about 1770. Fossil forms
have been found in deposits near Antwerp, in
Pliocene beds in Bologna, in strata near Vienna,
in West Indian Tertiary strata, and in the
nummulitic Eocene of Egypt. They present
problems of intense interest and, says Dr. JamOs
Murie, nothwithstanding that the Sirenia are
aquatic and whale-like, their structural rela-
tionship with the Proboscidea [elephants] end
'Ungulata [horse, tapir, rhinoceros, pig, hippo-
potamus] IS not so far-fetched as at first sight
might seem. But the gap is not yet bridged^
and until that is done the order Sirenia must
be retained.”

Sirens, in Greek mythology, sea-nymphs who
by the beauty of their song lured the listener
to destruction. They were apparently two or
three in number, and, by the necessity of tW
case, haunted certain parts of the Mediter-
ranean. Ulysses escaped their charm by getting
himself bound to the mast of his ship and stuff-
ing the ears of his crew with wax. They
would have ruined the expedition of the
Argonauts, but for the presence with the
rovers of Orpheus, who, when they burst
into song, also fell a-singing, and made music
that eclipsed theirs. This involved their fate,
for it had been decreed tlfat they must die
should any hearer deliberately prefer to listen
to the music of another rather than to theirs.
They accordingly threw themselves into the sea,
and were changed into rocks. They are some-
times represented with the wings and the lower
part of the body (or only the feet) of a bird.

Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is more
commonly known by the name of the Dog-star,
since it occurs in the constellation knowu as
Canis Major. Seen through a powerful tele-
scope, Sinus is brilliantly white, and the light
is so dazzling that the effect on the eye is as
painful as that produced by directly gazing at
the sun at noon. A small, darker star was dis-
covered by Alvan Graham Clark,. of New York,
in 1862, and observed to revolve with Sirius
about a common centre, the motion ot each
influencing that of the other. The motion of
Sirius has been shown to be undulatory, the
star moving on each side of a mean position.
Since Sirius is so bright an object in the sky, it
was, of course, known to the ancients, and became
the object of many myths and superstitions, of
which the tales of the Dog Days are survivals.
Sirocco. [Simoom.]

Sisldu, a book name for finches of the genus
.Chrysomitris, with eighteen species, from the
Neotropical and Nearctic regions of Europe and
Siberia. The Common Siskin, or Aberdevine
{0. spinm)t a British winter visitor, remaining
to breed in parts of Scotland, is a common cnge-
bird, a little less than five inches long, with
yellowish-green plumage, markeiii with hla^
above; the under parts are white, *


Wiipai»a4i«


( 2740


Slictiif.


0i0»ioit4i, Jkak Ghablss Lsoitab^I^b, whose
reel name was Simokbb, historian and eoonomist,
born at Oeneva* Switsarland, on May 9th, 1773.
Par| of his youth was s^nt in England and in
Italy; but he returned to Geneva in 1800,
entered the Eepresentative Chamber, and re-
sistea ultra«democr£itic movements. His first
volume, TcMeau de^ V AgricuHure Toscant, ap-
jpeared in 1801, and was followed in 1803 by his
wmH 4^ Bichum Commtrcialc^ based chiefly
on Adahi l$mith. From 1807 to 1818 he was en-
gaged on his great work, Mistoire des Bipub-
Uqu€$ Italunnm du Mourn Age, but found time
for various other publications on economical
and moral science, and for beginning his Lib
i%rutute du Midi de VEurope and his Hietoirt
dm Frankie, the latter of which he did not live
to complete. He visited France in 1813, and his
gelations with two such oj^osite characters as
Napoleon and Madame de Stael were somewhat
remarkable, and did not tend to make him
popular at home. He died at Geneva on June
im, 1842.

SisTphiM, in Greek mythology, was the founder
and king of Ephyra (Corinth), but a man of
notorious cruelty, craftiness, and immorality,
as a punishment for which he was condemned,
after his death at the hands of Theseus, to roll
eternally uphill a huge block of marble, which no
sooner readied the top than it rolled down again.

SittingllOtirxiOf n town of Kent, England, on
a navig^le creek of the Swale, 16 miles W.
by N. of Canterbury. It is a borough of con-
siderable antiquity, was a place of call for pil-
grims on their way to Canterbury, and received
from Elizabeth a charter of incorporation, and
another by which it holds a weekly market and
two fairs. It once had an oyster fishery, but
its leading industries now are the making of
paper, bricks, and cement. The most promin-
ent buildings are the town hall, corn exchange,
free library. Masonic hall, Foresters* hall, and
St. Michael*^ Church. The last-named was
nearly destroyed by fire in 1762. Amongst
other curious entries, its register contains those
of three marriages celebrated before Sir Michael
Lovesey, one of the Members of Parliament who
signed the death-trarrant of Charles I. Pop.
(1901), 8,943.

Sint, or Assiut, on the left bank of the Nile,
the administrative capital of Wpper Egypt,
210 miles S. of Cairo. It was known as Lyco-
polis to the Greeks, who mistook the jackal for
the wolf. It is one of the few Egyptian towns
that has kept its ancient name almost unal-
tered. Plotinus (a.d, 206-270), the Neo-Platonic
philosopher, was a native, but perhaps the most
interesting of its former inhabitants was the
hermit, John of Lytiopolis, who dwelt in a cave
in the necropolis in the latter half of the 4th
century, and who is said to have predicted the
victory of Theodosius over Eugeniua at Aquileia,
near the head of the Adriatic Sea, in 394. The
ancient rock tombs in the necropolis contain
many curious relics, and the view of the Nile


valley from the cemetery heights is unsurpassed
in Egypt. Siut is famous for its beautiful red
and black pottery, especially bottles ahd pipe-
bowls, and it has also manufactures of Hnen
and embroidered leather goods, and exports
ostrich feathers, natron, soda,, and com. ^on.
(1900), 42,087. ^

Siva, or Shiva, the third pei^son in the Hindu
Trinity [Bbahma, Vishnu"), representing thd
destructive power of the universe as opposed to
the creative and vivifying forces. The w:orship
of Siva is by some believed to have been k later
addition to pure Brahminism, only appearing in
the Puranas and Tantras, and associated with
the gloomier aspect of the faith, involving cruel
and mysterious rites. Durga or Devi, his con-
sort, is especially, propitiated by self-inflicted
torture. Gradually, however, Siva, growing
more popular, supplanted Vishnu as the latter
had supplanted Brahma, and was credited with
the^ l^neficent qualities of his partners in
divinity. The destroyer thus only exercises his
power with a view to renewal of life, and the
patron of hideous sacrifice becomes the teacher
of ascetic virtue. He is represented with five
heads and three eyes, a crescent on his brow,
his hair drawn to a horn-shaped peak and en-
twined with the folds of the Ganges. He rides
on the bull Nandi, wears a necklet of skulls,
and carries a trident of human bones. His home
is on Kailasa, a remote Himalayan summit.
Among his other names are Kala (“black**),
Mahaaeva ("Great God**), and Maheshwara
("Great Lord**).

SiwalikKiUs, a mountain range in the north
of the North-Western Provinces and the north-
east of the Punjab, India. It runs parallel with
the Himalaya in a generally north-westerly
direction from Hardwar, on the Ganges, to the
basin of the Beas, having a total length of 209
miles, an average breadth of 10 miles, and its
highest peaks reaching an altitude of 3,500 feet.
It is pierced by the Ganges, Jumna, Sutlej, and
Beas. Its sides are clothed with trees, the
higher points with pines, and the fauna in-
cludes the elephant, tiger, sloth-bear, leopard,
hyaena, spotted deer, hog, and monkeysr The
principal pass, that of Mohan, in Dehra Dun,
carries the road from Saharanpur to Dehra and
Mussooree. Geologically, it belongs to the Ter-
tiary deposits of the outer Himalaya, and its
palaeontology is of exceptional intere^, owing
to the prevalence of fossil remains of large
vertebrates, especially mammals. The most
remarkable are those of sivatherium, a huge
ruminant, greater than the rhinoceros, and of
various quadrumana whose occurrence in the
Tertiary was first ascertained from these hills.

Six Sfatioiis. [Iboquois.]

Sixtil0, the name by which five Popes have
been known in history. Sixtus I. WAs Bishop
of Borne from about 119 to 126, and is cbujeo-
tured to have been martyred. Sixtus H. be-
came Bishop in 257, and suffered martyrdom in



( 276 )


tUsairb


.MteMitlro


the followmg year. He restored relatione with
the African and Eastern Churches, which had
been suspended on the subject of the baptism
of heretics. Sixtus in. was Bishop from 432
to 440. SiJCTUS IV. (Feancesco dkh*a Rovebb)
was born near Savona on July 21st, 1414. He
became Cardinal in 1467, and on August 9th,
1471, was elected Fope. In private life he was
blameless and hospitable, but he was the first
pontiff to sanction nepotism and the enrich-
ment of his relatives. He was a munificent
patron of letters and art, established the first
Foundling Hospital in Rome, built the Sixtine
Chapel and Bridge, and was the second founder
of tne Vatican tibrary. His politics were un-
stable, save in respect of the resistance which
he always showed to the Turks, but his efforts
to set the secular princes of Italy by the ears
were both discreditable and unsuccessful. Vex-
ation at the defeat of these sinister plans is
said to have hastened his death, which took
place on August 13th, 1484. Sixtus V. (Felice
Pebetti) was born at Grottammare on Decem-
ber 13th, 1621. He entered a Franciscan monas-
tery as a servant, educated himself diligently,
was admitted to orders under the pseudonym of
Montalto, obtained the red hat in 1670, and
succeeded to the chair of St. Peter on April
24th, 1586. His reign was marked by great
vigour. He embellished Rome with fine build-
ings, beginning the dome of St. Peter’s, en-
larging the Vatican Library, and constructing
a great aqueduct. He excommunicated Eliza-
beth of England and Henry of Navarre, and,
dying on August 27th, 1590, left an enormous
fortune to the Holy See.

SiiaTf an undergraduate of Cambridge Uni-
versity and Trinity College, Dublin, who, in
consequence of his poverty, received free com-
mons (size, being a fixed allowance of ^ood and
drink) and paid a nominal sum for lodgings.
Formerly they were required to render certain
menial services in return, but these have long
since lapsed. "They swept the court,” writes
Lord Macaulay; "they carried up the dinner
to the Fellows* table, and changed the plates
and poured out the ale of the rulers of the
society.**

Skager-Raok. or The Sleevr, an arm con-
necting the North Sea with the Cattegat, and
separating Denmark from Norway. It is about
150 miles long, with an average breadth of 80
miles, and is remarkable for strong and dan-
gerous currents.

Skatdi a popular name for those fish of the Ray
genus in which the snout is long and pointed.
The True Skate (Baja hatis) is very common
round the British coast. Sometimes it reaches
to enormous proportions. A stuffed specimen in
the Natural History Museum, South Kensing-
ton, measured six and a half feet long bv five
feet and a half broa^. It is recorded that a
specimen weighing 200 pounds was once served
at dinnef at §t. John's College, Cambridge, and
sttHced for a company numbering 120 persons.


^en caught on ^the hook % cannot be raia^
if the fish lie still an4 kee|) its kead down;
let it, however, but raise its head, and it will
rise through the water like a kite in the air.
It is a somewhat omnivorous and voracious
feeder . From the dUSky grey or mottled colour
of the upper ipart of the body, it is in some
parts of Scotland known as tbe Grey Skat^
and in others as the Blue Skate. It is ofteh
infested with the fish leech, Hirudo muricat#.
The Long-nosed Skate (B. vomer), found in tno
northern waters of Europe, has the snout pw^
longed to a sharp point far in advance of ths
mouth, is four feet and a half long by a littlli
more than three feet wide, the tail measuring
sixteen inches, and is of a leaden colour. The
Bordered Ray (B. marglnata) has the anterior
outlines of the body deeply undulated. It is no
fewer than eight feet long by eight feet broad,
is grey above and white beneath, and in great
demand in France as an article of food during
Lent. The Shagreen Ray (B. fnllonka) derives
its name from the circumstance that its body is
covered with minute spines, both above and
below. It is about two feet eight inches long
by fourteen inches broad. It occurs off the
British coasts, but is not much sought after
for food. Other British species are the Home-
lyn, or Spotted, or Painted Ray (B, ma(mlata%
the Sandy Ray (B. circularu), and the Thorn-
back.

Skating, a mode of locomotion over ice, real or
artificial, by means of steel blades, or runners,
secured to the soles of the boots. It has been
in vogue among all northern peoples for several
centuries, but is practised especially in the
United Kingdom, Sefindinavia, Holland, Ger-
many, Austria, Switzerland, France, and Bel-
gium, in the Old World, and in Canada and the
northern States of the American Union in the
New World. The older-fashioned skate, with
wooden frame, which was screwed to the heel
of the wearer’s boot, and then fastened by
straps, has to a great extent been replaced by
all-metal skates, which are capable of imme-
diate adjustment to and release from the foot.
There are two methods of skating, the distance
and figure. For the former, skates with blades
of considerable length are generally employed;
for the latter, the skate is of much the same
length as the boot, and should not be larger.
In order to render a popular and healthy exer-
cise independent of climatic conditions, skating
rinks (formerly known as glaciaria) with arti-,
ficially-frozon ice have been introduced in several
large towns. Prince’s Skating Rink in Knights-
bridge, London, and Niagara Hall, Westmin-
ster, are two of the most familiar. Owing to
the costliness of such undertakings, however,
they are reserved for the well-to-do. The chief
legislative and administrative bodies for skating,
regarded seriously as a sport, are the LoPdon
Skating Club, founded in 1830, which performs
on private water in Regent's Park aod is splely
concefned with figure-skating, and the EdiPt
burgh Skating Club, founded in 1642, the oldest



( 276 )


SkolAtdti.


vijnc^.


Bociety in tile tlnited Kingdom. l^ationnl
Skating Association, established in 1879, while
not neglecting figure-skating, is largely inter-
ested in distance-skating, and is a member of
the International Skating Union. Its matches
usually are held in the English Fen district.
Amongst recorded times for racing, in 1887 T.
Uonc^iue skated one mile straight, with the
wind, on the Hudson Eiver, in New York State,
in 2 minuteB 12 3-5 seconds, and J. Nilsson, at
Montreal, in 1897, skated a mile in 2 minutes
41 1-8 seconds. "Fish" Smart, the English
champion, skated a mile in 3 minutes, with no
wind, but a flying start. Roller-skating was
introduced about 1866 to provide recreation of
a quasi-skate-like description for asphalte and
other smooth surfaces. In this exercise the
skates are furnished with one pair of wheels
fore and another pair aft. By the introduction
of the ball-bearing type of skate, about thirty
years later, fresh impetus was given to the pas-
time. In Norway the skate finds a rival, thoi^h
not on a wide scale, in the ski, which iJr.
Fridtjof Nansen, in his First Crossing of Green^
land, defines as a long, narrow strip or runner
of tough wood, from 3 to 4 inches broad and
8 feet or so in length, 1 inch thick at the
centre under the foot, and bevelling off to about
a quarter of an inch at each end. In front it
is curved upwards and pointed, and is sometimes
turned up a little at the back, too. It is, of
course, for use on the snow. A race of 12 miles
can be accomplished in an hour and three-
I quarters, and in jumping competitions a candi-
date for honours made a clean jump on a pair
of ski of 103^ feet. But such competitions are
dangerous and foolhardy. Besides dancing on
the ice, hockey is a game which is admirably
adapted for skaters. On the lakes of Canada
and the United States, when they are frozen
over for many miles, a modification of the skate
principle has been successfully applied to a
framework of yacht-like shape, equipped with
masts and sails, and mounted on large runners
of metal. By the use of such "boats "ice-yacht-
ing has become a standard recreation on the
part of those who view sailing with special
favour.

Skeat, Walter William, philologist, was born
in Iiondon on November 21st, 1836, and was
educated at King*8 College School, Highgate
School, and Christas College, Cambridge. Taking
holy orders, he was curate at East Dereham in
1860 and at Godaiming in 1862. Two years
later he was lecturer in mathematics at his
college. He had already turned his attention
to the study of English philblogy, and edited
between 1866 and 1872 many specimens of early
literature for the English Text Society. He
was also employed to continue Kemble's Anglo-
Saxon Gospels for the Cambridge Press, and to
edit parts of Chaucer for the Oxford Press. In
1873t he founded the English Dialect Society,
and in 1878 was appointed Elrington and Bos-
jo^thJProfessor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge.
ms Eigmological Dictionary of the MngUsh


Language, published in 1881, and his edition of
Chauceri are invaluable, but his marvellous
energy and industry have left scarcely any
branch of Old English literature and dialect
undelved. He is a member of the British
Academy, whose number is limited to 100.

SkegnesSi a watering-place on the coast of
Lincolnshire, England, 20 mil^s N.E. of Boston.
John Leland, the antiquary, who flourished
during the first half of the 16th century, says
that remains of buildings were visible at low
water, from which it was inferred that an
earlier town had been overwhelmed by the sea.
It is now in good repute for its bracing climate,
and is larg^y resorted to in midsummer as a
holiday resort owing to its long stretch bf firm
broad sands and its excellent bathing. There
are marine and pleasure gardens on the front,
and the place is in vogue with volunteer regi-
ments for the facilities which it affords for
encampment. A mirage may often be seen on
the sea in certain states of the atmosphere in
calm weather, and fhe display of phosphor-
escence is at times beautiful. Pop. (1901), 2,140,
greatly increased in the season.

Skeleton. The human skeleton consists of
some 200 bones, though the number of separate
bones varies at different times of life, bones



BKEIEfOK OF MAK.



Skvlligs.


( 277 )


which are distinct in early life becoming fused
in old age. The vertebral column is made up
in adult life of 26 separate bones, and is divided
into a cervical portion (see Fig., k), a dorsal
rtion, to which the ribs are attached, a lum«
r portion (see F^., /), the sacrum (see Fig., m),
and the coccyx. The sacrum originally consisted
of five, and the coccyx of four, distinct verte-
brsB. The nine vertebral, together with the
five lumbar vertebrae, the twelve dorsal verte-
brae, and the seven cervical vertebrae make up a
total of 33 vertebrae; or, taking account of the
fusion of originally, separate vertebrae already
alluded to, the total of 26 separate bones in the
entire vertebral column is accounted for. Poised
on the summit of this column is the skull. In
the Figure the letter a denotes the position of
the frontal bones, which form the anterior
wall of the cranial vault; b indicates the situa-
tion of the laterally-placed parietal bone, and
c of the temporal bone, which lies beneath each
parietal bone; d indicates the superior maxil-
lary bone, and e the inferior maxillary bone.
The shoulder girdle is made up of the clavicle
or collar bone (see Fig., f), and the scapula, or
shouMer-blade on either side. The clavicle arti-
culates with the scapula, and the articulation
of the rounded head of the humerus with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula constitutes the
shoulder joint. The ribs, 12 in number on each
side (see Fig., g), make up the bony framework
of the thorax, and, with the exception of the
lowermost floating ribs, they are united to the
sternum (see Fig., h) by the several costal carti-
lages. The bones of each upper extremity are
64 in number ; in the upper arm is the humerus
(see Fig., n), in the fore-arm are the radius
(see Fig., o) and the ulna (see Fig., p); and then
follow the bones of the carpus and metacarpus,
and the phalanges. The hip girdle is formed by
the pelvis (see Fig., g), and the hip-joint on
either side is constituted by the articulation of
the head of the femur with the acetabulum, the
cavity which exists on each of the lateral aspects
of the pelvis. Each lower extremity contains in
all 62 bones. The thigh-bone is called the femur
(see Fig., r); the bones of the leg are the tibia
(see Fig., s) and the fibula (see Fig., (); and
then follow the bones of the tarsus, the meta-
tarsus, and the phalanges.

Skalligtti The, two rooks, about 8 miles W. of
Bolus Head, County Kerry, Ireland. On the
summit of the larger, called the Great Skellig,
714 feet above the level of the sea, stand the
ruins of St. Finnian's Monastery and the station
of St. Michael^ to which devotees make a pil-
grimage every year to discharge a difiicult
penance, Part of this consists in ascending
the lofty rock known as St, Michael’s Pillar.
The Skeiligs are a breeding-place of the gannet.

SlcBllllAlfSilBlOi a town of Lancashire, Eng-
land, 4 miles E.S.E. of Ormskirk. Coal-mining
and brick-making are the leading industries.
The town gives the title of Baron to the Bootle-
Wilbraham family. Pop, (1901)^ 6,699.




Skeiloii, John, poet, w|| born in Norfolk
England, about 1460, show^ remarkable pro-
mise as a scholar, won the patron^e of Mar>«
garet Tudor, the leariied mother of Henry Vn.,
and was appointed tutor to Henry VIII. About
1600 he took orders, and held till his death the
living of Dies in Norfolk. His first poem was on
the death of Edward IV. in 1483, but his'gcnins
lay in the direction of boisterous satire, ribald
merrymaking, and Eabelaisian wit. In
Clout he assails the Church unsparingly, and in
JVhu come ye not to Court? he makes Cardinal
Wolsey, then in the zenith of power, the butt Of
fearless ridicule. The Bowge \Barge\ of Court
deals with the follies of the day in a less per-
sonal form, whilst The Booh of IPhilip Sparrow
shows his lighter moods in a pleasant shape.
It is said that Wolsey ’s wrath compelled him
to seek sanctuary at Westminster, where he
died on June 21st, 1629, and was buried in St.
Margaret’s.

Skdne, William Forbes, historian and Celtic
scholar, was born at Inverie Knoydart, In-
verness-shire, Scotland, on June 7th, 1809,
and educated at the Boyal High School of
Edinburgh (where he taught himself Gaelic),
Hanau, near Frankfort, and St. Andrews
University. He studied for the law, became a
writer to the signet in 1832 and was soon after-
wards appointed clerk of the bills in the bill
chamber of the. Court of Session, a post which
he filled till 1865. His love of Gaelic lore and
knowledge of the Highlands was turned to
account in his book on The Highlanders of
Scotland n.837). He published nothing for a
quarter oi a century, but in 1862 appeared
his valuable introduction and notes to the Book of
the Dean of Lismore, a collection of Gaelic poetry
edited by the Eev. Dr. T. McLachlan. This was
followed by The Chronicles of the Phis and Scots
(1867), The Four Ancient Books of Wales (1868),
Fssay on the Coronation Stone of Scone (1869),
editions of John of Fordun’s Sootichronicon^ the
Liher Pluscardcnsis, and (somewhat condensed)
Adamnan's Life of St. Columba. These researches
led up to his principal work Celtic Scotland: a
Histonj of Ancient Alban (1876-80), in which he
dealt with the history and ethnology, the Church
and the culture, the land and the people. On the
death of John Hill Burton in 1881, he was ap-
pointed Historiographer Royal for Scotland. He
died at Edinburgh on August 29th, 1892.

SkerrieSy a seaport of County Dublin, Ireland,
4 miles S.E. of Balbriggan. It has manufac-
tures of embroidered muslin, but the fisheries
are an important industry. The harbour is
good, the roadstead being safe in southerly
winds, and there is a pier. The strand is re-
sorted to for sea-bathing. The town is situated
in the parish of Holmpatrick, which derives its
name from St, Patrick’s Isle, a mile from the
shore, said to have been the place where the
Saint first landed and preached in Ireland. The
quarries furnish an excellent building stone*
which is largely exported, ffacketstown House


S)EOKr7TOIf0.


( 278 )


SMii.


lies in beautiful grounds skirting t&e^hore and I
Milrerton* finely situated, eommanus views of
picturesque ana lovely scenery. Pop. (IfiOl),
1,721

lUtvirjTOVAf a reel of submerged rocks and
islets nf the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scot-
land, about 12 miles S.W. of the island of
Tiree. Owing to the dangers to navigation, a
lighthqiiBe was erected in 1838, after the de-
signs m Alan Stevenson (1807-65), the novelist’s
uncle. TOe building operations began in 1838
and were completed in 1844. The tower is 138
feet high (158 feet to the top of the lantern),
42 feet in diameter at the base, gradually de-
creasing to 16 feet at the top, and is constructed
throughout of granite, the first 26 feet from the
rook being monolithic or solid. As they spring
from the solid, the walls are 9^ feet thick,
gradually diminishing to 2 feet. The interior
iS divided into ten storeys, including the light-
room, each floor being 12 feet in diameter. The
optical apparatus is dioptric revolving, and the
light is visible for 21 miles* The total cost of
the lighthouse, including the small harbour, was
jB87,cSo. It is said to be "the finest example
for mass, combined with elegance of outline, of
any extant rock tower.” Robert Louis Steven-
son called his house at Bournemouth "Skerry-
vore,” and said that the family were proud of
Alan Stevenson’s achievements in the building
of lighthouses, which were their "pyramids and
monuments.”

Sid. [Skating.]

Skibboreen, a town in the south-west of
County Cork, Ireland, on the Hen, 13 miles
S.S.E. of Bantry. It is a somewhat important
distributing centre and also a considerable fish-
ing port. The fishing school at Baltimore, on
the coast, about six miles to the south-west, was
founded by the Baroness Burdett-Coutts and
Rather Davis. The great famine of 1847 made
itself severely felt in Skibbereen and the dis-
trict. Pop. (1901), 3,208.

Sldddaw, a mountain in Mid Cumberland,
England, 3 j miles N. of Keswick, from which
it is usually ascended. It is situated a short
distance to the east of Bassenthwaite Water,
and is an oblong mass some 8 miles in length
by 7 miles in width. Within this area are em-
braced Caldbeck Fells in the north, Saddleback
or Blencafhra (2,847 feet) in the east, and the j
bleak moorland tract of Skiddaw Forest in the I
centre. The mountain culminates in seven
peaks, of which the highest is 3,054 feet above
the level of the sea and commands a grand view
of the Lake District.

SkiltlixiBir, n bird belonging to, the genus
fthynchops, of the Cull family, with two species
iTom the Old World and one from the New.
*Ibe bill is long and thin, and, the lower man-
dible being the longer, the upper serves to
acoop up small fishes as the birda skim a^oug
ti» iumce of the mitt It is fiom tkis actteu


Sldba* The skin consists of a vascular layer
called the oorium, or true skin, and of the epi<*
dermis. The corium presents innumerable
raised conical elevations, known as papillae,
which contain the various nerve terminations
concerned with the sense of touch. The skin
also contains glands, and these are of two kinds :
the sudoriferous or sweat glands, and the seba-
ceous glands. The skin is, moreover, beset with
hair follicles, which attain a remarkable dever
lopment in certain parts, more particularly in
the hairy scalp, and it is in connection With
hairs that the sebaceous glands for the most
part occur. In certain parts the structure of
the skin is modified, notably so in the nails of
the fingers and toes. The skin serves to protect
internal parts from injury ; it is the organ that
is concerned with tactile sensation, and is,
moreover, an excretory organ. The skin un-
doubtedly possesses the power of absorbing
substances which are rubbed into it; and the
action of certain drugs upon the system is
brought about sometimes by the method of in-
unction. There has been some difference of
opinion as to the extent to which liquids
brought in contact with the body are absorbed
by the skin; such absorption probably occurs,
though it is much less marked in man than in
some of the lower animals. Finally it may be
noted that the skin plays an important part in
the regulation of the temperature of the body.

Skin, CONSIDEKED AS A B ACE-TEST. Though
the most patent and most striking of all the
physical criteria of races, the colour of the
numan skin is admitted by most ethnologists to
be one of the least trustworthy of racial tests.
The great sub-divisions of the human family —
divisions which are indubitably proved by such
unfailing tests as cranial measurements, by the
microscopic examination of the sections of nair,
by arm-reach and so on to form themselves into



• T>tEW*NTWATK» AUD SKIDDAW FROM ASHSESa BUIDQI,

{Photo: Abrjham, Kemisik.)


a smallet family, ot tepxeseutative tace mau-

klud— axkibit vety ottau tint txitetsxH ni Gcilout-

Tlake, Iw ymtvBM,



diTision o| mankind, often ertoneonsly termed
Aryan (a word which has a philological not an
ethnological value), includes such aiverse races
as the Swedes and Danes, with their flaxen hair
and blue eyes, the dark peoples of the Pyrenees
and Andalusia, the dazzlfngly white-skinned Cir-
cassians and the Kabyle Berbers of Northern
Africa, who are often a chocolate-brown. Thus
the colour of the skin must be regarded as
a very unsatisfactory race-test by any but
the most superficial observers. Physiology
teaches us that the colour is a consequence of
climate and even diet. The pigment or colour-
ing matter in a rudimentary state is common
to all races. It lies under the epidermis or
rather under the second or Malpighian skin,
and its development is encouraged by certain
physiological conditions superinducea by cli-
matic and other surroundings. The fairest
North German, given the right environment,
would have descendants who in a few genera-
tions might be of a Negro black. The anthro-
pologist, Theodor Waitz, has laboured to prove
that colour is not due to sunshine alone, but
to heat combined with moisture and an excess
of vegetable food, producing in the body by
natural chemistry more caAon than can be
assimilated. In support of this he gives
examples to show ''that hot and damp countries
favour the darkening of the skin, and that the
same race inclines to be darker in low marshy
districts than on uplands or in mountainous
districts.” Lepsius, the Egyptologist, declares
that the more tropical the climate the blacker
the skin, and he acutely demonstrates that if the
line of equatorial heat is followed from Africa
into Asia, it is around it in the latter Continent
that the darkest of the Eastern races are met
with. To this general theory exceptions can
be found, but usually peculiar local circum-
stances are discoverable which throw light on
what would seem otherwise to constitute a
broach of the law. Thus G. A. Schweinfurth,
in his book TKe. Heart of Africa, ingeniously
explains the reddish hue of the Bongos and
others of the tribes dwelling in the hot, moist
White Nile districts as due to the soil of that
neighbourhood being loaded with iron. A
striding corroboration of the theory is furnished
by the Ne w W orld . There in the vast stretch of
land from the Arctic to the Antarctic Seas we
have a continent inhabited by a race to which
the best Authorities to-day are inclined to assign
a place as a specific homogeneous division of
mankind, and yet showing every variation of
colour from the sallow Eskimo and the dirty
buf of the Chukchi to the almost European
tint of the I’atagonians, while between the two
on the Equatorial line we have the really dark
American Indian races, the still savage peoples
of Brazil and the Amazon valley. But the tint
of the skin is influenced by the thickness of the
latter as well as by climate. Thus all Negroes
have the sole of the foot and the palpi of the
hands less dark than the rest of the body. The
variations in the cutaneous colouration depend
the nfl®|b«r of pigmentarv cells contained in


a given spaoe. Thus the bolonr on the lateral
face of a Negro’s fingers, iiotwithetanding the
delicacy of the epidermis in that part, is nearly
as light as on the palms of the hands, because
in these portions of the finger the pigmentary
cells are rarer than nearly anywhere else. In
the coloured races the back of the body is always
darkest. Numerous observations go to show
that the skins of coloured races are always of
a lighter tint in the newly-born than in the
adult. The tint of the newly-born Negro baby
is not white, as has been sometimes said, but
a greyish-red, a blacker ring being noticeable
around the navel and a darker tint on the
generative organs. From the eighth day, soihe^
times as early as the third, the whole body
colour has usually become as dark as in the
adults. Sunlight does not appear to have any
influence on the production of this phenomenon*
for in many savage tribes the newly-born
infant is kept in his mother’s hut for some
weeks after birth. Some scientific authorities
believe it to be very closely connected with the
respiratory functions, but it is undoubtedly
due ultimately to that mysterious force, hered-
ity. The effects of the air, i.e., the action of
the atmosphere, of heat and light, on the bare
portions of the skin vary much in different
races. It is among the races with mCderate
mgmentation, such as the brown races of
Europe and the yellow races of Asia, that the
effects are most noticeable. But if the colour
of the human skin can never be regarded by the
scientific inquirer as a trustworthy racial cri-
terion, it has long served as a very useful work-
a-day basis for dividing mankind into the three
or four fundamental types which are regarded
as representatives of the great family groups
of humanity. Thus we have the white or Cauoa-
sic race, the yellow or Mongolic race, the black
or Negro race, and lastly, if the natives of the
New World are to be regarded, as the latest
research seems to make necessary, as a separate
human family, the red or American race. The
first of these four predominate in Europe,
Africa north of the Sahara, in Persia, Arabia,
Palestine and Asia Minor. The second are
overwhelmingly typical of Asia and the Far
East. The third, the immense Negroi|| family^
has Africa to itself, south of the Sahata, inclh**
ding on that continent such variant types as
the forest dwarfs of Equatorial Africa, the
Bushmen, Hottentots and the Bantu negroes
of Cape Colony, and, outside the limits of
Africa, claiming kinsmen among the Andaman
Islanders, the aboriginal races of the Malay
Peninsula (the Semangs and the Sakais) and
the varied black races of the Eastern Archi-
pelago and of that portion of the South Sea
islands commonly termed Melanesia, New
Guinea, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, with
all their Papuan inhabitants, and probably the
now extinct Tasmanians. The fourth or
American race is conhned to the New . World,
and, though in the^ broadest anatomical anil
physical sense exhibiting: a specific unity,»
affords examples of every type''o£/Comple»Ani'>





( 280 )


varietj of stature and physical charac^teristics.
Thus the colour law is in no sense coterminous
with the geographical habitat of each human
family. Just as in Bolivia in South America
the coppery-hued Maropas« the brown-black
Aymaras, the yellowish Moxos, and the light-
complexioned duarayos live as neighbours, so
in tne South Seas the yellow-brown Malay was
for centuries the neighbour of the sooty-black
Tasmanian. As to the American race being
termed ^^red,” no greater error in ethnologicsu
nomenclature has ever gained popular currency.
It cannot be too emphatically stated that there
is no American aboriginal race which is red-
skinned, though the natural coppery cinnamon
hue of many of the North American tribes
emphasized by the tribal habits of daubing
their faces with red ochre afforded some excuse
for the ludicrous misnomer given them by the
first white settlers. No skin of any race oi man
has ever been met with meriting the epithet
red. As has been said, in the vast stretch of
North and South America, almost every tint
of the human skin is met with. On the Brazil
coast the fisher Indian tribes there, on coming
into the towns and meeting the Chinese sailors
who manned the ships trading with the
Braxilian ports, instantly claimed mem as kins^
men, and observers at the time declared that
the tint of the two races when side by side was
indistinguishable. Then there are the brown,
olive, and even black Charruns and wild Cali-
fornian tribes ; and elsewhere the cinnamon tint,
more or less intense, blends with a yellow or
black, giving respectively a hue comparable
to a bright copper, such as is exhibited by
certain races of South, West, and Central Africa.
The actual texture of the human skin is again
of little or no value as a racial test. The Negro,
who is admittedly the lowest type of humanity,
has in almost all cases a skin which travellers
agree in describing as velvety to the touch,
and this silkiness is practically unmatched in
any of the superior races. The Malay, who is
intellectually as far in advance of the Negro
as the European races are in advance of the
Eskimo, has a uniformly coarse skin. Such,
.vgain, is the case in the true Mongol, while
the American aborigines throttghout nearly the
whole of that continent have roughish skins.
The variations in Europe are endless ; but while
the Turkish, Georgian, Circassian and other
peoples of the Caucasus and Asia Minor are
renowned for the softness of their skins, none
of them approaches the Negro in this respect,
with whom it has long been acknowledged as
a physical characteristic. There is a great
difference in the degree to which the skins of
races tan or blacken from exposure to the sun.
Thus the darker European peoples brown uni-
formly to a tint almost resembling a mulatto
colour. In the blond races of Europe the sun
reddens the skin. Under the action of a tropical
sun the skin usually passes from a rosy white
to a brick-red or becomes covered with the red
spots known as freckles. Given favourable
oiroumstanoes, even Englishmen may attain^



under free exposure to tropical sunlight, a tint
which unless seen is scarcely credible. Br. J.
Beddoe, the greatest British authority on race-
colours, made observations in North Queensland,,
"a fairly healthy country for Europeans, where
the air is clear and dry and the sun is extremely
powerful, but exposure to it is not shunned aa
it is ill most hot countries.*’ There on the
ranches Dr. Beddoe saw Englishmen whose
faces, arms, and necks were burnt as dark e
colour as some of the lightest Gujarati Indians
of British India. Of course, the colour so ac-
quired is only temporary. It diminishes in
winter and disappears entirely on a return to
a temperate climate. The yellow races tan
various shades. For instance, in the case of the
Indo-Chinese and Malays, the skin becomes a
black-olive. The skin of the Chinese proper,
curiously enough, tends to become darker in
winter and paler in summer. Among the dark
peoples of the South Seas variations in the sun-
effect are very decided. Thus Melanesians from
Fiji and New Caledonia, naturally of a lightish
red or orange colour, were observed by Br.
Beddoe to burn almost a black of a tint darker
than the average Australian black-fellow.’*
The people of the New Hebrides are darker
than those of Eastern New Guinea and tho
neighbouring islands, yet they do not tan to-
the blackest hue as do the latter. Among cer-
tain peoples whose skin is naturally dark the
parts exposed to the air are often lighter than
the parts protected by clothes. This is said to-
be the case among the Fuegians and the Sand-
wich Islanders. The Fuegians take on a tint
which is a brick-brown or a sombre red. The
Gujarati lascars and the so-called Portuguese
of Goa assume from exposure a “burnt-in*'
tint which rivals the natural colour of the
darkest Papuans of New Guinea and the New
Hebrides. Thus it is seen that it is by no
means the darkest individuals or races which,
burn to the blackest hue by exposure.

Skink, a popular name for Scinevs qficinaliSf
an African lizard from six to eight inches long,
reddish-dun in colour, marked with transverse
dark bands. It likes warmth, frequenting the
little hillocks of fine light sand at the foot of
the hedges bordering cultivated lands. There
it may be seen basking in the rays of the burn-:
ing sun, chasing every now and then sucli
beetles as come within its range. It runs
quickly and, when threatened, buries itself
rapidly in the sand. Among the ancient
Greeks and Komans it had a bad time, since it
found favour in the eyes of their physicians,
who dried and powdered its flesh and prescribed
it for nearly every malady. It was not till
the 16th century that the superstitious belief in
its efficacy disappeared. The name is also used
for any member of the family Scincid®, in
some of which the limbs are rudimentary, and
in others altogether absent. They are
harmless and prey on worms and insects.

SMaaor. John, song-writer, was bom on,
October Jra, 1721, in the parish of Birse^





(281 )


ikoMiC


Aberdeemhire^ of which his father, John Skin-
ner, was schoolmaster. He graduated at Mari-
schal College, Aberdeen, and afterwards taught
in the parish schools of Kemnay and Mony-
musk, where he left Presbyterianism for the
Episcopal Church. He was ordained in 1742
and appointed minister of liongside, Aberdeen-
shire, where he officiated for sixty-four years.
In common with other Episcopal clergy he
suffered through the restrictions imposed after
1746. His church was destroyed, his house pil-
laged, and, in 1753, he was imprisoned for six
months for preaching to more than four per-
sc»n8. Besides the study of theology and eccle-
siastical history, his facility in verse-making
resulted in the production of many lyrics, some
of which attained a wide popularity. Skinner
regarded them merely as diversions, but Robert
Burns esteemed them highly, an opinion which
still prevails, holding the lively Tullochgorum,**
a protest against political extremes, "" the best
Scotch song ever Scotland saw.** His other
famous songs are "Phe Monymusk Christmas
Ba’ing,** “T^e Marquis of Huntly's Reel,”
** Lizzie Liberty/* “The Old Man *8 Song,’* and
“The Ewie wi* the Crookit Horn.” In 1746 he
wrote A Preservative against Presbytery and his
Ecclesiastical History of Scotland, published in
1788, deals with special fulness with the post-
Reformation period. His wife died in 1799.
In 1807 he resigned his charge and went to live
with his son, the Bishop of Aberdeen, in whose
house he died, twelve days later, on June 16th,

Skinner, John, Primus of Scotland, second
sou of the foregoing, was born at Longside,
Aberdeenshire, on May 17th, 1744, and as a
boy shared his father’s imprisonment in 1753.
Graduating at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in
1761, he became a private tutor, and when only
nineteen was ordained and placed in charge of
Ellon, at a stipend of d£25 a year. He succeeded
to the charge of the congregation in Longacre,
Aberdeen, in 1775, and further accommodation
being required, the two upper floors of his
du’ening were fitted up as a chapel to hold
five hundred people. Skinner was consecrated
as coadjutor to the Bishop of Aberdeen on
September 25th, 1782 ; was appointed bishop
of the diocese in 1787, and elected primus in
1788. On August 31st, 1784, he assisted in the
consecration of Samuel Seabury, first Bishop of
Connecticut. He took a leading part in the
removal of the penal laws, which was effected
by the passing of the Relief Act of 1792, and
on July 13th, 1816, he died, being buried in the
Spital Churchyard in Aberdeen.

endpton. a town of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, 9 miles N.W. of Keighley,
situated on a branch of the Aire. The princi-
pal buildings include the Perpendicular church
of Holy Trinity, the chancel screen of which
was transferred from Bolton Abbey in 1633,
the Mechanics* Institute and the Grammar
School, founded in 1548. The leading indus-
tries are the spinning of cotton and thread
apd the weaving of cotton and worsted, in


addition to limestone^uar^lli||; in the vicinity..
Skipton was the capital of the old district of
Craven and at the Conquest was granted to
William de Romille, who built the castle as
the seat of his barony. In the l4th century
it passed to the Cliffords, who have sinco
held it. Of the original stronghold the sole
relic is the western doorway to the inner
castle. Next to this the oldest extant portion
are the seven round towers, partly in the sides
and partly in the angles of the present spacious,
structure. It was besieged by the Round**;
heads during the Civil War and partially de-
molished ana dismantled in 1649. At a later
date it was restored and rendered habitable
by the Countess of Pembroke. The castle is
said to have been the birthplace of Fair Rosa-
mond, daughter of Walter de Clifford and mis-
tress of Henry II. Pop. (1901), 11,986,

Skirrat iSinm SUarmi)^ an umbelliferous plants
native to China, which has been cultivated in
England as a vegetable since 1548, but is now
little known. The roots, which form the edible
portion of the plant, are fasciculate tubercles,,
and are eaten, Doiled, with butter.

Skittles, a game of skill 'which was usually
played in alleys, most if not all of which have’
been esiablisiaed in public-houses and country
inns. This association has had a detrimental
effect on the character of the game, which has.
come to be regarded as vulgar, or as reserved;

I for the humbler classes. Henry Mayhew (1812-
1887), in his London Labour and London Poor,,
declared that costermongers considered them-
selves amongst the best players. Charles S.
Calverley’s contention that with some “life ia
all beer and skittles,’* goes to show that this-
pastime is placed on a high level by those
who follow it. The theory of the game is quite
simple. At one end of the alley nine large
pins of hard wood, having the appearance of
the projectiles used in big guns, are set up on.
end in rows of three, there being a consider-
able space between each pin, in a lozenge or
diamond shape, so that an angle and not a side
shall always be presented to the player. The
tkrower is armed with a great cheeseitifhaped
disc or “ball,” varying in weight from 7 te
14 pounds, which he causes to trundle down
the alley towards the pins, his object b^ing te
“floor” them in the smallest number of casts.
As it is possible to knock down all nine in one
blow, it will be seen that some scope for science
is presented by this apparently easy game..

Skobeleif, Michael Dimitaievztoh, Rnssian
general, was born near Moscow on September
29th, 1843, and was educated at Paris and the
Military Academy in St. Petersburg. At the
[ age of twenty he was engaged in repressing u
rising in Poland. In 1868 he was sept on the
! staff to Turkestan, and he led the van of
Lomakine*s army to Khokand in 1873, reducing
the province and becoming its governor in 187$
with the rank of major-general. On the ou|-.
break of the Busso-Turkish War he joined th$


( 282 )


■ Skf0*


fltaff of thM Orand Buke Kickolaa/ did
bnlliant sorvioe at Fleirna and Adriabopb. Itt
ke wafl oaoe nioro in Central Aeiai ca{»tiir*
ing 0eok Tepe (January 12tk, 1881) and play-
ing havoc with ike Xekk© Turcomans. Becalled
by the Tsar, lie took the ojmortunity during a
visit to Paris in January, 1®32, to make a vio-
lent Panslavist speech, threatening Germany
with war. He was summoned back to. St.
Petersburg, and five months later died sud-
denly al Moscow on June 26th, 1882.

Skiub. [Gull.]

Skull. The skull consists of twenty- two separate
bones* eight of these forming the cranium, and
the remainder enterixm into the constitution
of the face. Below and at the back part of the
skull is situated the occipital bone. In front
of this, and entering into the formation of the
basal part of the skull, are the sphenoid and
the ethmoid bones ; the lateral aspects of the
cranial vault are formed by the two parietal
hones, and in front of these are the two frontal
bones. The temporal bone of either side lies
below the parietm and in front of the occipital
bone, its anterior margin articulating with a
portion of the sphenoid bone. The fourteen
bones of the face consist of the pairs of nasal,
superior maxillary, lachrymal, palatine, in-
ferior turbinated, and malar bones, with the
single vomer and the inferior maxillary bone.
The bones of the cranial vault are closely



niFFCRKNT SBAPfS OF SKULLS.

A, of Autte&Uiin (prognothous). B, of Afrlooa (prognothoosu

0, of Bttrop«Hi.a <octliogiia.thou«). I), of Sotnoyedo (bvoohyoaphoUo;.

S. of Binr^pMlk (meMMMphfliUoL F, of K«gro idoUohooephaUo;,


tinitcd with one another, the intervening sutures
being markedly serrated. The suture which
separates the frontal from the parietal bones
is termed the coronal suture, while that which
intervenes between the two parietal bones is
called the sagittal suture. Various holes (fora-
mina) perforate the base of the skull, and allow
Cf the etit of the cranial nerves and the blood-
vessels. The largest of these is the foramen


magnum in the occipital bone, and through it
passes the m^ulla oblongata which oonuectii
the brain with the spin^ cord. The spaces
which remain unossifi^ at birth, in the middle
line Of the skull at the anterior and posterior
extremities of the sagittal suture, are called the
fontanelles; the anterior fontanelle is not com-
pletely closed by bony growth until the first
or second year after birth. The posterior fon-
tanelle is closed within a few months Of birth.
There are also two lateral fontanelles situated
at the anterior and lower angles of the parietal
bones; these, however, become completely ossi-
fied very shortly after birth. The skulls of
different racial types present distinct peculiari-
ties, which have been made to serve as a basis
of classification. The braohycephalio skull is
a skull whose breadth is great in proportion
to its length, and the dolichocephalic ^ull is
one in which the breadth is less considerable in
proportion to the length; the mesocephalio
skull occupies an intermediate position between
these two extremes.

Skrak, an animal belonging to the genus
Mephitis, of the Weasel family, with three
secies, ranging from Canada and British
Columbia to Guatemala. The general colora-
tion is black and white, in broad longitudinal
masses, the under surface being black, and
the tail is bushy and often held aloft. In these
animals the power of discharging the offensive
contents of the anal glands reaches
its highest development, and the secre-
tion is so foetid that its odour can bo
perceived at a considerable distance,
and often causes nausea, and clothes
soiled with it can only be cleansed
after repeated washings or hanging
in smoke. The creature is able to
eject the liquid with unerring aim
to a distance of 12 or 14 feet. The
secretion is said to cause inflammation
of the eyes and, per contra, to relieve
the distress of asthma. The Skunk’s
bite has, it is stated, been known to
produce hydrophobia. Skunks are
nocturnal animals, living on-- the
ground or in burrows, and feeding on
small mammals, birds, reptiles, in-
sects, worms, roots, and berries.

Sklipsbtiiia,the name of the Nation-
al Assembly (Narodna Skupshtina) of
Servia and Montenegro.

Skye. Isle of, the largest of tho
Inner Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scot-
land, bounded on the N. by the
North Minch, on the E. by the Sound of
Raasay, Inner Sound, Loch Alsh, and the
Sound of Sleat, on the S. by Cuillin Sound* and
on the W. by the Little Jlinoli. It covers an
area of 643 square miles, is 48 miles long and
from 3 to 26 miles broad,i its coast being in*
dented to a remarkable extent by Lochs $ni-
zoxt, Bunvegan, Braoadale, Scavaig, Slaplii*
Eishort, Broadlord, Sligaohan and StaMn. The



( 283 )


mMrnm.


surface is mountainous^ amongst the principal
masses being the Cuchullin Hills-^the most
finely-markea group of peaks, the highest of
whicn is 3,234 feet above the sea, in the United
Kingdom, — the Storr (2,360 feet), and Quiraing



SKUNK

(U^Uis mtpHHca).


(1,779 feet). The streams are little more than
mountain burns, torrential in spate. Loch
Coruisk is the largest of the freshwater lakes,
and is a perfect picture of absolute solitude.
The climate is wet and the soil poor, but
the crofters manage to eke out a precarious
existence by cultivating patches of potatoes,
turnips and oats. On the uplands black cattle



SKETCH-MAP OF SKYE.


and sheep are raised in considerable numbers,
lijough riie island has always been a favourite
held of study to the geoloist, its mineral re-
sources are economically of little value. The
importance of the fisheries was enhanced when
the railways on the mainland were extended at
one point to l^lc of Loch Alsh and at another
to Mallaig. whisky is distilled in several
plaees, the brand made at Talisker being one
of the most noted in the Highlands and, like
Glenlivek being almost a synonym for whisky
itself. Skye is a noted resort for tourists,
ovdng to the extraordinary grandeur and
tomantic picturesqueness of its mountain and
eoastal scenery. The greatest of the Skye chief-
tains is The Macleod, whose fastness at Dun-


vegan is one of the fi.nest oml^ on the west
coast of Scotland. The most famous assooia*
tions of the island are those connected with
the adventures of Prince Charlie after the
disaster at Culloden. He was in hiding in several
places in the island, including Kingsburgh,
where Flora Macdonald,, his heroic protectress,
was visited by Dr. Johnson in 1773, and where
she died oh March 5th, 1790. The capital, Por-
tree (2,781), that is, the harbour of the King,
or Port Royal — so named in honour of James
V.'s visit in 1640 — is prettily situated on ||
small bay on the east coast. Pop. (1901),
13,883.

Sicye Terrier, a variety of the Scottish terrier,
the origin of which is unknown. In this breed
the body is very long, the limbs are short, and
the coat, which should be quite straight, is so
long as almost to touch the ground when the
animal walks. The colour is usually slate or
fawn. These dogs, which are kept as pets,
require a great deal of attention, or the long
coat will soon become anything but an orna-
ment.

Slade, Felix, antiquary, younger son of Robert
Slade, deputy-lieutenant for Surrey, was born
in Lambeth, London, in August, 1790. On the
death of his elder brother, in 1858, the prp-
perty of his maternal grandfather, Edward
Foxcroft, of Halsteads, Yorkshire, came into
his possession. He died, unmarried, on March
29th, 1868. Slade was an enthusiastic collector
of books, bindings, engravings, manuscripts,
Japanese carvings and pottery. The most im-
portant of his collections wns that of ancient
and modern glass^ which he bequeathed to the
British Museum. He left «fi36,000 for the en-
dowment of professorships for promoting the
study of the Fine Arts at the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge and at University Col-
lege, London. A further sum was left to pro-
vide six art scholarships of .£60 each |i^r annum,
to be awarded to students under nineteen in
the last-named institution for proficiency. To
further Slade's intentions his executors spent
an additional .£5,000 upon the erection of a
Suitable building, the Slade School of Fin©
Art in University College. The first Slade Pro-
fessor at Oxford was Ruskin; in London, Sir
Edward Poynter, P.R.A,

Slag. In the smelting of a metal a fiux is
usually added to the ores, which combines with
the silicious and earthy impurities of the ores
to form a fusible substance, which float© above
the metal and can be tapped ofi or withdraUm,
and wnioh is known as slag. The sl^s vary
in composition, according to the nature of the
ores axijd flux. They are usually mixtures of
silicates of lime, soda, potash, iron> etc., and
are generally vitreous compounds closely re-
sembling many of the lavas and volcanic rocks.

Slaiidair is a false and malicious statement
concerning anyone made by word of mouth.^ It
gives rise to a right of action for damages If it
impntei the comniission of a crime for Which a



'iUiiittif*


(284)


mKwwtj*


corpor«d puuislizaent may ba inflicted^ at tke
having some contagious disorder wMoh may
exclude the person in question from society, or
if it has reference to his trade, office, or pro-
fession, and is calculated to injure him in such,
or if it has caused him special damage.

Slug, used generally to denote a method of
speaking in which either artificial words are
used to denote ordinary objects, or in which
words are , employed in other than their ordin-
ary senses, under the former of these heads
may be included the patter of gipsies and
vagrants, thieves' Latin, and the cant, as it
is called, by which many try to conceal their
meaning from the uninitiated. The true Gipsy,
i,e.» Romany, is not slang, but a distinct
Bastern dialect, though it is much corrupted,
and many slang words have been introduced
into Romany, while many Romany words have
been introduced into slang. Many slang words,
l^ain, are Old English, or Norse, or Celtic.
The word is said to mean, by derivation, secret
language. Every class of society has its slang
in tne second sense of the word-~that is, uses
in speech, either from affectation, or with a
deliberate intention to produce ah effect ludi-
crous or otherwise, a language that it would
not use in oratory or in serious writing. Slang
is often merely metaphor; for instance, when
a Winchester boy speaks of “Moab" for the
washing-place, he is using a metaphor arising
from a mistaken conception of a Scriptural
expression. Slang dictionaries have been com-
piled, and are of interest to the student and
general reader. It will, of course, be under-
stood that colloquialisms, such as “jolly” and
“governor” are not slang at all in the strict
sense of the word.

81at6| a cleaved, compact, argillaceous rock,
which has been to some extent metamorphosed,
and is obtained generally from the older geo-
logical formations. The rock splits indefinitely
in a direction which is generally uniform over
a wide area, inclined at a high angle to the
horizon, and altogether independent of the
nearly obliterated original bedding of the rock.
Under the microscope the component particles
of the rock are seen not only to be rearranged
with their long axes all in one direction,
but also to bo to some extent compressed,
thus giving the ** grain” to ^he rock. Slate
differs in colour, being sometimes black, ferru-
ginous, silvery, or green, but more often of a
purplish-grey. It often contains scales of mica,
minute crystals of garnet, or larger spots of
chlorite, andalusite, kyanite, staurolite, or
other minerals. The black slates may contain
a considerable proportion of organic matter.
T^ose containing garnets or other hard varie-
ties are used as oilstones; but the chief use
of Ihe material is for roofing, for which the
Bcngor and other North Wales slates and those
fiom the Highland quarries at Ballaohnlish are
the bast in Great Britain. Several thousand
tons ore quarried annually, and over fifty.
mRlion slates by tale are exported from the


United Kingdom, chiefly to different countries
of Europe. Large numbers of small slates are
employed for writing purposes in schools*
though, for obvious sanitary reasons, their use
for this purpose is steadily discouraged by
medical officers of public health and is on the
decline.

Sla^hterhouses are places set apart by
municipal or other authority for the killing of
cattle and other animals, with a view to avoid-
ing the insanitary effects of having animals
killed in all sorts of holes and corners amid
human habitations, and to maintaining u
belter opportunity of inspecting the condition
and quality of meat offered for consumption.
Napoleon in 1810 established abattoirs at Paris,
ana Edinburgh followed the example in 1851,
tc be followed by London, which established a
slaughterhouse at Islington in 1865. At the
present time there ai'e few towns of any pre-
tension which do not possess these institu-
tions. As a good example of them are the
lairages at Liverpool, where a cargo of beasts
is quickly slaughtered, and the carcases hung
up in well-arranged and ventilated coolingr
sheds. The foreign cattle market at Deptford
is another example. The principal regulations
for building and carrying on slaughterhouses
are in the direction of cleanliness, health, and
scientific operation.

Slavery, property of man in men, absolute
and compete, prevailed from the remotest
period of which we have any record. Tho
condition arose usually Out of conquest, sale,
and kidnapping, while, in a generation, tho
slave state became hereditary — children bofn
in slavery continued in slavery. Some pub-
licists have ventured to contend that, from
a political standpoint, the custom had its
merits. For example, they urge that it com-
elled the slaves to acquire habits of industry,
uch specious pleading is, at the very best,
merely an attempt to be wise after the event.
For it is perfectly certain that such considera-
tions were entirely absent from the minds of
those barbarous and semi-barbarous peoples who
first made their fellow-creatures their chattels.
Not a single nation of antiquity was free
from the imputation of actively approving
slavery, and a like melancholy statement is
true of the Christian era up till a compara-
tively recent date. The number of slaves in old
Greece can only be conjectured, but it seems
to have been at one time considerably more
than one million. They were employed in field
labour, workshops, domestic services, and on
occasion in positions of trust and responsibUitv.
A slave might purchase his freedom, or he
might be liberated by his owner. Ihe helots of
Sparta were slaves actually, but enjoyed the
status of serfdom. They were domestic serv-
ants, or farm labourers resident on their land
and paying to their proprietors fixed dues.
Their lot, however, was never enviable, as
they were liable to be massacred — “to be
spitted and speared, “ Thomas Carlyle calls



( 285 )






It — whenever they threatened to grow too
numerous. In ancient Rome the proportion cf
alaves has been estimated as that of three to
one freeman, which gave in the first Christian
century the appalling figure of nearly 21 mil«
lion slaves. The only wonder is that servile
wars were not more frequent. There were two
formidable insurrections iu Sicily in the latter
half of the second century b.c. and about 73
B.c. Spartacus led, with conspicuous courage,
a revolt in Southern Italy. The advent of
Christianity, though it did not abolish slavery,
ameliorated the condition of the slaves in many
appreciable ways, especially by the introduc-
tion of the status of serfdom, in which while
ho was not free the serf was allowed some
interest in the land he cultivated and some
time in which he might work for himself.
Thus insensibly he acquired a condition slightly
superior to slavery and the seeds of hope ana
self-respect were sown in his' breast. With
the decay of feudalism the condition gradually
came to an end, in Great Britain in the middle
of the 17th century, and in several of the
European Powers at various dates in the
18th (Prussia, 1702; Denmark, 1766; Germany,
1781)J but it was not till March 3rd, 1861, that
Alexander II., Tsar of Russia, proclaimed the
emancipation of the serf. Still though serf-
dom slowly disappeared in Europe, the traffic
in slaves flourished, and slavery itself was
enforced by several European states. Negroes
began to be conveyed from Africa to the New
W'orld, Portugal being foremost in encourag-
ing colonial slavery, ^e treatment by Spam
of the Indians of Mexico, Peru and other
American countries is yet an abomination to
read of. Nor are the hands of Great Britain
clean in this degrading and disgraceful traffic.
Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) and other gallant
sailors thought it no sin to exchange the black
Plan for gold dust, for it was only when their
cupidity nad been excited that they indulged
in the trade. Slavery in the United States is
held to date from 1620, when a Dutch ship
conveyed a cargo of negroes from Guinea to
Virginia and sold them to the tobacco-planters.
Within a few y^ars the horrors of the “middle
passage ” were an accepted fact of history, and
the miserable negro came to regard death as
his first and best friend. It has been reckoned
that up till the end of the 18th century over
70,000 slaves were despatched every year to the
United States by the British, French, Portu-
guese, Dutch and Danes, and that more than
,half of the infamous traffic was in the hands
.of Great Britain, which, till not long before
,the American War of Independence, had also
deported British and other offenders to work
on the New England plantatifns. Meanwhile
public opinion nad been gradually educated
on the subject of slavery, thanks especially
to the sustained and unselfish efforts of the
Quakers, who followed the lead of George Fox
(1671). In the next century Granville Sharp
was instrumental in procuring, through his
protection of the runaway negro Somersett, the


famous declaration that the ii|b|nent a slave set
foot on British soil he was *we (1772^ The
agitation was zealously fomented by Thomas
Clarkson, William Wilberforce, Josiah Wedg-
wood, Zachary Macaulsy and other noble men
and women, and in 1807 an Act was passed
forbidding any vessel from sailing for alaves
from any British port and the landing of any
slaves in British Colonies after March Ist,
1808. These Acts being systematically violated,
other legislation ensued, and finally on August
281h, 1833, an Act was passed abolishing
slavery throughout the British Colonies aha
granting a sum of X20, 000,000 \n way of com-
pensation to the planters. To Denmark, how-
ever, belongs the honour of setting the example
of abolition, for in 1792 a royal order was
issued stipulating that slavery must cease iu
Danish possessions from the end of 1802.
(Austria had formally abolished it in 1782,
but this was, though just and creditable, an
academic proceeding, since she had never been
engaged in the trade.) The United States
prohibited importation in 1808, the Swedish
trade ended in 1813, the Dutch in 1814, and the
Vienna Congress denounced it in 1815. The
French interdict came into force in 1819, the
Portuguese in 1836, the Egyptian in 1881, the
Cuban in 1886, and the Brazilian in 1888.
Though the United States had forbidden the
trade in slaves in 1808, the “institution,*’ as
it was euphemistically styled, still remained in
full swing. Nevertheless, there were many
signs that public opinion wished to end the
system at once, and Abolitionists promoted an
agitation against it« Certain States which
would not give up domestic slavery came to be
known as Slave States, namely, Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis-
sippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri,
Kentucky and Tennessee. The publication of
Unde TorrCs Cabin (1652) greatly inflamed pub-
lic opinion, the Dred Scott decision of 1857, in
which a majority of judges held that a slave
captured in a free State must forfeit his
liberty, still further aggravated it, and the
execution of John Brown, who attempted to
promote a slave rebellion, in 1859 brought
matters almost to a crisis, Abraham Liuc^n,
the Anti-Slavery candidate, had hardly bicn
elected President in November, 1860, when
South Carolina seceded from the Union in the
following month and civil war was inevit-
able. During the strife slavery was officially
abolished in the United States on December
16th, 1862, and complete equality between the
white and black races was recognised in 1870,
although in some towns the Civic relations be-
tween black and white constituted for a time
a menace to wsocial order. Thus in all civilised
states excepting Turkey, which has always lagged
behind civilisation, slavery and the slave trade
have ceased, and it is only in the wilds of Africa
and Asia and in some out-of-the-way Pacific isle
where man's inhumanity to man, in this form
at all events, makes matikind mourn,




c 286 )




» — -

filllr XiftllfftUiffMI. a lafg« gvoQp of j^xiguiif es
wliicli oolleciiT«ly form a main braniidli of^e
Arwm linguistic family^ intermediate tietween
tile Lithuanian and Teutonic hranchee, hut
much more closely related to the former than
to the latter. No trace remains of the primi-
tive Slav ton^e, whence the membere of the
group have mvergod, and the oldest known
Form dates only from a.d. 800, when it was
reduced to writing by Cyril and Methodius,
apostles of the Slav peoples. Their version of
the Bible^ one MS. of which is dated 10S6, gives
this idiom a certain pre-eminence as the fitur-
gioal language of the Slav Christians; but it
IS not the Slav mother-tongue^ any more than
the Oothic of Ulfilas is the mother-tongne of
existing Teutonic languages. It is even un-
certain in what region of the Slav world this
particular dialect Was current, although by
most authorities it is localised in Bu%aria,
and even called **01d Bulgarian’’ in contra-
distinction to the extremely corrupt ‘‘Modern
Bulgarian ” now spoken in that district. The
other Chief members of the family are Great
and Little Eussian, Serbo-Croatian, Ceech,
Polish, and Wendish (Lusatian), whose domain
and numbers coincide with those of the respec-
tive Slav nations as tabulated in the article on
the Slav Eaoe (q.v.). In fact, the table there
given is based far more on linguistic than on
othnioal oonsideraiions, as must always be the
case in classifications of mixed peoples. In
general the Slav languages, always excepting
Modern Bulgarian, are more conservative,
that is^ preserve more of the primitive Aryan
formative elements than do their Teutonic,
Celtic, and Italic congeners, but in this respect
stand on a much lowcf^ level than Lithuanian.
Thus the Slav declension is still highly syn-
thetic, retaining many of the old case ending^
which have disappeared from the modern Ger-
manic and Neo-Latin tongues. All three gen-
ders persist, as do also very full dual forms
of the noun, pronoun, and verb, while the
verb itself presents a rich array of personal
endings, mc^s, participles, and tenses, some
organic, some later developments, like the
Eomanoe future. The Slavonic languages are
written with three different alphabets — ^the
Cyrillic, adapted from the Greek with numerous
additions by Cyril and Methodius, and gener-
ally retained by the Orthodox Slavs with some
slight modifications; the Glagolitic, of un-
known origin, confined to the Southern Slavs,
and now little used ; the Boman, in use amongst
all the Uniates (Catholics), with numerous £a-
critical marks and uncouth combinations to
express sounds peculiar to the several idioms,
llie efforts made to reform these somewhat
rude graphic systems have hitherto been at-
tended with little success

[CUOATXA.]

A a mam division of the Aryan

family, occupying nearly the whole of j^st
and a lazge part of South-East and Central
Europe, with two chief branches, six sub-


branches, and several minor groups, as showki
in the subjoined table:—*


Bastvro And South-
eastern Slavs
85,200,000


Western Slavs
20,430.000


( Russians


Serbs
8,500.000

Casechs


Great Ruariana
73 ooa OQC ^ Little Russians.

78.000. 000 1 Ruaaiaag

Btilgarlans, 8,700,000.

"" /Servians, Bosniaiui,
Croatians.
Balmatiana.

I Montenegiiiia. ,
i Slovenes
r Bohemians

7.000. 000
Poles, 1&800,000.

Wends (Lusatians), 180,000.


The Great Eussians form the bulk of the popu-
lation both in European and in Asiatic Enssia,
to which latter region they have spread in
recent times; the Little Eussians are confined
to South-West Eussia (ITkrania) and parts of
Austria-Hungary, where they are known as
Euthenians; the White Eussians are concen-
trated chiefly in the western provinces of Eussia
proper about the frontiers of roland. The Bul-
garians — originally Ugro-Finns, but assimilated
to the Slavs in speech, and partly in type, since
the 11th century— occupy the' whole of Bul-
garia and a large part of Eumelia, and have
numerous settlements both in Servia and South-
West Eussia. The Serbs, with their numerous
sub-groups, are the dominant people in all the
north-western parts of the Balkan peninsula
and conterminous provinces of Austria-Hun-
gary. The Czech or Chekh domain comprises
over half of Bohemia, the whole of Moravia,
and parts of Hungary, especially in the north-
west. Since the oismemberment of Poland the
Poles are distributed between Eussia (Poland
proper), Austria (Galicia)^ and Prussia (Posen).
The Wends or Sorbs are a remnant of the ex-
tinct Polabish Slavs of the Elbe basin, still
surviving in Saxon and Prussian Lusatia.
Slav, the present collective name of the family,
is referred either to the word Slava C* glory *T,
or more probaoly to Slovo (“word,” “speech ’T,
as indicating a people of distinct or intelligible
utterance. Later it became a term of contempt
(esclave, schiavo, slave) amongst the western
peoples, owing to the large number of Slav
prisoners enslaved during the long struggle for
ascendency between the Slavs and Teutons in
Central l^rope. The older collective names,
Spor and Antes, both first mentioned by Pro-
copius (6th century), are probably to be identi-
fied with the Surpe of Alfred [Serb], and the
Eneti, Heneti, Veneti, a Sarmatian^ people of
Cisalpine Gaul, whose name survives in the
modern Venetia, Tenice. The still earlier rela-
tions of the Slavs to the Scythians and Sarma-
tians of the Greek and Eoman writers involve
obscure ethnical problems which cannot here be
discussed. It is no longer possible to determine
the original seat of the Slav people ; but, from
whatever centre the dispersion took place, it
w certain that during their migrations they
have become largely intermingled with Finns,
Tatars, Teutons, Celts, Thraco-Hlyrians, and
many other races, so th4t it is no longer




( 287 )




to ot a pure Slat^ physical type,
Ih© primitive stock was probably blonde (blue
or grey eyes and light hair) like the 1!butonio;
but at present the most marked general future
is braonycephaly (round head), showing b pro-
found divergence from the primitive dolicho-
cephaly (long-shaped head) of the Aryan people,
and a corresponding approach to the bracmy-
cephalic Mongol type. Other distinguishing
features everywhere cropping out in the various
groups are a somewhat swarthy complexion,
short, straight, or slightly concave nose, small
deep-set eyes, straight or wavy dark-brown
hair, full beard and medium stature, although
the Bosnian Serbs are amongst the tallest
people in Europe. In general, the fair type
may be said to prevail amongst the Poles,
Wends, Great and White Bussians, the brown
amongst the Serbs and little Bussians, while
the Czechs present an almost equal mixture of
both. In the moral order the Slavs seem to
hold a somewhat intermediate position be-
tween the Teutonic and Latin peoples: far less
, phlegmatic than the Germans, while nearly as
^ick and vivacious os the Italians and French.
Hence the remark often made that the Slavs
arc southerners who have strayed eastwards;
hence also perhaps the more than passing sym-
pathy entertained by the Bussians for the
Frbhch despite wars and political rivalries.
Within the several branches the national senti-
ment is strongly developed, as shown especially
by the historic records of the Czechs, Poles,
and Serbs. But the idea of a Pan-Slav empire
is visionary because of the deep-rooted religious
and political antagonisms, strengthened ^ lin-
guistic differences, as between Boman Catho-
UQ Poles and Czechs and Orthodox Bussians,
or between Buthenian Gniates and Bosnian
Mohammedans, all doubtless of Slav speech,'
but speaking mutually unintelligible dialects
of the primitive Slavonic language.

8l0Op, iu animals, is a normal condition of the
body, recurring at more or less regular inter-
vals, in which there is functional inactivity of
the brain and spinal column and consequently
of the nervous system generally. Sleep in
plants is the assumption by leaves, especially
the leaflets of compound leaves, of the noc-
turnal position, which is generally a folding
in a vertical plane, under the influence of dark-
ness or excessive illumination. The movements
exhibited ere identical with those induced in
some bf the cases, such as the sensitive plant,
by contact, and with those which occur spon-
taneously, in spite of the inhibitory action of
light, in others, such as the telegraph plant.
S&ep movements only occur between 15® and
60® C. Prolonged dartness destroys the power ;
but for a time the leaves of the sensitive plant,
in the dark, exhibit spontaneous alternating
movement, like those of the telegraph plant.
Sudden variations in the intensity of light in-
duce "sleep.*' Tlie mechanism of the move-
ments consists, as in the sensitive plant, in the
aptlon of the pulvini.


SlMoiaf ' SiBltivaK.' A&ja of iibo'

slave trade a mysterious disease, known as
the Sleeping Sickness, was familiar to the
slave traders and to the slave owners on
the plantations. It wan notorious that during
the passage across the Atlantic the negroes
perished in large numbers, a proportion of
them from this peculiar negro disease. It was
also known that for several years after the
negroes were landed and had been at work
some of them might sicken and die from the
same cause, although their companions, the
negroes born on the plantations, were com-
pletely immune from the Sleeping Sickness.
It was noted that in most of the negroes who
subsequently succumbed to this disease, even
before the on-coming of the more character^
istio symptoms, the glands of the neck were
enlarged — not, as a rule, to a great degree*
but sufficiently to render them easily palpable.
In certain districts in Africa the natives under-
stood the signiflcance of these enlarged glands,
which they often excised with the idea of pre-
venting what they knew would otherwise be
inevitable, and the slave dealers would reject
all such slaves* for they, too, knew that tb
take them would be to lose them later from
Sleeping Sickness. Since the beginpiug of the
19th century accounts of the disease by medi-
cal writers had appeared from time to time,,
and its symptoms and epidemiology were morfe
or less accurately described. It was regarded
as a disease of the nervous system, peculiar to
West Tropical Africa, and a variety of unsub-
stantiated s^culations were indulged in as to
its cause. The more accurate study of Sleep-
ing Sickness dates from the opening of the
Congo basin, and more especially from the ap-
pearance of the disease in Uganda about the
beginning of the 20tli century and the recog-
nition of its cause in a minute organism —
Tri/panoeoma gambiense — in 1902. Practically
nothing is known of the history of Sleeping
Sickness in Africa prior to the beginning of
the 19th century. It is quite possible that in
the remote past it has swept many times over
the tropical parts of the continent as it is
doing at the present day. However that may
have been, when in modern times Europeans
first ffot in touch with Tropical Africa, ole^
ing Sekness appears to have been confined to
limited districts on the west coast apd th©
immediate hinterland. Soon, however, after
the advent of the European in the Congo
basin, and the consequent increased movement
and travel on the part of the native popula-
tion, it was remarked that the Sleeping Sick-
ness, which hitherto had been confined to th©
lower part, had begun to spread to the upper
reaches of the great river and its a^uents.
Villages were becoming depopulated, and an
immense mortality was in progress. Several
European missionaries and officials who had
visits the afiected districts wer A attacked and
succumbed to the disease* showing that th©
disease was not peculiar to the pegfo as at
one time had been supposed. Finally, towards




( m )




ihe end of tlie 19tli or tho beginaliiir of the
20th century, Sleeping Sickneee n|^ared in
the Kile basin, on the shores of Yictoria
^yanza, and has already claimed as Yictims
200;p00 of the 300,000 inhabitants of the
affected districts. It has also spread down the
24file Talley, and has appeared on Lake Tan-
jfanyika as well as on the upper waters of the
Xiualaba, threatening to invade the Zambesi
basin. To say the least of it, the situation
for AMna and those 'interested in Africa is a
•grave one. This will be readily comprehended
when the deadly nature of the disease is con-
sidered, the persistency Ivith which it clings to
an in'hbded village or district, the number of
people it attacks, and its indifference to age and
sex. To the lay observer, the first indications
of Sleeping Sickness are gradually, though in-


no. l.—BOY DYISO OF BLEEPING SICKNESS.


termittingly increasing lassitude, together with
^casional headache and feverishness; and,
it may bo, a tendency to fall asleep at un-
usual times. This sleep is not of a profound
character, nor is it alwa3n3 a pronounced
symptom. The word “lethargy*’ is perhaps a
more correct term for the condition. At first
the stricken negro may try to do his work,
but he is easily tired, and prefers to dawdle
over it, or to lie about hia hut, or to bask
in the sun. When he walks he ^ufiles along
slowly or even staggers like a man newly
aroused from sleep. His face wears a morose
and taciturn expression, the upper eyelids half
closed, the lower lip drooping, and the saliva
perhaps dribbling from the corners of his
mouth. There may be tremor of the hands
and toiighe, speech is slow, and conversa**
tion is not sou^^t for. Although occasionally
there is some mental aberration, anything in
the nature of insanity is unusual. In the negro
there is often intense itching, especially of
the skin of the chest; and in the white-skinned
European great patches of a p^uliar red con-
gestion! often in the form of rings, may show




themselves on the skin of the trunk, face, And
limbs. Sometimes the features and limited
areas of the body are slightljr puffy and
swollen. In both negro and white man the
lymphatic glands, especially of the neck, are
enlarged and occasionally tender. The con-
dition of the patient may once or oftener
undergo temporary improvement, but sooner
or later the lethargy deepens into complete
indifference or prostration, the body wastes,
various nervous symptoms, such as local or
cneral convulsions or jparalysiB, may set in,
ed sores form, hyperpyrexia, diarrhoea, dysen-
tery, pneumonia, or other intercurrent diseases
may supervene and rapidly carry off the wasted,
half-starved wretch (Fig. 1). There is great
variety in the grouping of the symptoms of
Sleeping Sickness and in the superimposed
morbid Conditions, but the essen-
tial symptoms, namely, irregularly
progressive mental and physical
lethargy, irregular fever, enlai|||
ment of the lymjphatic glands, otB
the occurrence of a peculiar micro-
organism — to be presently alluded to
—in the blood and lymphatics, are
present in all cases. The disease
may run its course in a few wee^pr
moi^s; its average duration il||Be
negft may be about three mcuRs,
dating the illness from the oncoming
of iparked symptoms of lethargy.
Som^^cases drag on for, it is said,
as long as three years. Dating the
disease from the presumed time of
infection, it is believed that it may
last for upwards of seven years; the
negroes say that a man is not safe
until seven years have elapsed from
the time he has visited a Sleeping
Sickness district. Manifestly, Sleeping
Sickness is a disease affecting the
nervous system, but an ordinary post-mortem
examination affords no explanation of the
symptoms during life. There is no gross lesion
that can be s^d to be invariab^ present.
Usually indications, more or less distinct, of
inflammation of the coverings of the brain are
to be made out; but these are not generally
very marked, and not infrequently they are
not apparent to the naked eye. But a micro-
scopical examination reveals, both in the cover-
ings and in the substance of ^he brain, a very
definite and extensive infiltration with small
mononuclear cells of the lymphatic tissue
surrouuding the blood vessels, a condition
which is undoubtedly at the root of the pecu-
liar symptoms present during life, and which is
only a part of a general chronic inflammation
or irritation of Ihe lymphatic system as #
whole. The cause of Sleeping Sickness has
been a subject for speculation ever since the
special nature of this disease was recognised.
When it occurred in the imported negroes in
the West Indies, it was regarded by some as
a severe form of nostalgia or home-aickness ;
when it occurred in the negro in his native





( 289 )


Tillage it was variously attributed to mauioc
poisonings to druj^s to intoxicants, and* to
many equally unlikely agencies, now known
to have nothing to do with the disease.

In 1891 Forde, a colonial surgeon, found a
peculiar organism in the blood of an English-
man suffering from an obstinate and irregu-
lar form of fever. He showed the organ-



ii, Elongated anterior rxtrflait.v ; h, Wmit ditto ; c, d and e,
diyidiug forme ; f and /i, probably sexual forrus j g, Jrom
cerebra.spiDal liaid.


. ism to Dutton, who recognised its nature and
described it under the name Trypario&oma
{^ambiense (Fig. 2). Similar organisms had al-
ready been found to bo the cause of such deadly
diseases of domesticated animals as the surra
* of India, the nagana or tse-tse ffy disease of
Africa, the mal ae coU of South Europe and
North Africa, and the mal de caderas of South
America. Dutton showed that T. gambiense
gave rise to a chronic form of fever, a peculiar
skin eruption and other symptoms, but that
these were the early stages of the deadly
Sleeping Sickness was not suspected until
Castellani found the trypanosoma in cases of
the latter disease in Uganda in 1903. Since
that important discovery the trypanosoma has
been definitely linked up with that disease as
cause and effect. It is present in the blood,
l;^mphatics or tissues in all cases, and at one
time or other in their progress can be de-
monstrated microscopically, or by the injection
of the blood of the patients into certain of the
lower animals in whose blood it multiplies
rapidly and usually proves fatal. There can
be therefore no longer any doubt that T,
gambienm is the cause of Sleeping Sickness.
Soon after Castellani made this important
discovery, BrUce, who some years previously
shown that the nagana or tse-tse fiy disease

211— N.B.


Stovpiiif SkimaM.


of domestic quadrupeds was liSWwed by Try-

pafiosoma brucei, brought forward evidence
to show that T. garrmmst was transmitted
similarly by tse-tse files, in the latter case
by the species known as Glamina
There can be no doubt that T* brucei is trans-
mitted by a Glossina, but although analogy^
the facts of distribution of fly and disease,
and, up to a point, experiment support the be-
lief that G. palpalia transmits the trypanosoma
of Sleeping Sickness, the proofs are not quite
complete, and there is yet greater uncertainty
as to the exact way in which the transmission
is effected. The trypanosome (which is a tery
active minute, colourless, slender, spindle-shaped
body, usually with a long lash at one end, the
whole organism being about twice as long as
the breadth of a red blood-corpuscle) is, as al-
ready stated, frequently present in the blood
where it is sometimes seen to multiply by a
rocess of longitudinal division. The tse-tse
ies are voracious blood-suckers, and it is held
by Bruce and some others that in passing from
an infected man to, it may be, a hitherto un-
infected man it conveys on its blood-smeared
mouth parts the trypanosome and so inoculates
the inlection as a lancet does vaccination.
Others hold that the Glossina serves the try-
panosome as the mosquito does the filaria, or
the malaria parasite, or as the tick does the
pyrosoma of Texas fever, acting as an in-
termediary, in which, or in whose larva,
necessary processes of development have to
be gone through before the trypanosome can
bo effectively inoculated by bite or otherwise
transferred. The important point to settle,
However, is the necessity for the tse-tse fly in
the transmission of Sleeping Sickness; it is
now generally regarded as being settled in the
affirmative. There are several species of tse-tse,
all of them, like Sleeping Sickness, peculiar
to Africa. A point not yet settled, and it is
one of great practical importance, is which of
the ten or eleven species are enable of trans-
mitting the trypanosome. Is G. palpalu the
only efficient intermediary, or are several or
all of the tse-tse flies capable of spreading
Sleeping Sickness ? G. palpalis is compara-
tively localised in its distri-
bution, but there are few
places in Tropical Africa in
which one or more of the
other species are unrepre-
sented. The tse-tse flies —
about the size of a horse
fly — are in many respects
peculiar. The female does
not lay eggs; she produces
larvae — one at a time, — each
of which buries itself in the
ground before assuming the
pupa stage from which the
mature insect emerges. G.
palpalu ^>ocurs only close to open water and in well-
shaded jungly places (Fig. 3). Some of the other
species, G. moraitanst for example, seem less de-
pendent oh shade and water, being common on



r a. 8.— or.oanuA, snnt

mo POSITIOM OF WIKC
WHES AT EEST.




( 290 )


gramj Imd where water ma^ learcd.
Botli sexes of tlie tse-tse flies are blooa-suelcers,
They are active only during the dav time, when
they will attack any man or animal passing
near their haunts» following them with persis*
tenov^ it may bci for half a mile or even
lartner. When fed they return to their home
—in the case of 6f. palpalu, the waterside.
There are some grounds for the hope that
G, is the chief, perhaps the only in*

termedfs^ of T. gambknse, in the circumstance
that hitherto it has been invariably found
when properly sought for wherever Slewing
Sickness is in evidence, and that Sleeping Sick-
ness is for the most part acquired near the
banks of lakes and rivers, facts tending to
indicate that the association of the disease and
insect is constant and, therefore, probably
necessary. Should the other tse-tse flies also
prove emcient intermediaries for the trypano-
some, then the outlook for Tropical Africa is ;
grave indeed. Even if G. pdlpcuk be the only
uitermediary, its habit of haunting the banks
of open waters makes it extremely formidable,
for the open waters are the principal highways
of travel and communication in Africa and
along them the principal part of the popula-
tion is distributed. Something can be done
to diminish the risk of contracting infection
by the trypanosome and in modifying or
suppressing the infection when acquired. By ;
removing the undergrowth in a locality I
infested by (?. palpalu the fly can be got
rid of, and where this measure has been
thoroughly carried out — as at Entebbe — the
results are encouraging. Until recently the
subjects of Sleeping Sickness and even of try-
panosoma infection were regarded as doomed.
Possibly a proportion recover spontaneously
from trypanosomiasis if the nervous system
has not become seriously involved. In prepara-
tions of arsenic, in certain dyes, in mercury, and
in various combinations of these substances we
have agencies of marked therapeutic power
over the trypanosome and there are good
grounds for hoping that, in at least some in-
stances, their vigorous and judicious use will
effect permanent cure.

WiolDOligid^, a mining term originally applied
to a smooth lustrous surface of specular galena
in veins in the Carboniferous Limestone of
Derbyshire t but now used for any rock-surface
that is smoothed by friction against another,
as is often the case in a fault.

Slid# is a meohanical contrivance for

performing the operations of multiplication and
division. It consists of a graduated rule (see
Figure), a b o d, having a dovetailed groove
in which a second rule^ i v o h, can slide,
the laces of the two being flush at the upper '
side. The corresponding scales on the rule and
slide are identic^, and are such that the dis-
toiioe from the mark 1 to the mark is pro*

from 1 to 3 to logarithm 3» and •eo on

Up to 10; oxtd the spaces between these marks


are farther subdivided logarithmically, the
fineness of the dividing depending upon the
length of the rule. Confining our attention for
the moment to the scales a b and a v only*
suppose that the mark X on m w is made to
Correspond with some mark on a b — say that
corresponding to logarithm 1,545, which is at
K. Now take any mark on x v — say b, which
corresponds to 174 ; it is clear that the distance



BLIOB BULK.

fiom A to L corresponds with logarithm 1,545
and logarithm 174, and the point on, a b
which 18 now opposite l will be marked with
the number whose logarithm is logarithib

1,546 -f logarithm 174 — that is, with the pro-
duct of 1,546 and 174, for the sum of the
logarithms of two numbers is the logarithm
of their product. We can perform division
by reversing this process ; if we set a

number on k p opposite a number on a b,
the distance from a to mark 1 on the

slide will be the difference between the

logarithms of the two numbers, and mark 1
on the slide will be opposite their quotient.
If We have a small brass slide with a mark on
it (called a cursor) which fits over the rule, we
can set its mark opposite the result of one
operation, and use that point as the basis
of further multiplication or division v^rithout
actually reading the number, and in this way
complicated calculations may be made without
any use of paper or pencil. It is usual to dupli-
cate the divisions on a b and x p — ix., make
the length from a to the end of the rule cor-
respond to logarithm 100, and to graduate tho
lower half oflx>th rule and slide (c d and g h)
in such a way that the distance from a or x
t> any number is one-half the distance from
c or G to the same number. As the logarithm
of the square root of a number is hall the
logarithm of the number, it is evident that
the root of a number is to be found on c i>
opposite the number on a b, and that squares
may be found in the converse manner. Speciai
marks are also made to correspond with con<-
stants which are often needed (such as v) and
considerably facilitate many calculations. No
account is taken on a slide rule of the index
of the logarithm, so that the position of the
decimal point must be determined by inspec-
tion of the numbers. Slide rules of circular or
spiral form are sometimes used, but the one
above described is the most common form.

Slitf Of A maritime county in the province of

Connaught, Ireland, bounded on tbe N. fhe

I by Moacommon and on tie S. and W.

{ It ooeupies an area of 707 square miles, i"®



nifo. (291)


coast is deeply iudented by the bays of Sligo
and Kiliala^ and the surface, low and swampy
towards the sea, rises in the north and west
to 'rarious heights, the most considerable being
King's Mountain (1,965 feet), Benbulbin (1,722),
Ox (1,600), the SUeve Gamph (1,300) and Gul-
logherboy (1,430). The Arrow, Moy, Owenmore
and Oarvogue are navigable rivers, and fish
abound in all the streams and on the coast.
The principal loughs are Gill, Arrow and Gara.
Copper and iron occur, but are not worked.
The chief crops are oats, potatoes and turnips,
wheat and barley being grown only to a small
extent. The moist climate is better adapted
for the raising of live-stock, which includes
large numbers of poultry, cattle, sheep, pigs,
asses, horses and goats. Weaving, tanning,
distilling and brewing form the leading in-
dustries. Sligo is the county town. Pop. (1901),
84,083.

SligOf the capital of County Sligo, Ireland, and
an important seaport, at the mouth of the
Garvogue, near Lough Gill, 112 miles N.W. of
Dublin. The principal structures are the
modern Catholic Cathedral in the Norman style,
the town hall, the exchange and court house.
The prime object of interest are the ruins,
amongst the finest of the kind in the country,
of the ancient abbey founded in 1262 by Lord
Justice Maurice Fitzgerald. It was partially
burned in 1414 and in 1642. The best-preserved
remains are the eastern window, the tall tower
at the junction of the nave and chancel and
three sides of the cloisters of the quadrangle.
The town is a busy trading centre, and there
is frequent communication with Londonderry,
Liverpool and Glasgow. The exports are cattle,
fowl and dairy produce, the imports coal, iron,
timber and provisions. Despite its somewhat
decayed appearance, the town is fairly flourish^-
ing. Pop. (1901), 10,862.

Slipper- Animalcule, or Fahamegium, a
genus of Infusoria very abundant in fresh or
salt water containing much decomposing vege-
table material. The animal is of much value,
as the action of the contractile vesicles and
the stellate form taken by them during con-
traction can be easily studied in it. P. aurelia
is the commonest species: it is usually a little
less than one-hundredth of an inch in length.

SloauCi Sib Hans, physician, was bom at
Killileagh, or White’s Castle, County Down,
Ireland, on April 16th, 1660. He studied medi-
cine at Paris and Montpellier and graduated
M.D. at the University of Orange in 1683. Two
years later he was elected F.R.S,, and after a
residence in JTamaica, settled in London in 1689,
where his professional and scientific repute
speedily insured him success, lu 1707 he pub-
lished the first volume of his Voyagt to thz
hhijdt of Madtra, Barbadoes, Nicrcs, St,
€hpMophtr\ and Jamaica, mth the Natural
Mi^ory of Me la&i (the second did not appear
Iw |726). He tlras the first medical man who
aimr honours, receiving a


baronetcy from George I* in Successively
Physician-General to the army and to the king,
President of the Boyal College of PhysioianSi
and the Boyal Society (1727, in succession to
Sir Isaac Newton), he amassed a large private
fortune, much of which was devoted to the
collections that formed the nucleus of the
British Museum. He died at Chelsea on Janu-
ary 11th, 1753. To the Apothecaries’ Society
of London he devised the famous Botanid
Garden at Chelsea (with reversion jointly to
the Boyal College of Physicians and the BoyiJ
Society, should the Apothecaries cease to cub
tivate it). His daughter BUzabeth married the
second Baron Cadogan and carried much of
Sloane’s property into that family, but such
names as Sloane Street, Sloane Square and Hans
Place perpetuate the wise physician's memory.

Sloe (Pmems imnosa), also known as BbAOK-
THOEN, with dark-grey bark, spinous branches,
precocious white flowers, olUptioal leaves, and
globose, dark-purple, glaucous drupes. Th©
shoots make excellent walking-sticks; the
leaves are said to be used to adulterate tea ;
and the fruits, which are sour and rough in
taste, are eaten by children, preserved, and
used not only to flavour spirits, but also are
themselves the main ingredient, when distilled,
in a spirit known as slob gin. The shrub is the
badge of the M*Quarrie dan.

Slojd (“ Sleight ”) is an institution which ori-
ginated in Finland and Sweden, and consisted
in teaching handicrafts in schools, bo as to
educate the hand and eye of a pupU as well
as his intellect. He begins by maxing small
objects of use or ornament, passing on, as he
gains in power, to more elaborate and more
useful work. A similar principle, though of a
more elementary character, lies at the root of
the Kindergarten system and, on much more
elaborate and more systematised lines, is the
root-idea of technical education.

Sloth, an animal belonging to the Edentate
family Bradypodida), with two genera {Brady*-



SLOtE.


jms and Oholcepus) from Central and Sonth
America. In the first genus, to the species of
which the name “Ai 'V is often applied from
their cry« there are but three functional digit#



Slotli 8#to.


(my




on tlie fore-limb* ; in tbe second tbere »re two.
THct are vegetable feeders and arboreal in
habit, and more along the branches of trees,
with the body downwards. The body is covered
with long, coarse hair, which is often covered
with a growth of green algas. The ler^*t
of the family is about 30 inches long. Tlie
Sloth has neither incisor nor true canine teeth
and the back teeth— the' false and true molars
— are extremely simple in structure, in accord-
ance with the elementary nature of the masti-
cating process which is concerned solely with
the munching of leaves and twigs. In eating
it usually workt* iu jaws upwards and down-
wards aod not from side to side. The mobility
of its head is due to tbe fact that it has nine
neck hones /verteOrfle of the cervical region)
instead of tbe seven usually found in the other
mammals. Leading monotonous lives, their
food always at hand and plentiful, the struggle
for existence with other animals seems to have
no ihterest for Sloths, Their enemies are
snakes and carnivores, but their habits protect
them ,'to a large extent from the assaults of
the. latter. There thus being little demand on
their nervous energy and intelligence these are
at a low pitch, and the convolutions of their
brain are shallow and few in number,

Slotbi (Melursus laJbiatm')^ a bear of

India and Ceylon, from five feet to six feet
long, with a long flexible snout and lower lip,
black for, and a light V-shaped mark on the breast.
It is an awkward, ungainly creature and feeds
on ants and other insects, honey, fruit and
birds' eggs. It has remarkable strength of
suction and also of propelling wind froin its
mouth, properties which it turns to account in
procuring some of its food. When it comes to
an ant-hill, for instance, it scrapes away the
earth until it reaches the combs at the bottom
of the galleries. Then its violent pufis scatter
the dust and loose particles, and when these arc
removed it is enabled forcibly to suck out the
inmates of the combs and even large larvae at
considerable depths below the surface. The noise
of its inspirations is audible at a distance of
200 yards or even more. It seldom attacks man
unless provoked, but is a dangerous assailant
from its singular habit of making for the face
and ospeciafly the eyes,

Slpugk. a town of Buckinghamshire, England,
2 miles N, of Windsor. The principal build-
ings are St. Mary’s Church, the British Orphan
Asylum, and the Leopold Institute, erected in
1687 to the memory of the Duke of Albany.
Upton Court, a fine old house, was once a re-
ligious house in connection with the convent
of Merton in Surrey. Observatory House was
the residence of Sir William Herschel, the as-
tronomer, who settled here in 1781 and died in
it on August 25th, 1822. His son, Sir John
H*rsebel, also famous as an astronomer, was
Wni here on 7th, 1792. It is said that

man/ of the inhabitants of Slough would pre-
fer the town to be named Upton Koval, but ,a
^eal ear has thus far been turned lo their


prayer. Burnham Beeches and Stoke Koges are
near the town, which is almost wholly a resi-
dential quarter, though nurseries and market-
gardening are flourishing industries. Pop.
(1901), 11,453. ^

Slovaks, a Slav people of North-West Hungary,
numerous especially in the Waag and Gran
valleys and about the head-waters of the
Taraez and Tapolz affluents of the Theiss, with
scattered groups in the Budapest district and in
other parts of Hungary as well as in Moravia.
Slovak, which is a distinct dialect of Czech
(Bohemian), is spoken altogether by about
2,000,000 people. The physical type is dis-
tinguished by very round and low head, stature
below the average, and a large percentage of
blondes (fair hair, blue or grey ey^, due pro-
bably to German intermixture. The Slovaks
are two-thirds Boman Catholic and one-third
Protestant.

Slovenes (Slovekci, Slovintzy), a Slav people
of the Austrian provinces of Istria and Car-
niola and the districts bordering on Styria and
Carinthia. They speak a Serbo-Croatian dialect
and number some 1,250,009, most of whom be-
long to the Boman Catholic Church. Like the
kindred Croatians, %he Slovenes are physically
a fine race, tall, well-made, generally with
dark-brown hair and moderate^ round head.
Though now yielding to the Serbo-Croatian, the
Slovene language has been long cultivated, and
has had two literary periods: a Protestant in
the 16th century ^when a translation of the
Bible appeared), followed in the 17th and 18th
centuries by a Catholic reaction, when most of
the works of the early Beformers were burnt
by the Jesuits.

Slow-Match, used in blasting to enable the
workmen to retreat to a safe distance before
the ignition of the explosive, and for the
firing of shells, etc. It consists of some
material the burning of a given length of
T\hich will occupy a fairly definite time. A
fibrous wick, soaxed in a solution of nitre and
dried, is one of the oldest devices, but a tube
filled with a composition similar to that jused
in the manufacture of fireworks is often em-
ployed.

Slugs, terrestrial gasteropods belonging to the
family Limacidae of the order Pulmonifera, or
air-breathing Snails, inhabiting all the north-
ern temperate regions of the globe. They have
no true shell, the head and tentacles ‘ are re-
tractile, and the breathing and visceral organs
are Incorporated within the straight contractile
body. The rudimentary shell (where it occurs)
is usually internal (in Testacella it is external),
and takes the form of a small shield-like plate
covering the respiratory apparatus. Slugs shun
daylight, indulging their voracious appetite by
night. They frequent gardens and hedges in
damp places and are also found^jsellars, out-
houses, and old walls and under stones and
about pumps. They usually feed on vegetabl«»




Smallfox*


( 293 )


BittHiirtte


matter, but Testacella, which burrows to a
depth of two or three feet, devours worms.
They secrete a very viscid mucus from all parts
of the body. The secretion is a necessary of
life. Were it to cease and the integuments to
dry the Slug would die. By allowing this
mucus to accumulate at the end of its tail and
to harden into a gelatinous thread, the Slug
can lower itself to the ground from a tree,
shrub, or even a shelf in a room, llie animal
functions are not suspended during hibernation
and the creature is always tenacious of life.
In the genus Limax the creeping-disc extends
the whole length of the animal, but it often
raises its head like a snail and moves its
tentacles in search of objects above. When
alarmed it withdraws the head beneath the
mantle and contracts the foot. In winter and
dry weather it buries itself in the ground.
Limax has 22 species in Europe and the
Canaries. The genus Arion differs from Limax
in the presence of a pore or gland at the ex-
tremity of the tail for the more copious secre-
tion of mucus, and in having the pulmonary
sac and overlapping shield nearer the head with
the breathing orifice in front. Six species oc-
cur in Europe and Africa. In Testacella the
shell is small and ear-shaped and placed at the
kinder end of the body, which is broadest be-
hind and tapers towards the head. During
winter and dry weather it constructs a kind of
cocoon in the ground by the secretion of mucus.
Three species are met with in Great Britain,
the South of Europe and the Canaries. Slugs
in gardens must be hunted for by lantern
light after dark. Applications of salt, or soot,
or lime (repeated if necessary) usually kill
them and they may be trapped by laying down
cabbage and lettuce leaves, oeneath which they
will generally be found in some numbers,

Smallpoxi Variolaii An infectious disease,
the chief sj^mptoms of which are fever and a
characteristic eruption, at first papular, then
vesicular, and ultimately pustular. The malady
appears to have prevailed in Europe in the
early centuries of the Christian era, and it
was recognised and described by the Arabian
physicians. It is known to have caused con-
siderable ravages in various parts of the world
during succeeding ages, and until the end of
the 18th century was regarded as one of the
most serious epidemic diseases. The introduc-
tion of inoculation into Great Britain in the
18th century seems to have, in some degree,
diminished the amount of injury wrought by
smallpox, and with the growth of the practice
of vaccination introduced by Edward Jenner
(1749-1823) in 1793 and subsequent years, the
prevalence of the disease has markedly de-
clined. An outbreak occurred in London in
the latter part of 1901, but though severe, it
was not so widespread as visitations of former
years.

8^ptom», The period of incubation of
amallpox is usually about 12 days. On or
about the thirteenth day after the exposure of


a susceptible person to infeclion, a rise of tem-
perature occurs, with Shivering, aching of the
limbs, vomiting, headache, and intense pain
in the back; on the third day counting from
the beginning of the initial symptoms, the
rash develops in ,the form of minute reddened
papules, which appear first on the face, neck
and wrists, and later become generally distri-
buted over the body. The spots have at the
outset a hard “shoity” feeling when touched;
they increase in size, and in the course Of
about three days they have developed ihlo
%"e8icles, and in three days more into pustulesl
Sometimes the pustules are quite distinct frop
one another (discrete smallpox) ; sometim&
they run into one another (confluent smallpoxL
The pustules when fully developed usually
present a central depression ; this is called
the umbilicated apj^earance. The temperature,
which at the outset may attain a consider-
able degree of elevation, usually falls when
the eruption first appears, and again rises
(secondary fever) when the pustules become
formed. After a few days in cases which do
well the fever again subsides, the pustules
dry up, and convalescence supervenes. In the
severer forms of the malady extensive scarring
of the skin occurs, in the milder forms there
is only slight pitting, and in the mildest nO
traces of the disease are left. The chief sequelae
of smallpox are ophthalmia, otitis, laryngitis,
and lung troubles. The severity of the disease
bears a distinct relation to the extent of de-
velopment of the eruption. Discrete smallpox
is rarely fatal, while in confluent smallpox
nearly half of those attacked die. Malignant
smallpox is the variety of the disease in which
the early symptoms are especially severe, in
which heemorrnages beneath the skin and con-
junctivas occur, and in which a fatal issue
supervenes usually before the eruption has had
time to become developed. The aesirability of
isolating smallpox patients in hospitals, as
soon as the nature of the malady becomes ap-
parent, cannot bo too strongly insisted upon,
and any persons who have been brought into
^contact with the infected individual should at
*once seek advice a’a to the necessity for being
re vaccina ted.

Bmaltite» an arsenide of cobalt, occurring in
isometric crystals of a tin-white colour; it fre-
quently contains nickel and iron.

Smart, Chetstopher, poet, was born at Ship-
bourne, near Tonbridge, in Kent, on April
11th, 1722, and was educated at Miiidstone,
Durham and Pembroke Hall (now College),
Cambridge, of which he was elected a Fellow
in 1745. He fell into extravagant wiys and
contracted debts, which ultimately led to his
leaving Cambridge for London. He won thS'
Seatonian Prize in 1760 and several sttccessive
years for the best poem on the attributes of.
the Almighty, but after he settled in London
was content to work for Joliii Newbery as a
hack. In 176d he published a liteiral proSe
translatibn of Horace, which had for a long


cm)




period an enormous vofne, but tlie by

wbieb be lives is A S&ng of David (1763),
exquisitely finished in parts and splendid in
its solemnity, which elicited even extravagant
eulogy from Bobert Browning and Dante
Oabriel l^ssetti. The unfortunate poet, insol-
vent UUd too fond of the glass, died in the
rules, or precincts, of the King’s Bench in
Dondon up May 21st, 1771.

8nuur^ HsifBT Thomas, or^nist and composer,
son of Henry Smart, musician and inventor,
was born in liondon on October 26th, 1813, and
f|a a b(^ laid the foundation of his profound
inewleage of the organ by his visits to Bob-
iKin^s organ factorv. After declining a com-
mission In the Indian army he was articled to
A solicitor, but his natural gifts proving irre-
siftible he left law to study music. In 1831 he
lowSame organist at Blackburn, Lancashire, and
while there produced his first important com-
position, an anthem for the tercentenary of
the Beformation, which was performed in the
parish church on October 4th, 1836. Beturn-
<ing to tendon in the following year he became
organist of St. Philip's Church, Begent Street.
■In 1844 he was appointed organist of St.
.liUke's, Old Street, and in 1864 of St. Pancras
Church, where he remained until 1878. During
the last years of his life he was blind and his
compositions had to be dictated. In recogni-
tion of his services to music in June, 1879,
Government granted him a pension of jEIOO a

J ear, but after long suffering he died of cancer,
uly 6th, two days before it was gazetted. A
fine player and a voluminous composer of
church music, part so^s and cantatas, his
best-known work was The Bride of Dunher-
ron, written for the Birmingham Festival of
1864.

Smart, John, painter, was born in Leith on
October 16th, 1838, and educated at the High
School of Leith. He studied art at the Trus-
tees’ School in Edinburgh, and was appren-
ticed as an engraver in 1853. In 1860 he be-
came a pupil of Horatio MacCulloch, B.S.A.,
and began to exhibit landscapes in 1861. He
was elected an Associate of the Boyal Scot-
tish Academy in 1871, reaching the full mem-
bership six years later. Among his best works
were Where Silence Beigns,” “The Graves of
our ain Folk,*’ “The Land of MacQr^r,’’
“The Cradle of Argyll,” “Among the Slent
Hills,'* “The Pass of Brander,” and “The Golf
Greens of Scotland.” He died in Edinburgh
on June Ist, 1899. He painted the hills and
glens, the lochs and burns of Scotland with
singular power and felicity, and his pictures
ivere charming without resort to meretricious
artifice.

John, engineer, was born at Aus-
iliorpe, near Leeds, on June 8th, 1724, and
at Leeds Grammar School, He went
to Loaddn in 1742 to atndy for the legal pro-
fession, but having great mechanical &ill and
a strong disdike for law. In 1780 he set up in


business as a maker of mathematical instru-
ments, and soon began to send papers on
scientific subjects to the Boyal Safety, of
which he was elected Fellow in 1753, winning



THE KEMAINS OP THS 8MSATON LIGHTHOUSE,
AND TUB HEW LIGHTHOUSE AT SDOTSTOHB.


(Photo: W, Heath d Co., Plymouth.)

the gold medal in 1759. He had gradually
been drawn towards hydraulic engineeriug,
and, when the Eddystone lighthouse, designed
by Budyerd, was burned down in 1765, was
consultea as to its rebuilding. He undertook
to construct a new tower in stone; the work
was begun in 1756 and the light was exhibited
for the first time on October 16th, 1769. The
main column was 70 feet high, exclusive of the
lantern and bell, which carried it 28 feet
higher. The diameter at the base was 28 feet
and 15 feet at the top. The light employed was
24 candles carried in a chandelier. This light-
house stood till 1877, when, owing the under-
mining of part of the reef on which it stood,
a new structure was necessary. This was built
on another part of the reef and when finished
in 1882 Smeaton’s tower was carefully taken
down, the stones bei^ numbered, and re-
erected on Plymouth all save the base,
which was left on the reef in memoriam. The
lighthouse that figured on the reverse ^(or
“Britannia” side) of one of the Victorian
ennies was said to have been modelled after
meaton’s Eddystone. Smeaton now obtained
an enormous practice as an engineer, especially
in the building of bridges — of which those ht
Perth, Banff, and Coldstream were amongst
his best, — ^but he did not neglect mechanics,
and brought the atmospheric steam-engine to
high perfection. He was also the engineer of
the Forth and 0yde Canal from Grangemouth
to Bowling, begun in 1763 and cbmi^eted iu
1790. The baxwnr works at Bamsgate, com-
pleted in 1774, furnished another example of




AmdHr.


(296)


his skill. He died at Austkorpe on October
28th, 1792.

Fbancis Edwabd, better known as
Fkai^k SiiEOLBX, novelist, only son of Francis
Smedley, was born on October 4th, 1818, at
Oreat Marlow, Buckinghamshire. Being seri-
ously crippled he was privately educated at
Brighton and afterwards by his uncle Edward
Arthur Smedley, chaplain of Trinity College,
Cambridge, who was also vicar of Chesterton
near Cambridge. At Chesterton he gained an
intinaate khOmedge of University life and his
inability to join in outdoor sports seems to
have quicken^ his interest in tnem. His first
and best book, Frank Fairhigh; or. Scenes
from the Life of a Private Pupil, contributed
anonymously to Sharpens London Magazine
during 1846-8, proving successful was expanded
and published in 1850, with illustrations by
George Cruikshank. Lewis Arundel, 1860, also
appeared in the same magazine, of which he
became editor for two years. Harry Cover-
dale's Courtship, illustrated by Phiz, was pub-
lished in shilling monthly parts in 1866. Smed-
ley died suddenly in London on May Ist, 1864,
and was buried at Great Marlow.

Smelt (Jlsmerus eperlamis'), a British food-fish
of the Salmon family, of trout-like form, with
projecting lower jaw. It is fairly common
round the British coasts and those of Europe
and America, and often ascends rivers, and in
some places is acclimatised in fresh water.
Yarrell says that Smelts have been kept for
several years in ponds having no communica-
tion with the sea, without deteriorating either
in size or flavour. It is remarkable for its
cucumber-like odour, which becomes less power-
ful the longer the fish is kept out of water.
As an artide of diet, it is a fish of delicate
and exquisite flavour. The average length is
from eight to ten inches; the general colour
is whitish, with green tints on the back and
blue on the sides.

Smoltiilgf the process by which metals are
separated from their ores. It is conducted, in
the case of copper, in reverberatory furnaces
and, in the case of iron, in blast furnaces, and
the object is to separate the solid impurities
in the form of fusible slag and to dissipate
other impurities by converting them into acids,
which may either escape in the fumes or, when
of value in themselves, recovered and saved by
special treatment.

timgt]lwiok;f a town in the extreme south of
Staffordshire, Ihigland. 3 miles W. of Birm-
ingham. It is an industrial centre of great
importance, having manufactures of glass,
chemicals, lighthouse appliances, machinery,
nuts, bolts, rivets and screws. The principal
buildings include the public hall, free library,
public baths and sessions court. Yictorxa
Fark, constructed in 1888, a fine open space of
36 acres, contains a ISke. The Birmingham
and Dudley and WolVerhainpton Canals pass
through the town. Pop. (1901), 54,560.


•ttlxfea.


ilnow.l'^fMatlaAKslsB.] . ^

Smilax. a large and #d4iy*4lstrlbuted genus
of tropical and sub-tropical climbing shrubs,
the type of the suborder Smilaoess of the order
Lilaoeas. They have fj^nerally fleshy rhizomes *
prickly stems; oordale, irregularly net-veined
glabrous leaves, with two stipular tendrils;
small, polygamous flowers in globular clusters ;
and small baccate fruits. Sarsaparilla is ob-
tained from the rhizomes of various species in
different parts of the world. Several species
are grown for ornament.

Smiles. Samuel, author, was born at
diugton. East Lothian, Scotland, on December
23ra, 1812, and was educated at Edinburgh
University for the medical profession, which
he ultimately abandoned for journalism, be*
coming editor of the Leeds Times in 1838. In
1846 he was appointed secretary of the Leeds
and Thirsk Eailway, in 1849 secretary of tne
Leeds Central Station Board, and in 1854 secre-
tary to the South-Eastern Kaiiway. In 1866
he exchanged the worry of railway routine for
an easier post in an assurance company, but an
attack of paralysis led him, in 1871, to rethre
from business pursuits altogether and to confine
himself solely to literary work. In 1867 he had
brought out his well-Known Life of
Stephenson (of which more than 60,000 o^es
have been sold), to be followed by Stlf^Melp
(1859) — the sale of which has exceeded a quar-
ter of a million copies , — Lives of the Enginurs

S , Industrial Biography (1863). The

of his later labours have appeared in
volumes on The Huguenots (i867), Character
(1871), Thrift (1875), Duty (x880), Life and
Labour (1887), besides his Lives of Eobert Dick
the Thurso baker, Thomas Edward the work*
ing naturalist, George Moore the philanthrop-
ist, Jacques Jasmin the barber-poet, and John
Murray the publisher. He died in London on
April 16th, 1904. His Autobiography, a mmcfydevat
poor and superficial work, evidently left until
too advanced an age, was published in 1906.
To a singular extent he illustrated in his own
person the advantages of those ^ practical vir-
tues he never wearied in preaching to his fel-
low-creatures. He was accused of glorifying
mere success, of ignoring the discipline of
failure and the heroism that often underlies
the endless struggle with adversity, and no
doubt the man who “got on “ attracted him.
But he was never governed by unworthy
motives or a sordid reverence for prosperity
as such. In 1878 he received the degree of
LL.D. from Edinburgh. The only pue of his
brothers who was the antithesis of much of
his didactic exhortation, Eobert Smiles, was, in
spite of his failings, a cleverer and more
gifted man.

Sxuirlw, Sib Bobebt, architect* second son of
Eobert Smirks* was bom in London on Octo-
ber let, 1781. Educated at Apsley School, Bed*
fordshire* he entered the schools Of the Eoyal
Academy in 1796, and was articled to Sir



MmUbk


( 296 )


Jteitll.


Soane. In 1801 he went to Italy^ and

Greece to study architecture and remained
abroad until 1805. He was appointed archi-
tect to the Board of Trade in 1807 and in
1809-11 erected the Mint on Tower Hill. In
1823 his two most imjjortant workSj the General
Post Office in St. Martin 's-le-Gr and and the
British Museum, were begun, the dignified
facade of the latter building not being com-
pleted uptil 1847. Smirke was engaged on the
restoration of York Minster after the fire of
1829 and among his other leading works are
included the east wing of Somerset House ; the
College of Physicians, Trafalgar Square; the
Carlton Club and Lowther and Eastnor Castles.
He was knighted in 1832; in 1853 he was
awarded the gold medal of the Boyal Institute
of British Architects; and in 1859 he retired
to Cheltenham, where he died on April 18th,
1867.

Smith, Adam, political economist, was bom at
Kirkcaldy , Fifeshire, Scotland, on June 6th,
1723, and was educated in the Grammar
School of his native
town, Glasgow Univer-
sity, and Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford, whither
he had proceeded as
Snell Exhibitioner. Re-
turning to Kirkcaldy
in 1746, he made the
acquaintance of Lord
Karnes and David
Hume, and, after some
time spent in lecturing
and desultory literary
work, was appointed,
in 1761, professor of
Logic in Glasgow Uni-
versity. being trans-
ferred in the following
year to the chair of
Moral Philosophy in
the same institution.
His lectures were thoughtful yet popular, and
they are summed up in his Theory of Moral
Sentiments (1769). In 1763 he accompanied the
young Duke of Biiccleuch and his younger
brother Hew Campbell Scott on a foreign
tour, and made the acquaintance of Helvetius,
Turgot, Marmontel, D’Alembert, and QueStoay,
from the last of whom he is said to have im-
bibed certain economical doctrines. He had
resigned his chair soon after setting out on
his travels, which were abruptly terminated
by the murder in Paris, in 1766, of his younger
pupil, whose remains he at once brought home.
He was elected P.B.S. in 1767. From 1766 to
1778 he remained with his mother at Kirkcaldy,
engaged on his great work. An Inowtry into
the Mature ana Carnes of the Wealth of
Nations (published on March 9th, 1776), the
foundations of which were laid during his
professorial career. It is scarcely' possible to
overrate the influence this treatise has exer-
oiaed on the world, though its effects were not


felt immediately. It established the law of
supply and deniand, made labour, not land or
precious metals, the source of wealth, and
paved the way for Free Trade. Smith, during
several years, chiefly through occasional visits,
had kept in touch with the best intellectual
society of Loudon, and in 1778 removed to
Edinburgh as Commissioner of Customs. The
Lord Rectorship of Glasgow University was
conferred on him in 1787 to his great delight.
He succumbed to a long and painful malady
on July 17th, 1790, and was buried in the
Canongate Churchyard in Edinburgh, where
his grave is almost overlooked by the Roman
tomb in Calton Cemetery which commemorates
his warmest friend David Hume.

Slttitli, Albeet Richaed, novelist and lecturer,
son of Richard Smith, surgeon, was born at
Chertsey, Surrey, England, on May 24th, 1816.
He was educated at the Merchant Taylors'
School and at Middlesex Hospital to follow the
profession of his father, whom he joined in
1838 at Chertsey, but in 1841 he came to Lon-
don intending to practise. Inclination soon
led him to abandon medicine for letters. He
became a contributor to Bentley's Miscellany
and to Punch, and in 1842 his first drama,
Blanche Heriot, was produced at the Surrey
Theatre, the earliest of a long series of suc-
cessful plays and extravaganzas. In addition
to many entertaining Natural Histories, songs
and satirical sketches, he wrote several amus-
ing novels. The Adventures of Mr, Ledbury
and his friend Jack Johnson, which appeared
in 1844, The Fortunes of the Scatter good Family
(1845), and Christopher Tadpole (1848), are still
deservedly ^pular. He went on a tour in the
East in 1849, which resulted in the production
of an entertainment. The Overland Mail, in
May, 1860, which was the forerunner of the
entertainment by which he became most
widely known. On March 15th, 1852, The
Ascent of Mont Blanc was produced at
the Egyptian Hall, in London, with pictures
painted oy William Beverley. His sketches
of Anglo-Continental life, interspersed with
lively patter songs, “took the world by
storm,” and for some years continued to
delight Loudon. He made the mountain popu-
lar and originated that invasion of tourists
which has banished solemnity from the
valley and for whose convenience a railway
traverses its entire length. In 1868 Smith
went to Hong Kong, which also resulted in an
entertainment, China. In 1859 he married
Mary Lucy, daughter of Robert Keeley, the
comedian, and on May 2drd, 1860, he died at
Fulham. A memorial tablet in the English
Chapel at Chamonix, placed there by his
brotner Arthur, associates his name wi£h the
village which they both loved so well.

Smitlif Alexandee, poet and essayist, was
born at Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, Scotland, on
December 31st, 1830*. and followed at first his
father’s trade of patternMlesigner in a lace fao^
tory. However nis strong literary tendencies



ADAM SMITH,

(From a medallion execiit&l in
the HjUiimof AdamSviitli,
by TfmU.y


Bniti.


( 297 )


SiHitll.


lound eiroression in fugitive verses contributed
to the Glasgow Citizen, and through the in-
stxumentalitj of George Gilfillan he got per-
manent work. In 1853 appeared A Life Drama
and other Poems, which made its author famous
for a time as the chief exponent of what
Blackwood named by way of riaicule the “Spas-
modic School,” and won him the post of secre-
tary to the University of Edinburgh (1864). In
1865 he published War Sonnets, in conjunction
w'ith another rhapsodist, Sydney Dobell, and
City Poems (1867), with Edwin of Deira (1861),
added somewhat to his reputation. He next
turned his hand to prose, writing Dreamthorp
(1863), A Summer in Skye (1865), and Alfred
Hagart’s Household (186^, none of which was
completed successful. He also edited for the
Golden 'fteasury and Globe series of Messrs.
Macmillan the Poetical Works of Itohert Burns,
which had a widespread and permanent vogue.
His health, never very strong, broke down in
1866, and he died at Wardie, near Granton, in
Mid-Lothian, on January 5tli, 1867.

Smithy Benjamin Eli, lexicographer, son of
Rev., Dr. Eli Smith, a Congregational mission-
ary, was born at Beirut, Syria, on February
7th, 1857. After graduating at Amherst Col-
lege, Massachusetts, he studied at Gottingen
and Leipzig. In 1878 he became instructor in
mathematics at Amherst College and, in 1881,
in psychology at the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore. Appointed managing editor of the
Century Dictionary in 1882, ho rendered im-
portant assistance in the preparation of that
work, which may fitly be described as by far
the most creditable example of scholarship,
etymology, and lucid definition which the
United States has produced. Smith revised and
•aw it through the press under the editor-in-
chief, Professor W. D. Whitney, on whose death,
in 1894, he became editor.

Smithy or Schmidty Bfhnabd, commonly
called Father Smith, organ-builder, was born
in Germany about 1630, and is believed to have
learned his craft from Christian Former at
Wettin, near Halle. Encouraged to settle in
England, with a view to reviving organ-build-
ing, Smith came to London and was commis-
sioned to build the organ for what was then
the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, and was also
appointed organ-maker in ordinary to Charles
II. Henceforward till his death, probably at
Cambridge, in 1708, he was continuously en-
gaged in his calling. He built the organs for
Westminster Abbey (one, 1660), the cathedrals
of Wells (1664), Durham (1683-91), St. PauFs
(1694), Ripon, St, David's, Manchester (choir),
and (Chester. In Oxford he built organs for
St. Mary's Church, Christ Church (1680), and
the Sheidonian Theatre. In Cambridge he
built organs for St. Mary's and the chapels of
Pembroke, Emmaniiel, Christ’s, and Trinity
Colleges (1708, on which he was engaged at
his death). Amongst others of his organs were
those for St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields. St. Giles's-
in-the-Fields, St, Peter's, Cornhill, St. Mary


Woolnbth, St, Clement Danes^ St, J'ames's^
Garliokhithe, St, Dunstan'S, Tower Street
(afterwards removed to St. Albans Abbey), St*
Eatharine Cree, St. Olave's, Southwark, the
Danish Church, Wellclose Souare, Chelsea Old
Church, and St. Nicholas, Deptford, in Lon-
don; St. George's Chapel, Windsor; Eton Col*
lege Chapel; Chapel Royal, Hampton Court;
All Saints', Derby; St. Margaret's, Leicester;
Hadleigh, Suffolk; Whalley, Lancashire, and
the collegiate church of Southwell (now the
cathedral). Special interest attached to thO
organ which Father Smith built for the Temple
Church in London (1682-8) because of the effori^
made to secure the commission for Renatua
Harris (P1640-P1715). The dispute was at last
settled by an actual competition between the
rivals, who both built organs within the
church. As a result of tests, a joint committee
confirmed the decision of the Middle Temple in
favour of Smith’s o^an (June 2nd, 1685). It
is said that , though Harris's workmanship waa
the better. Smith’s was the superior instru-
ment in power and tone.

Smithy Sir Francis Pettit, inventor of the
screw propeller for steamships, was born at
Hythe, Kent, England, on February 9th, 1808.
and educated at Ashford, Kent. He began life
as a grazing farmer at Romney Marsh, but
having since boyhood been keenly interested in
boats and especially in the various means of
propelling them, he devised a model driven by
a screw, actuated by a spring, and became con-
vinced that this form was superior to tho
paddle, then solely employed. Ho gave up
farming entirely and devoted himself to the
perfecting of his idea. A model, exhibited
publicly in London in 1836, led to his fitting
a 10-ton boat with a wooden screw and sailing
her from Ramsgate to Dover and Hythe in
1837. 'Phe vessel behaved well in rough and
smooth water. To satisfy the Admiralty the
Archimedes, 237 tons, was fitted with a screw*
of one convolution and in 1839 was tried
against the fast paddle-steamer Vulcan with
successful results. But it was 1841 before th©
slow-moving Admiralty ordered the Hauler,
the first war screw-steamer in the British Navy,
to be laid down. She was launched in 1843, her
trials were quite satisfactory and orders were
given for 20 ships of war to be fitted with
screws. The universal adoption of the screw
was now but a question of time. Meanwhile*
Isambard Kingdom Brunei, who had seen the
Archimedes, was so impressed with the sound-
ness of the principle that he altered the Greai
Britain, the first large iron ocean-going
steamer, from a paddle to a screw steamer.
Smith was but poorly rewarded for his inven-'
tion.^ In 1866 he received a pension of jB 2O0
and in 1857 a public testimonial of plate and a
purse of £3,000 were presented to him. His
fees as adviser to the Admiralty, however^
being inadequate, he took to farming in Guern*
sey (1866), but lack of means obliged him in
1860 to accept the post of Uurator of th^


pAtent Office Musetim. In 1S71 h» waH loiif hted
a:td died at Soutli Eenelngton, iidndon. on
Pebruarx 1874.

Slritll, Oboboe, pablisher and founder of
the Dictionary of J^aiional Biography , whose
lather was a native of Elginshire, was born in
Eenohnroh Street, London, where the firm of
Smith and Elder then carried on their busi-
ness. o^ March 19th, 1824. He was educated
nl Botmhgdean, the Mercliant Taylors* School,
Blackheatn and the City of London School,
but being of an irrepressible dispbmtion and
not too amenable to scholastic discipline, his
lather took him into his office at the age of
fourteen. At that date the banking department
and agency for India and the East were much
the most important branch of the concern, but
young Smith soon evinced a special aptitude
for publishing. The death of his father in
1846, followea as it was by the retirement of
the other partners, threw an immense respon-
fiibility on George Smith, but he rose to the
occasion and soon brought his firm into the
front rank of publishers. Gradually his clients
embraced the most eminent authors of the
day, amongst them, John Buskin, Charles
Darwin, Leigh Hunt, George Henry Lewes,
Charlotte Bronte, W. M. Thackeray, Harriet
Hartineau, Elizabeth Gaskell, Dante Gabriel
Bossetti, Wilkie Collins, George Eliot, and the
Brownings. With such a galaxy of talent at
his command the success of George Smith’s
first great venture was assured. The Oornkill
Magazine appeared on January Ist, 1860, under
Thackeray’s editorship, and at once obtained
n circulation then without precedent in the
annals of English periodicals. This magazine
increased the roll-call of writers, whidi in-
cluded Matthew Arnold, Fitzjames Stephen,
Anthony Trollope, Dutton Cook, Charles Lever,
Charles Beade, George Meredith, and Sir Theo-
dore Martin. This made the launching of
George Smith’s second great project, an evening
daily paper, comparatively easy, though it was
n long time before the PcUl Mall Gazette, of
which the first number, under Frederick
Greenwood's editorship, was issued on Febru-
ary 7th, 1865, happily named in allusion to
Captain Shandon’s paper in Pendennu, turned
the corner financially. Interesting incidents
in the publishing department were the appear-
ance in 1867 of Queen Victoria’s Leaves from
the Journai of Our Life in the Highlands and
the Life of the Prince Consort (1874-80), by Sir
Theodore Martin. With such heavy undertak-
ings on his hands, it is not surprising that
George Smith gave up the agenoy and bank-
ing work of the firm of Henry S. King and
Co. in 1868, and, in 1880, the Pall Mall Gazette
to Henij Tates Thompson. The way was now
clear for an mtojpprise of
Bnd of Impetkl importftaee. Thi# -was tiie

Didlouavp of Noliotval the first

yolii me of which was published in 1886 and the
^rd^ and' 'last in 190^ ' ■^At: the '"completion of
this uni^he W'ork'''the 'Drinoe, of ^WafeS''''(after^"


wards Edward VH.) attended the congrOtula*
tory dinner in May, 1900, and at the Mansion
House on June ddth of the same year the Lord
Mayor held a dinner in honour of the event,
the dinner being attended by the foremost
literary and public men of the day. Smith
did not long survive these honours, dying at
Byfleet, near Wey bridge, Surrey, on April 6th,
1^1. Outside of his husiness he was largely
concerned in the company that owned the well-
known Apollinaris mineral water.

Smith, Geobge, Assjrriologist, was bom in
Chelsea, London, on March 26th, 1840, and was
apprenticed to learn bank-note engraving. His
interest in the explorations of Sir Austen
Henry Layard and Sir Henry Bawlinsou at
Nineveh and elsewhere constrained him to give
all his spare time and money to the study of
Assyrian subjects. Bawliuson and Dr. Samuel
Birch, impressed by his intelligence, were in-
strumental in procuring his appointment as an
assistant at the Britisn Museum in January,
1867, and thenceforth he devoted himself to the
pursuit of his favourite studies. In 1870 he
was appointed senior assii^tant to Dr. Birch,
the keeper of Oriental antiquities, and during
1871 he published one of his most important
works, his valuable Annals of Assur-bani-paL
In 1872 Smith discovered, among the tablets
which Layard collected, the OheUdean Account
of the Deluge, by the translation of which he
at once became famous. This led the pro-
prietors of The Daily Telegraph to propose
further researches at Nineveh, and Smith was
granted leave of absence by the Trustees of the
Museum. He started on January 20th, 1873,
and succeeded in recovering the missing frag-
ments of the story of the Deluge from the so-
called "library” at Kouyunjik. The account
of the expedition, Assyrian Discoveries, ap-
peared in 1875, and when he had completed his
translation of many other fragments relating to
the Creation and the Fall, the results of his
labours appeared in The Chaldean Account of
Genesis (1876). The importance of his studies
induced the Trustees to send him upon an-
other expedition to complete the collection of
tablets in the British Museum, He started
in October, 1875, and after many vexatious de-
lays, having at Bagdad obtained between two
and three thousand tablets discovered by the
Arabs in an ancient Babylonian libri^ry, he
found it impracticable because of the unsettled
state of the country to pursue his excavations
at Kouyunjik. Exhausted by fatigue and
anxiety after a. brief illness he died at Aleppo,
on August 19th, 1876. A public subscription
was promoted by Frolessor Bayce for his widow,
to whom, in consideration of George Smithes
eminent services to Biblical reseat^, a civil
list pension was granted.

•idtkg btetOTmh lend pu\^l\ci8^

was born at Beading, Berkshire, England, on
August lath, >1823. Coming up to Oxford from
Eton, he carried bffi all the chief prizes, anu
was elected to a fellowship at TJnirersity Col-



( 299 )


wrnm^


Uge, and afterwards to an honorary fellowship
at C^iel. He was called to the bar and acted
as secretary to the Hniirersity Coniinissions of
1850 and 1854, and to that on Popular Educa-
tion (1858). In this year he was made Begins
Professor of Modern History at Oxford, hold-
ing the chair until 1866. During the War of
Secession in America he stood forth as a fer-
vent Abolitionist and champion of the North,
and at the end of the struggle (1864) went on
a lecturing tour throughout the United States.
In 1868 he accepted a professorship of English
and Constitutional History in Cornell Univer-
sity, New York, but three years later settled at
Toronto, Canada. Here he edited the Canadian
Monthly and founded the TFec/j and the By-
stander. As a politician, he early evinced an
interest in Eadical principles from which he
never receded througjhout his long career. As a
writer, his brilliance is well balanced by sanity
and thoughtfulness. Among his best-known
works were his pamphlets on Does the Bible
SaTwtim American Slavery? (1863) and The Re-
organization of the University of Oxford (1868),
and his books, Canada and the Canadian Question
(1891), The United States : An Outline of Political
History (1893), Essays on Questions of the Day
0894), Gtiesscs at the Riddle of Existence
The United Kingdom : a Political History (1899),
and Commonwealth or Empire? (1902). In the
last-named work he warned the United States
against the assumption of Imperial responsibilities,
while in the first-named he showed that the mani-
fest destiny of the Dominion was amalgamation
with the United States, so that the Anglo-Saxon
peoples of North America might constitute one
single, grand, united commonwealth, standing
** four-square to all the winds that blow.”

Smithy Sir Harry George Wakelyk, general
and administrator, was born at Whittlesea,
Cambridgeshire, England, in 1787, and entered
the army in 1805. After taking part in the
operations at Monte Video and Buenos Aires
in 18()6 and 1807, he was present at the battle
of Corunna in 1809. He fought throughout the
whole of the Peninsular War, saving after the
storming of Badajos (1812) the young ^anish
girl who afterwards became his wife. He was
present at the burning of Washington and the
unsuccessful attack on New Orleans (1814), but
peace ws^ declared in time to enable him to
share tbe dangers and glories of Waterloo.
After service at home for several years he was
despatched to Jamaica in 1826 as Quarter-
master-General of the Forces and, in 1828, to
the Cape of Good Hope in a similar capacity.
In 1834 and 1835 he was occupied in putting
down Haffre risings in different parts of
South Africa. From the Cape he proceeded to
India, and for his services at the battle of
Haharajpur (1843) was made K.C.B- In 1^
nnd 1843 he was in the thick of the fighting
against the Sikhs an^frt Aliwal (January 28th.
184^ and Sobraon (February 10th) displayed
oonsummate bravery and generalship and wm
promoted major-geipfali ereated a baroaet apd




awarded the G.C.B. In 1847Jie was appointed
Governor of the Cape of 0ood Hopev His
difficulties were great, but he surmounted
them one by one, defeating the Boers at Boom
Platz in 1848, r^ltimately prevailing upon the
Home Government not tO make the Cape a
convict settlement against the wishes or its
people (1850) and crushing the Kaffres in a con*
ccrted attempt at rebellion (1850-2). He wasj
however, superseded in April, 1862, on thO
ground of dilatoriness— an extraordinary ple^
since it was foreign to the whole tenor of Sir
Harry's conduct on the battlefield in rohol
more serious campaigns. He was one of thf

? »all-bearers at the Duke of WeUington*s
uneral in 1852. In 1853 he was appointed to
the command of the Western military district
and the Lieutenant-Governorship of Plymouth,
and in 1854 was promoted Lieutenant-General
and transferred to the Northern command with
headquarters at Manchester. He died in Lon-
don on October 12th, 1860. The South African
towns of Harrismith (Orange Biver Colohy),
Ladysmith (Natal, famous tor its gallant de-
fence under Sir George White in the Boer
War), and Aliwal (Cape Colony) commemorate
Smith’s services to the Cape.

Smitli, Henry John Stephen, mathemati-
cian, son of John Smith, an Irish barrister, was
born in Dublin on November 2nd, 1826. At
four he taught himself some Greek and until
the age of twelve was entirely educated by
his accomplished mother, who had been left a
widow in 1828. In 1841 he went to Eugby;
in 1844 he won the BalHol scholarship and after
studying in Eome and Paris resumed his career
at Oxford in 1847. He took a double-first
class; was elected Fellow of Bidliol in 1849
and in 1851 gained the senior mathematical
scholarship. He became Savilian Professor of
Geometry in 1860 and was for many years a
member of the Hebdomadal Council. Professor
Huxley thought he would have been one of the

g reatest men of his day if, added to his won-
erful intellect, he had been ambitious. But
work for which he was supremely fitted was
neglected for duties which filled his time and
* which others could have performed equally
well, 80 that his intimates often failed to
realise his capacity. He projected a tr^tise
on the Theory of Numbers and his preliminary
studies were embodied in his masterly Report,

! presented to the British Association in six
parts from 1869 to 1865. In 1882 the IVench
Academy, ignorant of his work and how far
his researches had gone, set the demonstration
and completion of Eisenstein’s theorems for
five squares as the subject for their Grand
Prix des Sciences Mathematiques, Bequested
by a member of the committee which proposed
the prise he undertook to write out the demon-
stration. His h^ifh haying suffered through
overwork, Smi&4ii^ unmarried, on February
9th, 1883, and two months later the prise of
3,(XX)fr. was awarded to him. His vdUded
Mathemaik^ P0pem was issued in 1694 witk



( soo >


Sniitlu


imitii.


biographical notices by Br. C. H* Beamn and
others.

Smiiih, HOBATIO (though he was always known
as HoBAoa:). poet and noyelist^ was born in
London in 1779, and educated with his elder
brother, Jahxs Smith (born in London on
February 10th, 1776), at a school in Chigwell.
James entered the office of his father, a solici-
tor, whom he succeeded as Solicitor to the
Board bf Ordnance, and Horace was placed in
a merchant's counting-house. In 1812 a prize
was offered for a poem, to be recited at the
opening of the new Drury Lane Tlieatre, and
the Smiths conceived the happv idea of writ-
ing parodies of the styles of contemporary
poets, and publishing them in a volume en-
titled Mended Addressee. James took, amongst
others, Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, and
Crabbe, whilst Byron, Moore, Scott, and
Bowles, with others, fell to the share of
Horace. The venture proved an immense suc-
cess and was so gracefully undertaken as to
hurt nobody's feelings. James never made any
subsequent attempt to add to his fame, be-
yond supplying the libretto for some of
Charles Mathews's comic entertainments, and
died in London on December 24th, 1839. Horace
earned a fortune on the Stock Exchange, and
then essayed to fill Sir Walter Scott's place
as historical novelist. Out of a score of his
romances BramhUtye House (1826J alone sur-
vives. Of his later poetical effusions, serious
as well as humorous, only ^^An Address to a
Mummy approaches the standard of the work
that made him and his brother famous. He
died at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, on July 12th,
1849.

Smith, Jambs, usually styled Smith of Dean-
STON, inventor, was born in Glasgow on
January 3rd, 1789, and educated at Glasgow
University. At the age of eighteen he was given
charge or the cotton mills at Deanston on the
Teith, near Doune, in Perthshire. He at once
reorganised the concern and saved it from col-
lapse. He next essayed to invent a reaping-
maoMne, but though his models of 1811 and
1813 were ingenious and attracted great at-
tention they were not adopted by farmers.
Soon after coming into his farm at Deanston
he deep-drained it throughout, but the partial
failure of his system led him to invent the
subsoil plough by means of which the deeper-
lying barren ground was broken up and fertil-
ised without being intermixed with the richer
soil above it. The process of deep-ploughing
and thorough draining came to be tnown as
‘‘Deanstonising." The report of his success-
ful conversion of worthless land into a fertile
garden drew visitors from all quarters of
Europe and the United States. Among his
other Inventions were the turn-wrest plough,
the web-chain harrow, an improved self-acting
nnile and the salmon-ladder on the Teith to en-
able the ffshes to ascend the river, the weir
Which he had oonstmeted to increase the water-
power of his factory haring prevented the pas-


sage of the salmon upstream. He left Deanston
suddenly in 1642 and established himself in
London as an agricultural engineer, and was
largely employed as a land valuer during the
railway mania of 1844 and 1845. He died at
Kingencleuch, Ayrshire, on June 10th, 1850.

Smith, Sib James Eowabd, botanist, was born
at Norwich, Norfolk, on December 2nd, 1769.
Being delicate he was educated at home and
inherited from his mother a great love of
flowers. He studied medicine at Edinburgh,
where he gratified under Dr. John Hope his
strong bent towards botany, and in London. In
1783 he purchased the library, manuscripts,
herbarium and natural history collections
which had belonged to the illustrious Linnaeus,
and two years later was elected F.E.S. In
1788 he was instrumental in founding the
Linnean Society, which held its first meeting
on April 8th of that year and elected SmitE
its first President, a post to which he was
annually re-elected as long as he lived. In
1790 be began the publication of his English
Botany (often called Sowerby's after James
Sowerby, its illustrator), the last volume of
which (there were 36 in all) appeared in 1814.
Though this is likely to be ms most endur-
ing work, the most successful was his
Introduction to Physiological and Systematic
Botany. In 1814 he was knighted when the
Prince Begent became patron of the Linnean
Society. In 1818 the governing body of Cam-
bridge University refused to allow him to take
the botany class during the illness of Profes-
sor Thomas Martyn (1736-1826) because he was
a Unitarian, The last seven years of his life
were occupied with The English Flora (4 vols.,,
1824-8). He died at Norwich on March 17th,
1828. His widow, Lady Plsabancb Smith
(born at Beeve, Lowestoft, on May 11th, 1773),
survived him forty-nine years, dying in
Lowestoft on February 3rd, 1877. She retained
her faculties to the last and was not en-
amoured of the past as a matter of course.
When the tendency of modern science was dis-
cussed in her hearing, her invariable answer
was, **I am for inquiry."

Smitli, John, captain, colonist and adventurer,
son of George Smith, a farmer, was born at
Willoughby, Lincolnshire, in 1580, and became
a scholar in the free schools of Alford and
Louth. On his father's death in 1596 he went
with the second son of Lord Willoughby to
France and began soldiering under Henri IV.
at Havre; but peace being made with Spain, in
1598, he offerea his services to the insurgents
in the Low Countries. In 1600 he returnedl
home, studied the theory of war, and again
sought service abroad, where he encountered
many surprising adventures which are b^ieved
to contain a substratum of fact. He ^as
thrown overboard and rescued by pirates; he
fought the Turks, killing three of their cham-
pions in a series of combats in sight of the
contending forces. He was sold for a slave
and sent to Constantinople where, beloved by a


Smith.


( 301 )


Smith.


Turkish l^y of quality, he found a protector.
After’ Idlling: his master he escaped and ulti«
mutely conyeniently falling in with an English
man-of-war came home in 1606, On December
19th, 1606, he started from Blackwall with
Other fellow^-eraigrants to found the colony of
Virginia, the second expedition which had left
England for that purpose. They anchored in
Chesapeake Bay on April 30th, 1607, but dis-
covered no trace of the earlier colonists, sent
by the Virginia Company of London, who pro-
bably had been exterminated by Indian tribes.
In April they founded Jamestown, having
made friends with the natives. Having little
liking for tillage they depended for food upon
such supplies as they could buy, or beg, or
steal. Smith proved a successful leader, but
in one of their explorations they were sur-
prised by the Indians and after a brave de-
fence, he was taken captive and led about the
country for a wonder. Powhattan, the king,
afterwards decided he should be executed. In
the romantic account he wrote for Queen Anne,
consort of James I., Smith says that his head
was laid upon two great stones. “And being
ready with their clubs to beat out his brains,
Pocanontas, the king's dearest daughter, when
no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her
arms and laid her own upon his to save him
from death.’* Whereat he was spared to make
them hatchets and bells and other things. In
September, 1608, he^ became head of the colony
find succeeded in introducing order and in-
dustry among the thriftless colonists, but
when, during the following year, another party
arrived from home and dissensions arose Smith,
who had been seriously injured by an accident,
left Virginia never to return. In 1614 he visited
the territory to which Prince Charles at his
suggestion gave the name of New England,
and the last years of his life were chiefly de-
voted to authorship. The Generali Hiatorie of
Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles,
together with the True Travels, Adventures, and
C>hservaIions and a Sea Grammar, by Captaine
John Smith, are well known and were reprinted
in the year 19t)6. Whatever doubt has been
suggested by his own record of his exploits, the
credit of having laid the foundation of the
prosperity of the settlement of Virginia is
chiefly due to him. He died in London on
June 21st, 1631, and was buried in St.
Sepulchre’s Church. La Belle Sauvage, the
rmcess Pocahontas, became a convert to
hristianity and was christened Rebecca. She
was married to John Rolfe on April 5th, 1613,
and, in 1616, with her husband and child,
visited England, where she renewed her ac-
auaintance with the adventurous captain. As
sue was about to return to America she died
in March, 1617, at Gravesend, where she lies
buried in^the chancel of St. George’s Church.

Sinitllf JoHJr, Platonist, was born at Achuroh,
near Oundle; Northamptonshire, in 1618. He
entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in
1636 as a pensioner, his tutor being Benjamin


Whichcote, who befriended him. In 1644, with
seven Other members of his college, he was
transferred to Queens’ College, the Assembly
of Divines sitting in Westminster having ex-
amined and approved thepn “as fitt to be fel-
lowes.” There he lectured on mathematics and
Hebrew, was Greek Praelector and became
Dean of his college in 1650. One of the rising
school of Cambridge Platonists, ho became
known as a “living library,” praised not only
for being just and upright in his conversation*
but for his learning and humility. After a
long illness, patiently endured, he died of
consumption on August 7th, 1652, and was
buried in his college chapel, the funeral ser^
mon being preached by his warm admirer,
Simon Patrick. His Select Discourses, which
are distinguished by their refined thought and
ability, were published in 1660 and have often
been reprinted.

Smith, Joseph, founder of the body known as
Mormons, son of a farmer, was born at Sharon,
Vermont, United States, on December 23rd,
1805. The family removed to Manchester,
State of New York, in 1819, where a “revival”
took place and Joseph, during the excitement
it produced, declared he had seen a vision of
two Divine Persons who instructed him that
all the sects then known were in error. His
story met with ridicule and for some years he
spent a discreditable life. On September 2lBt,
1823, another vision was vouchsafed which, h©
said, “called me by name” and told him of a
book “ written upon golden plates, . . . that

the fulness of the everlasting gospel was con-
tained in it” and revealed where these records
lay concealed. From this time he professed
to receive frequent messages from heaven.
Four years later an angel d^ivered the records
into his hands and by means of “the Urim and
Thummim,” transparent stones resembling a
pair of spectacles, he was able to translate
from an unknown tongue, which he called
the Reformed Egyptian, certain remarkable
hieroglyphics into English. Seated behind a
blanket, to screen the plates from unholy eyes,
Smith dictated the translation to Martin
•Harris, a credulous person with property, who
when it was eventually finished sold his farm,
in obedience to revelation, to bear half the cost
of printing it. The Booh of Mormon was pub-
lished in 1830, with a preface, signed by
Harris and two other followers, stating that
an angel had shown them these remarkable
lates. The work was really written in 1809
y a quondam minister, Solomon Spaulding,
but it is not clear how Smith obtained the
MS., which was subsequently recognised by its
author’s widow. “The Church of Christ ’’ was
formally started in La Fayette, on April 6th,
1830, with six members, and at the first con-
ference in June thirty members assembled.
Missionaries were sent forth and one of the
early converts was Brigham Young, Smith’s
successor. Their affairs were entire^ directed
by revelation, which the profane regarded as a




(302 )




oloak lor Smith's greed. Beenite jMrsecution
aad ridicule tke sect increased rufialj. The
scandal caused bjr schisms and douhtiul com-
mercial dealinffs led in 1838 to their beihg ex*^
peiled from Missouri. They then settl^ in
Illinois where, in 1839, they founded the city
of Nauvoo, explained as Hebrew for ''beauti-
ful.’* A mansion was built for the Prophet and
his family, who were maintained at the public
cost, and reTelation further directed the erec-
tion of a splendid temple for the worship of
the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day
Saints, the title adopted in 1834. Smith was
often tried on charges of swindling and in-
citing to murder and always acquitted* With
his cnief followers he began secretly to teach
polygamy. Their enemies then established a
paper in Kauvoo which in its first number
punted affidavits from women who declared
that he and other leaders had attempted to
seduce them. The Saints rejoined that the
paper was a public nuisance, which was ordered
to be abated. The mob forthwith destroyed
the office and its plant. A warrant against
the Prophet as instigator of the riot was issued
by the Governor of the State. At first he re-
sisted it, but on the Governor pledging bis
honour they should be protected Smith and
his brother Hyram surrendered and were
lodged in the prison at Carthage. When it was
rumoured that the Governor was ready to
connive at their escape a onnd of men dis-

f uised as Indians broke into the prison on
une 27th, 1844, overpowered the guard and
shot the Smiths dead. The character of
Joseph Smith, who left a widow and several
chilaren, forbids the excuse that he was a
misguided enthusiast. His death did not
ruin the sect. Young was unanimously elected
president and under him they left Illinois in
1846 and settled, guided, they said, by an
angel, in the Valley of the Great Salt Lake,
where, in 1862, the " Celestial Law of Marriage’*
was promulgated and at once adopted.

Sntitlli Bobert, mathematician, son of John
Smith, was born in 1689. He was educated at
Leicester Grammar School and in May, 1708,
admitted a pensioner at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where he was under the care of his
cousin, Eoger Cotes, Plumian Professor of
Astronomy, whom he succeeded in 1716, re-
taining the professorship until 1760. In 1738
he published A Oompleat System of Opticks
^hich gained him the nickname of "Old
Focus") dedicated to Sir Edward Walpole,
with whose help the work was started and com-
pleted. The oDservatory over the great gate
of Trinity College was finished under bis
direction and the telescope, described in bis
Ojdichs and often shown as Sir Isaac Newton’s,
was made for bim. He succeeded Bentley as
master of Trinity College on July 20tb, 1742,
and acted as Vice-Chancellor of the University
in X742-3. He died, unmarried, on February
2ndj 1768, and was buried in bis college chapef-
Besides Siting Cotes'a Lectmres, be. wrote a


valuable work entitled HamoafcSi ^
Philosophy of Musical Sounds (1749); wbibb be
dedicated to bis pupil, the Duke m €t»beir-
land. He loved music; bis acts of k^dneSs
were numerous; bis benefactions both to bis
college and to the University were mufilj^nt^
The Smith’s prizes, by which bis name lives,
now amount to each and have "enabled
the University to encourage some of the higher
branches of mathematics."

Smithy Sydney, Canon of St. Paul’s Cathedral,
was born at Woodford, Essex, England, on
June 3rd, 1771. He became captain of Win-
chester, and entering New College, Oxford, ob-
tained a fellowship and drifted into the
Church, although his own preference was for



REV, SYDNEY SMITH,


Law. After holding a curacy at Nether Avon,
on Salisbury Plain, he went to Edinburgh as’
a private tutor in 1798, there met Francis
Jeffrey, and joined him, Henry Brougham, and
other advanced Whigs in founding ,|no
Edinburgh Fnview, the first issue of which ’be
edited in 1802. He had now established ; bis
reputation as a thinker of independent vietitrs,
a brilliant writer, and above all, a wit of |ho
keenest, yet most genial order. He came to
London in 1802 (he had married happily t^o
years before), figured for a while as a social
lion and a popular preacher at the Foundlibg
Hospital and Fitzroy and Berkeley Chapelfe,
and a lecturer — ^his courses On Moral Pidlo*
Sophy at the Boy al Institution in 180^ 1805,
and 1806 became the feature of London
Society,— and in 1806 accepted the liYing of
Foston - le - Clay, in a desolate part of York*
shire. In 1807 he published anonyinously Petir





MmML


( 808 )




Plpnhy*s Zeii€r$t which did much to pave the
waj for Oathdio Emancipation. In 18^, Lord
Lijndhuret^ thoug^h a Tory, presented lum to
a oanonry at Bristol and a living at Combe
Florey, near Tannton, but it was not until
1831 that his party got into power, and tnen
he received a prebendal stall at St. Paul's.
The premature death of his eldest son was a
cruel blow, but the marriage of his daughter
with Sir Henry Holland added much to the
happiness of his later years. He died in Lon-
don on February 22nd, 1645. Till the advent
of Lord Macaulay in 1825 he was one of the
mainstays of the Edinburgh Review, As an
essayist, he wrote a singularly clear, strong
style, free from affectation and mannerisms,
while his numerous witty sayings and his
famous comparison of the House of Lords to
**I)ame Partington trying to mop back the
Atlantic ” will be lasting ornaments of English
literature. With incomparable courage he de-
nounced inhumanity, lashed vice and scourged
hypocrisy. Not only happy himself but the
cause of happiness in otners, he yet hated
evil all his days and was a fervent lover of
justice and the very personification of com-
mon sense. Wise, longheaded, logical, he was
the confidant and adviser of statesmen, but it
was a real misfortune that Society, fascinated
by his shining conversational and other
amiable gifts^ made so much of him, for he
must otherwise have proved a great public
moral force.

Smith, Walter Chalmers, poet and divine,
Was born in Aberdeen on December 6th, 1824,
and was educated at Aberdeen and in Edin-
burgh University. After his ordination he be-
came minister to a Presbyterian congregation
in London and afterwards was appointed to the
Free Church at Orwell, Kinross-shire. He then
held charges in Edinburgh and Glasgow and
later returned to Edinburgh as minister of the
Free High Church. An admirable preacher
and an accomplished man he gained a wide
reputation by his stories in verse, thoughtful
poems distinguished by much lyrical and
imaginative beauty. The Bishop* 8 Walk was
published in 1861 under the name of ‘‘Orwell **\
the well-known Olrig Grange^ by “Hermann
Kunst,” appeared in 1872, and his later volumes
inclnde’' animg the Broken Godiy Rahan^

North* Conntnj FoXky Kildroeta/n^ Ttimights o/nd
Nancies for Sunday Evenings^ and A Heretic,

Stnitllf William, the father of English geology,
the son of John Smith, was born on March
23rd, 1769, at Churchill, Oxfordshire. Edu-
cated at the village school, as a^ boy of studious
habits he began collecting fossils, taught him-
self geometry and gained sufficient experience
tor become assistant to Edward Webb of Stow-
6n-the-Wold, a self-taught surveyor. Under
Webb he acquired a knowledge of soils and
the underlying rocks of the district and neigh-
bbunng counties, so that in 1793 he was able
undertake the survey of a canal through
the Somerset coalfield. This led him to pursue


the steady of the Bngliah strata and the
masteiiy thus derived m scientific principles*
and his success in dealin|f%ith questions of
drainage and water, provided him with the
means to prepare a map of the strata of Eng-
land and Wales. He obtained almost a mono-
poly of irrigation work, which often neces-
sitated his travelling ten thousand miles
yearly in days before railroads had oOvered
the land. He removed his geological collection
to London in 1805. Ten years later his great
work was completed. The Map was published
on August Ist, 18X5, aud from ‘Hhat hour the^
fame of its author as a great original dis-
coverer in English geology was secured.** Blut
it cost him all he had earned and pecuniary
difficulties obliged him in 1819 to sell every-
thing he possessed. His wife's health failed*
and to crown his distress in 1820 her mind
became affected. For some years he had no
regular homo, but accompanied by his nephew,
John Phillips, he moved about wherever his
duties or investigations required. In February,
1831, the Geological Society voted him the first
Wollaston medal awarded.. The Government
granted him a pension of J01OO a year, and,
in 1835, when the British Association visited
Dublin he received the honorary degree of
LL.D. from Trinity College. He died at
Northampton on August 28th, 1839, admirable-
alike for his patience, for the ingenuity of hi»
contrivances for overcoming difficulties and
for the generosity with which he imparted to-
others the knowledge he had laboriously ac-
quired.

Smith, Sir William, lexicographer, was born
at Enfield, Middlesex, England, in 1813, and
took high classical honours at university Col-
lege, London. Whilst reading for the bar he
engaged in literary work for the famous house
of John Murray, and in 1642 published the
Dictionary of Grech and Roman Antiquities.
This was followed, in 1849, by the Diciionary
of Greek and Roman Biography and, in 1867,
the Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Geography. Tliese monumental works did not
exhaust his energies, for he also brought out
• a school dictionary of Latin and classical text-
books, and started, in 1853, the “Prinoip||^" seriee
and the series of Student's Manuals of Ttistory
and Literature, to which he contributed the
volume on Greece (1864). Then he went back
to lexicographical work on the major scale and
produced, in 1860-5, the Bible Dictionary ^ in
1876-80, collaborating with Archdeacon Cheet^
ham, the Dictionary of Christian Anti^ities
and, in conjunction with the Eev. Dr. Henry
Wace, the Dictionary of Christiatn Biography
(1877-87). He found time, moreover, to act as
classical examiner (1853-69) and member of the
Senate of the London University, tb prepare an
edition of Gibbon (1864-5), and to supervise th©
great Atlas of Bihhcal and Olassieal Geography,
which appeared in 1875. He became editor pf
the Quarterly Review in 1807, and maintain^
the high literarv and intellectual traditidns ©I



•jiiitii.


( 304 )




thftt periodical until Me death in I^mdon on
October 7tli, 1893. He was D.C.L. of Oxford
and Dublin, LL.D. of Olasgow, Pb.D. of
Leipzig, and, in 1892, received the honour of
knigtHtnood.

Sniitlli WiLtiAM Hknbt, statesman, was born
in London on dune 24th, 1825, and educated at
Tavistock Grammar School. He desired to
study for the Church, but yielded to his
father's and entered the news-agency in
the Strahd. He became a partner in 1846 and
the style of W. H. Smith and Son became as
fami%r as a household word. In 1861 he ac-
quired the bookstalls on the London and North-
Western Eailway, a system of bookselling
which he initiated, and soon afterwards ob-
tained a like monopoly on the other great
trunk lines. He was also a pioneer in the
exhibition of open-air advertisements on walls
and hoardings and afterwards added a circu-
lating library department to his business, now
jgrown colossal and coining money rapidly. In
1888 he turned his attention to politics, ousted
John Stuart Mill from the representation of
Westminster, and held the seat continuously
until his death. A man of prodigious industry
and unimpeachable integrity, he soon made
himself of use to the Conservative party, and
held office from 1874 to 1880 as Financial
Secretary to the Treasury and First Lord of
the Admiralty. On the return of his party
to power in 1886 he went to the War Office,
and, subsequently, for a few days, to the
Irish Office. When Lord Sali.sbury formed his
second Cabinet in 1886, Mr. Smith resumed the
War Office, which he exchanged soon after-
wards, on the resignation of Lord Randolph
Churchill, for that of First Lord of tne
Treasury and Leader of the House. In 1891
iiis constitution broke down, and he died on
October 0th, 1891, at Walmer Castle, near
Deal, his residence as Warden of the Cinque
Ports, an office to which he had been appointed
five months before. His wife was created
Viscountess Hambleden on November 10th,
1891, with remainder to her husband’s heirs.
It is said that W. H. Smith was inclined to-
wards Liberalism, but was driven into the
Tory ranks by his rejection as a candidate for
membership of the Reform Club in 1862, on the
alleged ground that he was a tradesman.

Suitlii William Robertson, Biblical critic,
was born on November 8th, 1846, at Keig,
Aberdeenshire, where, his father, the Rev.
William Pirie Smith, was minister of the Free
Church. Educated at first at home, he went
to Aberdeen University in 1861, where he had
a brilliant career. He subsequently studied
theology in Edinburgh. Bonn and Gottingen.
In 1870 he was elected Professor of Oriental
Languages and Old Testament Exegesis in the
Free Church College, Aberdeen. Pupil and
friend of many qf the German advocates of
the higher criticism, his teaching ultimately
aroused the heresy hunters in the General
Assembly of the Free Church. A committee


reported adversely upon his writings on Bib-
lical subjects in the ninth edition of the
Encydo'pmdia BrUannica, and a prosecution for
heresy followed. Smith was acquitted, but
consequent upon an article which appeared in
that tlncydopcedia in June, 1880, on ''Hebrew
Language and Literature " he was removed from
his Chair in 1881. He then joined Professor
Spencer Baynes in the edijborship of the
Encydopadia Britannica, and on Baynes’s
death became editor-in-chief. In 1883 he w;^
appointed Lord Almoner’s Professor of Arabic
at Cambridge, where from that time he made
his home, ^ected Fellow of Christ’s College
in 1886 he, in 1886, became University
Librarian, which office he exchanged for the
Adams Professorship of Arabic. After some
years of suffering, courageously borne, he died
at Cambridge on March Slst, 1894, and was
buried at Keig. Impatient of stupidity, elo-
quent, and famous for the range of his learn-
ing, the sweetness of his disposition endeared
him to a wide circle of frienas.

Smithy Sir William Sidney, usually styled
Sir Sidney Smith, admiral, was born at West-
minster on June 21st, 1764, and was educated
at Tonbridge and Bath. He entered the navy
in 1777, and for his courage in Rodney’s action
off Cape St. Vincent got his lieutenancy in
1780, becoming a captain after many gallant
services at the age of eighteen. From 1789 to
1792 he was naval adviser to the King of
.Sweden, who made him a knight^ Geor^ III.
formally investing him at St. James’s Palace
on Smith’s return to England. , Sent on a
mission to Constantinople, he joined Lord
Hood off Toulon and volunteered to burn the
French fleet, a duty which, despite his loud
assertions, was afterwards found to have been
carried out in a very perfunctory manner. In
1796 he was taken prisoner whilst operating
against privateers in the Channel ana passed
two years in the Temple prison, in Paris, from
which he made a romantic escape in 1798, Next
year he forced Napoleon to raise the siege of
Acre, and was wounded at Alexandria, where
he served as a brigadier under Sir Ralph Aber-
cromby (1801). Returning to England, he re-
ceived many honours and rewards, and was
elected M.P. for Rochester (1802). In 1814 his
career practically came to an end. He was
made K.C.B. in 1815, promoted admiral in 1821,
and created G.C.B. in 1838. During most of
his later years he resided in Paris, where he
died on May 26th, 1840. Although his courage
and energy were undoubted, Tie was vain-
glorious and boastful md embroiled himself
with Lord Nelson and even with the Govern-
ment through disobedience inspired by conceit,

Sinitlillold, or Smoothpield. which would
seem to be its correct name, a district of Lon-
don, immediately north of Newgate Street,
west of Aldersgate, south of Clerkenwell and
east of Farringdon Street. It is now occu-
pied by the great Metropolitan Meat Market
and the necessary open space in front of it



fcttlthiwiiai tuititiitioii.


( 805 )


utilised as a liay market^ the lanioas Hospital
of St. Bartholomew, Cloth Fair and the fine
old church of St. Bartholomew the Great. From
the 12th century it was the scene cl jousts and
tournaments promoted by the kings, and was
the recreation ground where the 'prentices and
others played bowls and football and followed
archery aM^ other sports. Until the gallows
was erected at Trburn it was the place of
public execution, tne most illustrious Victim of
the law being Sir William Wallace, who was
hanged herein 1305 before being drawn and
quarteredw Here, too, on June 16th, 1381, Wat
Tyler, at tho head of 30,000 insurgent peasants,
was stabbed to death by Sir William Wal-
worth, liord Mayor of London, in the presence
of Eichard 11 . It was resorted to for purposes
of duels and the superstitious ordeal by battle,
and miracle plays were performed hero before
the days of theatres. During the reigns of
Henry VIII., Mary, and ElizgHaeth, martyrs —
Tictims now of Catholic and now of Protekant
bigotry and cruelty — were burned at the stake.
For fully seven centuries it was annually the
scene of the notorious Bartholomew Fair which,
originating as a hond^fide fair of three days’
duration, ultimately developed into a fort-
night's saturnalia which became the scandal
and disgrace of the metropolis and was finally
stopped in 1850. It was the great market for
cattle, sheep, horses and pigs almost from the
period of the Conquest until 1865, when the
cattle market was removed to a more commodi-
ous and much more suitable site in Islington.
It was after this removal that the markets for
the sale of butcher meat and poultry were
erected, with fish and vegetable markets ad-
joining on the west. St. Bartholomew’s Hos-
pital, founded in 1123 by Bahere, a monk and
ex-jester of Henry I., in course of time be-
came the foremost medical school in London,
and the church of St. Bartholomew the Great
contains some beautiful examples of Norman
work. At the south-west of Smithfield are
Pie Corner, where the Great Fire of 1666
ceased its ravages, and Cock Lane, which
was haunted by the ghost in which Dr. John-
son is usually though erroneously supposed to
have been a believer. East Smithfield, east
of the Tower and the Mint, is now largely oc-
cupied by St. Katharine's and London Docks
and Warehouses, but was comparatively rural
as late as the Civil War, for it is recorded that
in 1629 Charles I. killed a stag here.

Snitlisoitiaii Xnstitatioii is a scientific
foundation established at Washington, United
States, in 1846. The history of its origin is
this:— Barnes Smithson (1765-1829), natural son
of the first Duke of Northumberland of the third
creation, was a graduate of Pembroke College,
Oxford, where he was distinguished for his
attaiumhuts iu chemistry, became in 1787
And assoc^t^ with the men of scien-
tific note of the day. Alter a life of travel,
he dfeu At Genoa, and left a large property to
his aephew, with reversiou, in dexauit of direct

212— N.K.’


'heirsi:'to the United Statelt^v^'to^lound ahWadi-
ington, under thh name ^Of the Smithsonian
Institution, an estaldishnient for the increase
and difiusion of knowledge among men." Thus,



iu 1837, the United States Treasury inherited
.£104,960, and the interest on this enabled them
to start the Institution on a liberal scale, the
Union Government having generously re-
inforced the income by many grants. The In-
stitution is controlled by a board of regents of
whom the President Of the United States is,
ex officio^ head. It concerns itself with explora-
tion and research in zoology, ethnology, geo-
logy, geography, astronomy and other wanohes
of science, and issues, iu quarto, Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge, and, in octavo.
Miscellaneous Contributions, in addition to
Annual Beports, Bulletins and Proceedings. It
is housed in one of the finest buildings in Wash-
ington, and founded the National Museum, an
Astrophysical Observatory, Zoological Park,
and a Library, besides accommodating the
library of Congress. When, in 190^, the
cemetery in Genoa was demolished owing to
municipal improvements, Smithson's remains
were delivered over to the United States and
re-interred in Wasningtou in 1904,

Bxaoka is usually a gaseous current conveying
solid particles in a fine state of djivision. If a
piece of zinc be heated strongly in the air, it
will catch fire and burn with a brlUiaat bluish
fiame, evolving dense clouds of white sntoke.
This smoke is of the simplest kind. It con-
sists of zinc oxide— often Known as zinc white
—which is carried upwards by tho heated air.
The smoke from burning; fuel is of a niore com-
plex nature, allhough carbon in the form of
soot is often present ip lart© quantities, as
Lohdouers in the season of fog, Sspeoially in



C 806>


SaMdmtik.


Korember. know to tkeir cost. is ac-

oontpanied by carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitro-
gen, and, sometimes, carbon monoxide. In big
towns tbe escape oi rast quantities of smoke
into tbe atmospnere is consiaered as a nuisance,
and is punishable by fine. Such an escape of
smoke shows, howeTer^ that the fuel is not
being consumed economically, so that it is to
the cc^nsumer's interest to prevent it. To this
end fhi^aces are supplied with special arrange-
ments for regulating both the supply of fuel
and of air to the fire-place.

SlttOlolUil:. a government of Central Russia,
bounded on tne N. bv Pskofi and Tver, on the
E. by Moscow and Kaluga, on the S. by Orel
and Tchernigoff, and on the W. by Moghilefi
and Vitebsk. It covers an area of 21,624 square
miles. The surface is hilly in the north and
west, but in the south and east it declines to-
wards a great plain. Watered by the Dnieper,
Dwina, Qzhat, Oka, and other rivers, its soil
is very fertile, and yields heavy crops of rye,
oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, hemp, flax, hops,
and tobacco. The live-stock comprises horses,
cattle, sheep, and pigs, all raised in large num-
bers. The industries include distilling, paper-
making, cotton-spinning, and the making of
agricultural implements. The capital, Smql-
XN8K (67,405) is situated on the Dnieper. The
TJspenski Cathedral (Church of the Ascension)
contains the picture of the Virgin brought to
Russia iu 1046. It is ascribed to the evangelist
Luke and is regarded with general veneration.
Other buildings are the public libraries, anti-
quarian museum, and a people’s palace. There
are monuments commemorative of the com-
poser Glinka and the war of 1812, when the
town was seized by the French and suffered
greatly both from fighting and flames. It is one
of the oldest towns in Russia, was formerly a

? rincipality, was taken by Sigismund III. of
bland in 1611, recaptured by Russia in 1654
and finally annexed to the empire in 1686.
Pop. of province (estimated), 1,800,000.

SmoUdtt, Tobias George, novelist, the
younger grandson of a Scots law lord, was
born at Dalquhurn, Dumbartonshire, in 1721.
He was edxicated at the Grammar School of
Dumbarton and, amidst some hardships, studied
at Glasgow University for the medical profes-
sion. His grandfather, dying, left him penni-
less at the age of eighteen, and he came up to
London with his tragedy TKt Megidde, but
took the post of surgeon^s mate in the navy,
serving until 1744, wnen he resolved to seek a
livelihood in literature. His first ventures.
Advice and Reproof » two satirical poems, found
a publisher^ but bis plays were reject^, and
he and his wife, a creole beauty, the daughter
of an English planter, were reduced to cruel
styraits. In these circumstances he wrote
Roderich Random, which appeared in 1748, and
at once brought its author into note, being full
of the rollicking^ somewhat cynical, humour
then in vogue* through Henry Fielding's
masterpieces. The Adventwree at peregnne


IttUgflillfi;


Pickle followed three years later, andi proved an
equal success, though inferior as a literary pro-
duction. Ferdina^, Count Faihom, a repul-
sive but more cleverly-constructed ^ry, was
published in 1753, and then for a time Smollett
contented himself with hack-work, such as hts
translation of Don Quixote (1756), his Oom^
pendium of Voyage (1766), Hiatoru of Eng^
land (1757-8), and Freaeni State of All Naiions
(1764), besides directing and contributing to
the Critical Review, of which the first number
appeared in 1756. He engaged, too, in political
controversy on the Tory side, and produced
The Repriaala (1757), a farce intended to stimu^
late hostility towards France. His health now
broke down just as he had returned to romance
in Sir Launcelot Greaves (1762), and in 1763 he
went abroad, coming back to publish his
travels in 1766. The History and Adventures
of an Atom, inspired by disappointed hopes,
was produced in 1769, when his health compelled
him to seek a change at Monte Nero, near Leg-
horn. Here in his sick room he composed The
Expedition of Humphrey Clinker (1771), in
many respects his most attractive novel, and
here he died on September 17th, 1771,

Smuggling denotes (1) the importation or ex-
portation of prohibited goods, and (2) the de-
frauding the revenue by avoiding a duty levied
upon the production or consumption of an
article. In its ordinary use, the word is ap-

S lied only to the former of these, and in these
ays of Free Trade the custom of smuggling
has well* nigh died but, since the profit does
not pay the risk. For smuggling the penalty
is treble the value of the goods smuggled and
a possible fine of .£100. Any preventive or ex-
cise officer may go on board a ship and search
it, and may search any waggon, cart, or other
vehicle, and has also the right to search any
person aboard of or leaving a ship, and any
person obstructing him is liable to a fine of
£100. An armed combination of persons for
smuggling purposes constitutes a felony. The
southern sea-board of England, in the first
half of the 19th century, abo\inded in tales of
smugglers, their haunts, their devices, and.
their occasional pitched battles with t]^e pre-
ventive men. The smugglers, who were often
decent men in all other respects, held that they
were (as of course they were) the real free traders
and that they were conferring a boon on the
community by providing spirits, tea, tobacco,
lace and other contraband goods of the best
quality at reasonable prices. For these ser-
vices the nefarious practices were constantly
winked at by the inhabitants of the districts
where they made their “runs.*’' Tobacco and
spirits are generally the objects now smuggled.
It will be remembered that, iu his lifetime, his
country recognised Robert Burns’s genius by
making him a gauger, or excise officer. The
poet had a few minor encounters with siBug«-

f lers, but it is said was lenient to small offen-
ers. Tlie Hon. Henry Noel Shore's entertain-
ing book on Smuggling Da^a and Smuggling


•niiit.


( 307 )


Sniklcfflit'


WayB (1892) is the best Authority pn the sub-
ject.

Smut (TJgtUago Carhop a pbyoomyoetous fan-
gus, parasitic upon grasses^ especially oats and
other cereals. Its mycelium permeates the
seeds and other reproductive organs of the
host; forming black spores, whi<m germinate
when the seed falls, producing a promyoelium
with sporidia. These latter, in turn, produce
a new mycelium, which penetrates young
plants. The allied fungus TiiUtia Cariu pro-
duces the similar disease in wheat known as
bunt.

Smyrna (Turkish, Jmir), the greatest seaport
of Turkey-in- Asia, and capital of the vilayet,
or province of Aidin, or Smyrna (area, 21,560
square miles; pop., 1,400,000), situated at the
head of the Gulf of Smyrna, on the coast of
Asia Minor, 212 miles S.W. of Constantinople.
It is divided into five quarters, in which
Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Franks
(Europeans) dwell apart. The harbour is one
of the best on the Mediterranean. There are
large and well-stocked bazaars, a palace for
the Governor, many mosques and churches, an
English hospital, and some few remains of
ancient structures. The principal exports are
Turkey carpets, fabrics of silk and Angora
goat’s hair, sponges, figs (a speciality), raisins
and other dried fruits, drugs, opium, tobacco,
valonia, hides, leeches, coffee, anti some precious


belonniiig '.lo 'the genera' '''l^lanorbis, Lymnma.
Paludina, etc. The snail# if a coiled, spiral
shell, which is often preftily ornamentea by
colour bands; they live on trees, grass, an4



OOMMOK SSAlL




under stones, etc., and are especially plentiful
in limestone districts. The animals feed on
vegetable material, which they cut up by
means of a long-toothed ribbon or saw-like
tongue, known as the “radula.” They are
^tive during the summer, and hibernate
in winter, when the mouth of the shell is
closed by a thin gelatinous film called the
“epiphragm.” The animals are hermaphro-
dite, but always pair with other snails, c^nd
self-fertilisation never occurs. The snail is a
very useful type in biology, llie largest liv-
ing species in England is Helix pomatia^ the
edible or Bcraan snail. In France it has long
played a prominent part both in diet and in
medicine, being held to be beneficial in con-
sumption and certain catarrhal complaints.

The best kind for the market



are reared in Burgundy.

Snake, Lewis or Shoshone
Rivkh, ri.<sing as the South Fork
in the Kocky Mountains in the
north-west of Wyoming, about
44° N. and 110^ W. It first
flows southwards, then west-
wards across Idaho, then north-
wards along the boundary of
Oregon, and finally westwards
in Washington until it falls into
the Columbia, of which it is
the largest affluent. Its prin-
cipal tributaries are, on the
right, the North Fork, Big
Wood, Boise, Salmon^ Clear-
water and Palouse and, on the


BAY OF SMYRNA.


left, the Salmon Falls, ^runeau,


stones. It is connected by rail with Scutari
(for Constantinople) and several places in the
interior, Pop., 200,OCK),

is the name of one of the most familiar
members of the Gasteropoda, one of the classes
of the Mollusca, The snails are well known, as
they are widely distributed, are usually very
abundant, and are comijnon objects. The name
is often used in a general sense for all the mol-
luscs with a shell (composed of a single shell)
which live on land; it is, however, more cor-
rectly restricted to those belonging to the
genus Helix, The Water Snails include species


Owyhee, Malheur, Powder and
Grande Bonde. It has a total length of from
900 to 1,000 miles. It is navigable as far up
as Lewiston, but navigation in the cafions,
where its bed is, in places, 4,000 feet below
the surface, and upper stretches is impossible
owing to falls and rapids. The most importaut
falls are those called Shoshone.

Snake Birdl. [Dabteb.]

. SnakeSf a tribe of North American Indians
[Shoshonean Indians.]

Snakes { OpUdia), the popular name of an ordet
of Reptiles^ the members of which are well knes^




Irozn thMr genemlly long, lithe bodies, their giiditig
motion, the ebsence oi externid IlmbSi and the
terrible power possessed by many of them of in*
iioting deadly wonnds by means of their poisonona



SNAKE-OHARMXR.

{Photo : Bourne dt Shepherd, Calcutta*)


fangs. In some of these points they resemble other
animals ; in shape some are not to be distinguished
from limbless lizards — which, in turn, are often
confounded with snakes — and limbless fish;
while poison-fangs are possessed by at least one
lizard, the Hel<^erm. (The words ‘‘serpent”
and “snake ” are practically synonymous, but
it has been held tnat the former has a more
technical and more formal shade of meaning
than the latter and is therefore seldom ap-
plied to limbless lizards, which, as we hare
lust seen, are often mistaken for and called
“snakes.") The skin is covered with scales,
and is shed periodically ; sometimes, as in the
case of the Common British Snake (Tropic
domtus na^rias), several times in the year.
There are no external ear-openings, and the
nostrils are near the extremity of the head.
Eyelids are absent, but the transparent skin
bovers and protects the eyes. Most of them
po^ess scent-glands near the vent, and when
irritated they pour forth the ilWmelUng secre-
tion very freely. The vertebras, holloir in front
(procmlous), are very nnmerons, and the ribs


I function as limbs,, by means of which these
creatures row their way along on any surface
not absolutely smooth. The skeleton of the
head is remarkable lor the mobility of the
bones of the lower jaw, which can be entirely
separated from the base of the sknll proper,
thus enlarging the capacity of the mouth and
throat. It is owing to this arraujgement and
to the elasticity of the skin that ^snakes can
swallow prey so much bigger round than them-
selves. In some snakes, the Boas, for example*
there are traces of a rudimentary pelvis and of
equally rudimentary hind legs. The tongue
which is cleft at the tip, can be drawn back,
and moved freely in any direction, and serves
as an organ of touch; but no snake uses it, as
the Boas were said to do, to lubricate the prey
with saliva before swallowing it. The poison-
gland is a specialised salivary gland; and the
poison-fangs, borne on the upper jaw, are
furnished with a canal or groove down which
the poison flows into the wound when a venom-
ous serpent strikes. Most snakes are ovmar-
ous; some few are viviparous, and the pythons
incubate. One case has occurred in the Zoo-
logical Gardens, Eegent's Park, and another
was reported from Leipzig in 1893, Snakes are
widely distributed, but attain their greatest
development of size and numbers in tropical
countries, where, as might be expected, the
most venomous forms are found ; and in India
the deaths from snake-bite are extremely
numerous. Many so-called specifics have been
recommended ; but the treatment which Sir
Joseph Fayrer {ThancUophidia of India) re-
commends is the application of a ligature
above the bite, scarification or cautery of the
wound, and keeping up the patient's strength.
In India a class of men make a living by
charming such creatures as the cobras, in spite
of the deadly character of their bites. The rep-
tile seems to be fascinated by the monotonous
music of a pipe, swaying its body to and fro
rhythmically in response to the simple strain.
While in this subdued mood it is readily cap-
tured by the charmer, who, having extracted
the fangs, keeps the snake to tame it for
exhibition. In the United Kingdom there
are three representatives of the order, the
Bing Snake and the Yiper, and the Smooth
ISnaxe (Corondla Icevis), confined to the south
;of England. In habit snakes are mostly terres-
trial, some are arboreal, and a few are marine.
[Sea-Snake.] Most of them prey on mam-
mals, birds and reptiles, and amphibians, and
some on molluscs and insects, while most are
fond of milk, and one South African snake
{Itachiodan) subsists on eggs, which are broken
by the so-called gtilar teeth — really the inferior
spines of the anterior vertebr®. The contents
flow down the throat, and the shell is rejected.
Tbe following classification of the order m that
generally in use : —

BiiiKn Snakes (T^/pMopidte), the lowest of
the order/small burrowing forms tbat feed on worms
and inseotis. ^ found in tropical countri^
and Australia There is bhe hluropean species.



< 809 )




IftllW#


Hasmik CoiiCrBBn'omM Btxaxm (Coiubri*
formes), Thafie are liarailess to iiian, but some
of tbeiu baTe tbe teeth grooved, showing inti-
mate oonnection with the next group* Here
beloi^ the Boas, Pythons, Tree-Snakes, and
the British snakes.

OoiiUBBiroBM Txnoiious Snaxxs (Colubri”
formes venenosi), as the Ck)bras, Hamadi^as
(snake-eatine snake), Coral-Snakes, and Sea-
Snakes, with erect grooved teeth and poison
glands.

YnpBBiFonM Skakxs (Viperiformes), with
erectile, perforated teeth, and poison-glands, as
the Tipers, Eattlesnakes, etc.

But, as the poison of snakes is a question of
degree rather than of kind, the old division
into Harmless and Venomous Snakes will pro-
bably lapse in favour of the classification in-
troduced by Mr. G. A. Boulenger, F.B.S., in
his Catalogue of Snahea in the British Museum
(Natural Mistory), vol. i., where characters of
the skull are taken as the basis of groining.
He recognises the following families: — Typh-
lopidss, Glauconiidffi, Boidse, IlysiidsB, Uropel-
tidSB, XenopeltidsB, Colubridss, Amblycephalidaa,
and Viperidie.

Snake Stones, a term used (1) for charred
bones or pieces of porous stones which, when
laid on a snake-bite, were said to absorb the
poison; (2) for ammonites, from the fact that
fraudulent dealers fitted fictitious heads to
them and sold them as fossil snakes; and (3)
for adder-beads.


Snapdragon, the popular name for Antirrhi*
rum majua and allied species, scrophulariace-
ous plants with racemes of showy flowers, with
a saccate ** personate,” i.e., mask-like, corolla,
followed by oblique, two-chambered, many-
seeded pore-capsules. The flower differs from
that of the toad-flaxes in having a pouch
instead of a spur. Antirrhinums are old-
fashioned garden favourites.

Snoeiing. The act of sneezing consists in
a preliminary taking in of air, which is then
expelled by spasmo^c contraction of the ex-
piratory musmes, all way of escape through
the mouth being blocked by contraction of the
muscles of the fauces and the descent of the
soft palate, and the current of air being in
consequence made to pass through the nose.

Snell, John, founder of the Snell Exhibitions
at Balliol College, Oxford, was born in 1629
in the parish of Colmonell, Ayrshire, Scotland,
in which his father carried on the craft of
blacksmith. He studied at Glasgow University
and, during the Civil War, sympathising with
the Royalists, fought for the King at Worcester
in 1651. While in hiding after the battle he made
the acquaintance of Sir Orlando Bridgeman
(Pi606-74), the lawyer, who employed him as
his clerk and, when raised to the bench, ap-
pointed him crier of his court. When Bridge-
man became lA>rd Keeper he continued to be-
iidhhd Snell and made Mm eeal-lmarer, an
ofltdl he held during the chancellorship of the


1st Bari of S^tesbury^ He was afterwards
secretary to the Buke of Monnn|inth and man*
aged the ducal estates in Scomhd. He died
at Oxford on August 6th, 16f9. He always re-
tained a warm affection for his Alma mater
and left part of his estate to found scholarships
for the purpose of carry titg on the education of
Glasgow students at a cmlege in Oxford <de-
oreea in 1693 by the Court of Chancery to be
Balliol). The provision that the exhibitione^a
should enter the Church and proceed to'moh'.
lend for preferment was Anally held to be ih*
operative in consequence of the disestablish-
ment of Episcopacy in Scotland. Adam Smitl)L,
John Gibson I^^khart, John Wilson (“Christo-
pher North Sir William Hamilton, Arch*
bishop^A. C. Tait and Principal Shairp were all
Snell Exhibitioners.

Snider, Jacob, inventor of the Snider rifle, boirn
in 1820, started in business as a wine merchant
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but failed. He
then devoted himself to mechanical inventions,
and in 1859 came over to Europe with a model
of the Mount Storm breech-loader made by
converting the muzzle-loading rifle of the
United States Army. His modified plans were
at last accepted by the British War Office for
the conversion of the Enfield rifle, and the new
weapon was known by the inventor's name.
Endless disputes then followed as to his re^
muneration, till, crushed hy poverty and dis-
appointment, he died on October 25th, 1866,
before he got his claims recognised, although
it is melancholy to think that the Government
had, after the usual culpable delay, decided
on the amount and principle practically whilst
the distracted inventor was lying in articuh
mortis.

Snipe, u bird belonging to the genus Gallin-
ago of tne Wading family Scolopacid®, with
twenty-four species universally distributed.
The bill is long, straight, slightly flexible, ex-
tremely sensitive, and serves as a delicate organ
of touch by means of which these birds procure
the worms and insects on which they feed, and
which they obtain by thrusting the bill into
the ipud and soft earth of the marshy and
fenny places they frequent. Three species j|ire
British. The Common Snipe (G. codestis) spends
the summer and breeds in the United King-
dom, leaving in autumn and returning in the
spring. The total length is about eleven
inches. The general plumage is shades of
brown and buff marked and barred with black ;
the belly is white. The J^k Snipe (Q.
gallinvXd), a much smaller species, is a winter
visitor. The Great, Solitary, or Woodcock
Snipe (Q. major) visits the British Isles in the
autumn in its southward migration. These
birds afford excellent sport ana are aE highly
valued for the table.

Snow, tbe crystalline form of atmospheric
moisture formed when the tempwatfire is be-
low the freezing-point* Snow Wls in flakoe*
each of which consists of a number of symj


illMrlMA TzM»


( 810 )




motrically sk-rayed, ptar-Hke isryaiik, aome-
timas ezeeadingly complex in loiriii. More tkan
a thousand forme have been described. The
opaque whiteness of snow, like that of table*
salt, tesults from the numerous reflections from
the faces of the minute
■IIIIIH crystals, which individually

are transparent. Snowflakes
contain about times as
many volumes of air, en-
tangled, so to speak, among
then* crystals, as they con*
tain water; that
of snow ten inches deep
is about equivalent to an
ssowcavsTAL. inch of rain. Snow is a

bad conductor of heat, and
it is owing to this property that as it lies on the
ground it protects plants from frost. Snow
never f alls «t the sea-level within the tropics^
and seldom in the southern hemisphere north
of 48® S* The snow-limit for sea-level passes
through Buenos Aires, Cape Town, Melbourne,
and Sydney in the southern, and through
Mexico, North Africa, Asia Minor, the south of
the Caspian, the north of Hindostan, and Can-
ton, in the northern hemisphere. In England,
whilst it descends to seadevel in winter, it
rises in summer several miles overhead, the
fleecy cirrus clouds then seen being composed
of snow. Considerably higher than the isotherm
of 32® is the snow-line, or line of perpetual
snow, above which the snow never entirely
melts. At Quito, near the equator, it is at
15,800 feet; in Mexico (19® N.) at 14,800; on
the south side of the Himalaya, which is sup-
plied with abundant moisture from the Indian
Ocean, it is at 16,200 feet; but on the north
side, which is heated by the dry air from
Tibet, at 17,400. In Granada (37® N.) it is at
11,200 feet, and on Mont Blanc (46® N.) 8,500
feet. Though there is generally some snow in
the protected crevices on Ben Nevis and other
Hignland hills in Scotland, no point in the
British Isles actually reaches the snow-line. In
Iceland (60® N.) it is at 3,100 feet ; at the North
Cape 2,000 feet, and at Spitsbergen at sea-
level. Besides the protection of vegetation,
the chief geological actions of snow are the
formation of avalanches, glaciers, and summer
floods, such as those of Mesopotamia.

Snowball Trot, [Gueldeb Kose.]

8nowborr7 {Symph^ricarpm racemotus), a
North American shrub, belonging to the
honeysuckle order, commonly grown in English
gardens. It has roundish smooth blue-green
leaves ; small pink flowers and large globular
dead-white berries, which are four-chambered
but have two chambers aborted, the other two
each containing one seed. The cells of the pulp
of the fruit are exceptionally large.

Snow-Bird ilMnyiUa MmaUs)^ a North
American finch, being quite as familiar f bird
in the United States as the rpbin is in Great
Britain. Its length is about six inches; the


plumage is slate-brown above, the lower parte
and the two outer tail feathers are white.

Snow Snntiiig (JPleetmpkmm nimlit), an
arctic and sub-arclic finch i the most northern
of the Passerine birds, coming southwards in
winter as far as Morocco. Large flocks occur
in winter in the British Isles, and some have
remained to breed in the north of Scotland and
Shetland. In Iceland it is the commonest of
the smaller birds, a pair generally establishing
themselves in every suitable locality. The tot«3
length is a little more than six inches, and
the plumage black-and-white above and white
below. The coloration, however, varies con-
siderably at different seasons, and on that
account these birds have been described under
more than one name. In winter they feed on
seeds, and in summer on insects. Soon after
their arrival in their' winter quarters they
become ve^ fat, and are then esteemed a
delicacy. Tne Greenlanders take them in great
numbers, and dry them for future use.

Snowdon (“ the Hill of Snow ; the Welsh
name Eryri means “Eagle Top”), a mountain
in Carnarvonshire, Wales, 10 miles S.E. of
Carnarvon. It is 3,671 feet in altitude and is
thus not only the highest hill in Wales but
also the highest south of the Scottish border.
It is, moreover, the most majestic, comprising
its five peaks of Y Wyddfa (the loftiest), Yr
Aran, Lliwedd, Crib-y-Ddysgyl and Cribgoch.
If we include the outlying spurs and h)wer
groups that hedge in the central elevation, the
mass occupies an area extending from north
to south about 12 miles, and from east to west
6 miles, bounded by Llanrug, Bettwsgarmon,
Beddgelert, Nantgwynant (“the vale of
Waters ”), Capel Curig and Llanberis. Beyond
these limits are the wider bounds of the dis-
trict once called Snowdonia, which stretches
from Penmaenmawr to the neighbourhood of
Nevin, The view from the summit where the
five ribs or spokes meet is extremely imposing.
Close at hand are rugged hollows and awesome
precipices, beyond are glens characterised by
wild and picturesque scenery, and farther off
the sea and the English marching counties.
The Pass of Llanberis, on the north, and the
Pass of Aberglaslyn are noted for their savage
grandeur. Several lakes enhance the charm of
the mountain landscape. Since 1897 a rack-
and-pinion railway, 5 miles long, has enabled
the ascent to be made from Llanberis to the
hotel on the summit. There are stations at
intervals of a mile at Waterfall (1 mile),
Hebron (2). Half Way (3), Clogwyn (4), and
Snowdon (5). During the winter, when the
ordinary service is suspended, special trains
run by arrangement for the accommodation of
parties. The gau^e is 2 feet 7^ inches and the
cost of construction per mile amounted to
^ 11 , 650 .

Snowdirop (0atmUhm nivalii)f a beautiful
Britii^ winter-flowering amarylUdaceous plant.
It has a bulb, a pair of narrow linear






( 811 )




S lauooiis leaves, and one or two drooping white
owers with a membranous two-nerved spathe,
a spreading white calyx, and three erect
notched petals, white with green points. In
gardens it is often doubled, and several other
species are also cultivated.

Snyders, Feanz, painter, was born at Ant-
werp in 1579, and studied painting under



ITBAVZ SKYDKBS.


{From the portrait hy Van Dyck,)

Peter Breughel and Hendrik van Balen, de-
voting himself at first chiefly to still-life and
flowers, but ultimately preferring animal sub-
jects in which he showed extraordinary skill.
Probably no one ever succeeded better in catch-
ing the spirit of wild nature and in reproduc-
ing the colour and texture of fur and feather.
HS composition was almost always spontaneous
and his drawing as sure as it was vigorous.
He has never been excelled in the depicting of
the fury of fight or the movement of the chase.
He painted numerous versions of “Stag Hunt*’
and “Boar Hunt ’’ and is very familiar through
the medium of engravings. He frequently co-
operated with Rubens and Jordaens, and was
court painter to the Archduke Albert, Gover-
nor or the Ketherlands. He died at Antwerp
in 1657. There are examples of his work in
Hampton Court Palace and the National Gal-
lery in Edinburgh.

SoAne, Sib John, whose real name was Swan,
architect and founder of the Soane Museum,
was born at Whitchurch, near Reading, Berk-
shire, on September 10th, 1753. Evincing
early a marked skill in drawing, he studied at
the Royal Academy Schools and carried off,
in 1772, the silver medal for a drawing of the
Banqueting House at Whitehall and, in^ 1776,
the gold medal and travelling studentship for
a design for a triumphal arch. After spending
three years, chiefly in Rome, he settled down
to practise in liOndon in 1780 and in 1788 was
appointed architect to the Oovernoire of the
Bank of England, for whom he designed the


present bulMinf in the Roman CJorinthian
style. In 1791 he became Clerk Of the Works
at St. James’s Palace and ^e Houaes of Parlia-
ment and was elected A.R.A. in 1796 and R,A*
in 1802. In 1806 he succeeded George Dance
the younger (1741-1826) as Professor of Archi-
tecture at the Royal Academy. About 1808
he was engaged in the restoration work at Ox-^
ford, especially at Brasenose College, and in
1812 erected the gallery at Dulwich for the
reception of the pictures bequeathed to tne
College by Sir Peter Francis Bourgeois, R.A.
(1756-1811). He was knighted in 1831— refus-
ing a baronetcy, it is said, so that his sou
George (1790-1860), with whom he had a stand-
ing quarrel, might not inherit anything from
him, retired from practice and all appoint-
ments in 1833, received from his brother archi-
tects in 1835 a set of medals in recognition of
his public services and died at his house in
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, on January
20th, 1837. Four years before this date he had
presented to the nation the house and its con-
tents, which constituted a gallery of extreme
value and interest and is known as the Soane
Museum. Amongst some of its choicest posses-
sions are William Hogarth’s series of the
“Rake’s Progress” and the “Election” and
Sir Joshua Reynolds’s “Snake in the Grass,”
besides the famous alabaster sarcophagus


which had been brought from Egypt by
Giovanni Baptista Belzoni (1778-1821). The
collection contains numerous remains of anti-
^ity, gems, scarce books and illuminated

Soap bas been known since the classical period
at any rate. It is spoken of by Pliny and cer-
tain, other writers, while remains of a soap





( 31S>






maBufaetory were diec^irered within thf mine
of Pompeii, ooBtainiBgr sj^imene of .^e etiljK
stBBoe wtoh 414 Bot differ eesentially frpm
what eoBfititntee the eoap of the preseni d^y.
Althedgli known for such a iengtny period of
time* Sae improTemente in the process of its
xnanufactnre nave been but slinhti All soaps
consist of alkalies united with tne acid present
in various oils or fats. These latter compounds
consist of an acid combined with glycerine,
and in thf^ process of soap-making this glycer-
ine is repli^^ by soda or potash, so that the
resulting soap is really merely the sodium (or
potassium) salt of the organic fatty acid. The
chief acids present in the fats are stearic, mar-
garic, and, to a smaller extent, oleic acids, and
it is the salts of these compounds which, in
iHfferent proportions, constitute most soaps.
Por the manufacture the fat, such as tallow or
palm oil, is placed in a large cauldron or
m>iler, the necessary amount of soda solution
or lye is added, ana the whole is kept boiling
until the action is completed (from 1 to 2
houre). A quantity of salt is then added,
which causes the soap to separate out and rise
to the surface, as it is not soluble in salt
solution. It is then ladled into wood or iron
frames or moulds and allowed to set, after
which it is cut into sticks by wire and placed
in a drying-room to dry. Cakes, etc., and
those used for toilet purposes, are made by
pressure in moulds. For white or curd soap,
tallow, or palm oil (which should be first
bleached), or olive oil is usually employed,
whilst the addition of lard improves the quality
of the soain. In the yellow soaps resin is also
added to the other ingredients, while marbled
soaps or mottled soaps owe their appearance
to the introduction of salts of iron. Toilet
soaps do not differ essentially from the ordi-
nary washing or curd soap, but are merely
clarified and perfumed and coloured or
marbled by mixing in small quantities of pig-
ments or dyes, ^ft-soap contains potash in
place of soda — i.e., a potassium salt of the
organic acid— and is usually made from a
** drying oil,** as hempseed oil, etc., instead of
from tallow or palm oil. By lime and other
salts soap is precipitated, as the lime salts of
these orgaidfc Acias are insoluble; owing to
this hard water is not suitable for washing
purposes, as thO lime salts in the water com-
bine with the soap acids, and no lather results
until all been thns got rid of. According
to the great chemist, Baron Liebigr (1803-73),
the quantity of soap used may be regarded as
a measure of the civilisation of a country.
3udged by this standard, the United Kingdom
maintains the leading place, more being manu-
factured in this than in any other country,
and the quantity used per head i(!i equivalent to
about 8*5 lbs. per annum, exclusive of that
Used m manufacturing operations. On the
other hand, there is the point of view enter-
tained by some Continental nations that the
British must be an exceptionaEy dirty people
since they are always If&hing memsefvST"^^


HwB BrnhlileMi. The outside of a liqnid acta
lust as though it were an Mastic skin stretohed
Into a particular shi^. If* therelbre* We
could get rid of the effect of the weight of a
drop of liquid, we should see only the effect of
this skin. When a very small arop is taken,
we are approaching this state of things, and we
notice that the drop is very nearly spherical,
since the elastic skin pulls it till its surface ii
the smallest possible for the givbn quantity of
liquid, and the sphere gives this minimum sur-
face. A soap bubble snows this in a beautiful
manner, for in this case we have practically
isolated the elastic skin itself. That the skin
is exerting pressure upon the air inside it can
be shown in the following way : — ^Blow a
bubble at the end of a tube or pipe, and then
remove the pipe from the mouth ; the bubble
immediately begins to force the air back again
along the stem of the pipe, and out through
the open end, while it subsides into a fiat film.
It is easily shown also that a small bubble
exerts a greater pressure on the oontained air
than a larger one. If the interiors of two
bubbles of different sizes be connected by a
tube, the small one will grow smaller, while
the larger one will increase, owing to the
greater pressure of the smaller skin. The pres-
sure, therefore, dCpehds on the curvature of the
bubble, and this is true whether the bubble be
spherical or of any other shape, only that the
value of the curvature is more readily realised
in the case of a sphere than in that of n
cylinder or other curved surface. Two bubbles
can be made to push each other about, but yet
the actual films do not touch ; there is a tnin
layer qf air between the two, and this thin
layer is present when one bubble is blown in-
side another, so that the two bubbles do not
(if carefully blown) coalesce or burst. When
they are merely externally resting against each
other, the presence of an article electrified to
the slightest degree will cause their union.
Hence such a pair of bubbles form a delicate
test for small quantities of electricity. The
blowing of bubbles inside others, although a^
parent^ a very simple matter, is really a diffi-
cult feat to accomplish. Sir Isaac Newton
devoted much thou^t to the study of "Soap
bubbles. He observed that, as the liquid thins
away from the top of the bubble, coloured
rings grow in regular order, spreading out-
wards till they attain their greatest diameter :
then they close in gradually on the under side
and vanish at the bottom. The colours pass
through the most beautiful tints, eventually
becoming dark red ; then they increase in light-
ness to a dirty^white, which again darkens, till
at last a black spot appears at the top, and
this reaches a diameter of ^ or J of an inch,
and then the bubble bursts. As a bubble is
blown larger and larger its skin resists strqteh*
ing, and^liord Kelvin has shown, in his lecture
on the size of atoms, that the film cquid not
keep up its tensile strength to the point wlien
its ^ickness is as little ae oi^ > n

oentinietre'; but he says it-: is*'';Soarodjr 'conceiii^





(318)


'Soolililittli*


abte that there can be any falling off in this
tensile strength as long as the ff On is several
molecules in thickness ;lience, when the tensile
strezigth fails, i.c„ when the bubble bursts,
we can assume that the film is only a single
molecule thick. The thickness of the black
spot has been shown by Professor A. W.
Eeinold, F.E.S., and Sir Arthur Eficker,
to be only slightly more than Twitnje
centimetre, and, as the film breaks soon after
this spot appears, it is probably then some-
thing like rinrTjVBW centimetre thick. This,
therefore, is the order of size of a molecule of
water.

Soapstone. [Steatite.]

Soapwort (Saponaria ajicimlis), a shrubby
plant belonging to the order Caryophyllace®,
with broad leaves and a large paniculate cyme
of fragrant rose-coloured flowers, often double.
It is not uncommon as an escape from culti-
vation. The whole plant is s^onaceous, the
root being employed in Asia Mnor to bleach
silk and wool ana give them a lustre, which
it is said to impart without injuring the most
sensitive colour.

Sobieaki. [John 111. of Poland.]

Socialiam. The modern movement covered by
this name must be looked at in two aspects. It
expresses, with more or less consciousness, a
religious or spiritual impulse, and it advocates
practical measures for readjusting the forma
of society, more especially (at this moment)
industrial forms, so as to give fuller expres-
sion and satisfaction to the promptings of that
impulse. In the spiritual direction it shows
HegePs definition of religion, as “the know-
ledge by the Finite Spirit of its essence as Ab-
solute Spirit,” reflected in the Christian doc-
trine of the brotherhood and equality of men
without distinction of class or nation (on which
the Christian Socialist school is basedh and
paraphrased in the revolutionary watchword,
“Liberty, Eq^uality, Fraternity,” entering into
the secular-Socialist analysis, which exhibits
each individual as produced, and his abilities
and powers as conditioned by, and therefore as
due to. Society. Inasmuch, however, as this im-
pulse seeks form in conscious life, and mere
bodily sustenance is the first condition of life
for the individual, the Socialist movement ap-
pears, over much of its recognised area, as
concerned with a material aim,^ namely, the
establishment of the primary basis of tolerable
human existence. And, broadly, whereas the
social th^ry of Individualism asserts free com-
petition as the safest method for the establish-
ment of this material basis, and encourages the
belief that the market price of each man's
abilities and the total weaJth that the arrange-
ments of society may enable him to amass (no
matter at what cost to his fellows) represent the
true value of those abilities and are produced
and justly earned by that man, the Socialist
theory asserts that organised and intelligent
combination is the more rational and more


effective meaim 'to"^iis :eiid* and thdt,, as \ the-
very existence of .any' form of' '.society' impUee
o large measure of co-opf|pition, whether d^
liberately or automatically established, it is
impossible to attribute, as of right, any por^
tion of the social product to any pamcular in-
dividual. It therefore prescribes as the canon
or production and distribution the formnlai
“From everyone according to his abilities; to
everyone according to his needs.” The Socialist
or concrete view of society as a living organ-
ism of which individuals are members, as le#yes
of a tree, produced by it and, ih their tdkn,
building it up, as opposed to the iudividuallst
or abstract view, underlies and is very clenrly
expounded in the political speoplations of
Flato (see especially RepubHc) and Aristotle
(Politics). John Euskin was, perhaps, its most
vivid and most stimulating exponent in the
19th century, and it is at least suggestife that
while his influence upon Art is declining his
influence in Sociology manifests an even
stronger upward tendency than it has yet ex-
hibited. Mediffival revolutionary movements,
such as the English, and especially the Cler'^
man, peasant revolts, though provoked by
economic oppression, very generally expressed
their aspirations in the precise terms of
modern Christian Socialism and their political
demands in formulas still accepted by contem-
porary Social Democracy. Forms of Commun-
ism, especially in land, and revolts of the poor
against rich oppressors, have been exemplified
in most countries and in nearly all ages. The
name Socialism, however, and the practical
activity of the contemporary Socialist move-
ment, both in its industrial aims and in its
speculative influence, date from the earliest
quarter of the 19th century.

The movement first found notable expression
in the doctrines and activities of Eobert Owen
in Great Britain, and Claude Henri Saint-
Simon and Francois Marie Charles Fourier in
France. It appeared as a revolt against the
condition to which the majority of the peoples
of those two countries had oeen, or were being,
reduced by the revolution in industrial pro-
cesses brought about by the inventions of
machinery, steam-power and the factory system
of production. The fact that the y private
ownership of land gave to its possessors
power and practical ownership over those
cultivated the land had been a cause qf social
trouble long familiar to all European nations.
The evil h^ been mitigated, and its essential
nature concealed, in England especially, by the
substitution of money rents for personal ser-
vice from tenants ; but already ^ economic
writers had advocated the nationalisation Of
land as the only remedy for the power of
private landowners to dictate to other citisens
the terms on which they should be allowed to
earn their living. The Socialists pointed out
thnt the substitution of the factory system of
production, in which masses qf men are em^
ployed with expensive machinery, for tjie
system under which the cirafteqiiLaii ^ had


( m )


SodalliiRu


Ms own tools ftiid Brodnood his woth
deatlT, or as one of a small dsmooratio group,
and disposed of it himself in open market,
tedtum the bulk of the workers, especially in
England, where the manufactnring industry
was mosi advanced, to a position in which they
were necessarily dependent upon the owners
of capital for leave to work for their living,
and were compelled to sell their labour for a
price, detjS^mined, not by the market value
of its pi^duct, but by competition amonff
themselves which tended (as the politick
economists insisted) to reduce wages to just
such a level as would enable the workers to
live and maintain their class. The surplus of
the value of the product over the wages thus
assigned to the worker, is retained under this
aystem by the capitalist, as rent is retained
by the landlord, without any intervention by
either in the processes of production. For the
owner of the capital, such as a shareholder in
a railway, is to be distinguished from a man-
ager or organiser of labour, whose remuneration
is of the nature of wages, and is determined by
its value in competition. This system, whilst
enormously increasing the power of man to
satisfy his wants, had turned to the advantage
chiefly of the owners and organisers of capital,
leaving the mass of wage-earners poor, and
with no control over their opportunities of
livelihood, whilst the vicissitudes of blind com-
petition continually disorganised production,
ruined employers, and threw wage^earners out
of employment.

This analysis, most completely elaborated by
Karl Marx in his work on Capital, is the basis
of the practical programme of Social Demo-
crats, generally described as Collectivism. It
aims at placing the ownership and control of
capital, and the organisation and direction of
inaustry, in the hands of the workers of all
kinds, and eliminating the sleeping partner
that draws profits on account of mere owner-
ship whilst dictating the conditions of employ-
ment. The Co-operative movement in the
United Kingdom, in^ired by the Socialism
preached by Bobert Owen, set out with this
object in view. It has had much success in
effecting organisation of distribution, but very
little in the department of production. The
Oerman school of Socialists, of which Ferdi-
nand Uassalle was the earliest conspicuous
politician, has generally held that this transfer
of ownership and control could only be effected
through the instrumentality of the State ;
pointing out that the failure of the Co-opera-
tive movement in productive industry was due
to the inability of workers without capital to
compete successfully against the organised
power of the capitalist employing class, Las-
aalle therefore argued that the State should

f ^ve credit to groups of Workmen to enable
hem to engage in production. This pro-
gramme had but short vitality, and the Social
Democratic movement of to-day aims nowhere
enabling sections of workmen in partictilar
tnanstriee to become owners and controllers


of capital, to be used for their benefit as a
group, but always at effecting the transfer of
such ownership or control to the national or
local community through the forms of political
democracy. The aim of the Collectivist move-
ment is to effect in the industrial world what
the democratic movement has aimed at in the
political world; and, just as it is a matter of
controversy and experience whic^ branches of
political administration should be regulated
through the national Executive, and which
through local and municipal authorities, so it
is recognised that the administration of in-
dustry on Collectivist principles must neces-
sarily exhibit various degrees of centralisation.

Whilst, therefore. Socialists habitually speak
of the transfer of ownership to “the State,”
the form of their practical proposals varies

f ieatly, according to circumstances. The
ighly-centralised German system of govern-
ment is reflected in the comparatively centralis-
ing tendency of the German Socialist party
(which now numbers over one million electors
and holds several seats in Parliament). In
France and Italy the long-established and ex-
tensive autonomy of local communes inspires a
more general inclination towards the advocacy
of decentralisation. The recognition, how-
ever, of the fact that industrial and commer-
cial class interests tend more and more to
transcend not only local, but national, limits,
that important industrial services are very
generally most efficiently provided througn
combination of capital and concentration of
control, and that the effect of the private
ownership of capital is continually to promote
such combination, counterbalances the tend-
ency to distrust that extension of bureaucracy
which seems to be involved in centralisation,
and the hesitation to attempt the difficult task
of establishing democratic control over produc-
tive and distributive industries. In Great
Britain the Collectivist movement has made
gradual but continuous progress, through the
legal regulation of hours and conditions of
work and the municipal acquisition and ad-
ministration of property and industries. The
Poor Law and, much more notably, the Educa-
tion Law, are embodiments of Socialist prin-
ciple, whilst the principle of regulating wages
by democratic consent, instead of by com-
petition (one of the earliest projects of
Socialists), at one time engaged much public
attention (in the form of the plea for “a living
wage”) and has established itself in the
nauonal arsenals and dockyards and in the
election of many local authorities under pledge
to pay Trade tinion rates of wages to thmr
employees.

^ial Democrats, who form the majority of
Socialists, aim, therefore, at abolishing the
subjection of la%our to capital, and the re-
current over-production ana lack of employ-
ment, which are features of the competitive
system, together With the social inequality be-
tween wc^ers and possessors, by ffieaits of
constructive organisation under democratic


( 818 )




.8ooi«ti^


Control : and they aim more and more anivers-
allv at acquiring and establishing this control,
not by any sudden revolutionary stroke, but
by altering the laws and institutions of each
country through their existing political
machinery. Anarchism, which must be re-
garded as a branch of the Socialist movement,
would abolish the subjection of the wage-
earners bj simple destruction of all existing
organisation and authority.

Sooidtyi an organised body of men and women
banded together for the promotion of some
common purpose, whether scientific, literary,
political, religious, philanthropic, social, or
other. Nearly every society has a recognised
headquarters and many societies are incorpor-
ated by Boyal charter. They are governed by
committees, presidents and other office-bearers,
elected by the members in annual meeting as-
sembled. The scope of many is so wide as to be
practically indeterminate, whilst in others the
objects are so rigidly defined under their con-
stitution that the promotion of other objects,
quite unobjectionable, would be ultra vires.
Several are select and exclusive and the
doors of others are fairly wide. It is diffi-
cult to imagine anyone but a chemist, for
example, being eager to enter the Chemical
Society, while membership of the Boyal Geo-

f raphical, or the Zoological, or the Japan
ociety is legitimately open to all who are
specially interested, as intelligent persons, in
travel and exploration, or natural history, or
the people and customs of the Land of the
Bising Sun, without such candidates having
activSy pursued any branch of geography, or
zoology, or having ^ any actual relationship,
personal or otherwise than academic, with
Japan. It is not necessary^ to consider the
comparative merits of the various scientific and
learned societies, but it may be said that the
Fellowship of the Boyal Society is, by common
consent, the highest nonour of the kind at the
disposal of professional savants, though it is
prcmable that the conditions under which^it is
conferred are open to improvement. CaseS are
not unknown in which poor men who have de-
voted their lives to the pursuit of science and
who on the record of their lifework were en-
titled to enjoy the honour, yet went to their

g raves without the final recognition of the
oyal Society. The following is a list of the
principal societies in the United Kingdom.

founded


Boyal Society, Burlington House, London (F.B.8.) 1662

Boyal Dublin Society , , ... 1684

Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge,

commonly known as the S.P.C.K ... 1^8

Society of Antiquaries (P.8. A.) ... IHT

, Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, London ... 1753
Gaelic l^iety of London jjOrane Court, Fleet Street 1777
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society ... 1781

Boyal Society of Edinburgh (F. B.8.E.) 1782

. Highland and Agricultural Society ... 1786

Bojiml Irisii Academy ... ... ... 17^

Lfnnean Society, Burlington House (P.L.8.) 17M

Newcastle Literaiy and Philosophical Society ... 1798
. l^yal Institution, Albemarle Street, London... ... 1800
Glasgow jMosopkcal Society ... . ... 1802


' rommsh

Boyal HorSoultural Society (F.B.H.S.) 1801

Boyal Medical and Ohiiiugical Society ... 1806

London Institutlont^Finebury Satire ... ... ... 1806

(leologioal Society, Burlington House (F.G.S.) ... 180t

Swedenboig Society, Bloomsbujv Street, London ... 1810

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Social 1812

Peace Society... 1816

Institution or Oivil Engineers 1818

Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society ... ... 1818

Hunterian Society 1819

Cambridge PhlloBOphioal Society ... 1819

Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington House

<F.R.A.S.i : 1820

Boyal Soottkh Society of Arts |821

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society .. ... 1822

Yorkshire Philosophical Society 1822

Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society 1822

Royal Society of Literature (P.R.S.L.) ... 1828

Boyal Asiatic Socie^ 1828

Zoological Society, Hanover Square, London (F.£.8.) 1826

Incorporated Law Society 1827

Society for the DiflUsIon of Useful Knowledge ... 1827
Royal QeographicaJl Society, Savile Row, London

(F.RG.S.y 1880

Royal Unlt»i Service Institution 1881

Royal Dublin Society 3881

Harveian Society 1881

British Association, Burlington House 1881

British Medital Association 1882

Entomological Society 1888

Statisticaf Society (^F.aS.) 1884

Royal Institute of British Architects (F.R.B. A) ... 1884

Numismatic Society 1886

Royal Agricultural Society 1M8

Royal Microscopical Society 1889

Royal Botanical Society, London 1889

London Library 1840

<3hemical Society. Burlington House (F.O.8.) ... 1841

Pharmaceutical Society 1841

Philological Society 1842

Royal Archaeological Institute 1848

Sydenham Society 1848

Ethnological Society ... 1848

Ray Society 1844

Httkluyt Society 1846

Pslfleontograwhioal Socle^ .. 1847

Institute of Mechanical Engineers 1647

Institute of Actuaries 1848

Boyal Meteorological Society 1860

Royal Photograimic Society 1862

Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts ... 1868

Institution of Naval Architects ... ... ... 1860

Clinical Society 1801

Anthropological Society ... 1868

Early English Text Society 1864

Palestine Exploration Fund (P.B.F.) 1866

Chaucer Society 1866

Royal Historical Society 1868

Colonial Institute 1868

Iron and Steel Institute 1860

Institution of Electrical Engineers 1871

Palasographi cal Society 1878

English Dialect Society ... 1878

New Shskspere Society ... ... ... ll|8

Association of Public Analysts liT4

Psychological Society 1876

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 1876

Library Association ... 1877

Folklore Society ... 1878

Hellenic Society 1879

Institute of Bankers ... ... 1879

London Topographical Society * 1879

Egypt Exploration Fund 1881

Browning Society 1881

Society tor Psychical Research * 1882

Society of Authors .... 1884

Selbome Society ... ... ... 1886

Shelley Sodetf* 1885

ci^the Society 1886

Selden Society ... 1887

Buskin Society ... ... ... 1890

Japan Society ... ... 1^

Irish Literary Society ..i ... 1900

Bqyal Economic Society ... i «*. ••*1802


Sector lldiliiAA


( 8M )




It will be seen from tbe foregoing list^ wbiob,
thongb not oomplete, is ret»resenl^vo^ as
might be expected, the tendenoy is growing lor the
Mtablishment el speciaHied societies for the ex<
ploitation of % particalar person or thing.

9odiet3r Xelftiiter or Tahitx Abghipblxgo,
a group in the South Pacifie« belonging to
France, and lying broadly between 16® and 18®
S. and 148® and 162® 30' W. They are disposed
in two mjflsOs, namely, the Leeward or Society
Islands proper (of which the chief are Huahine,
Baiatea and Bora Bora) and the Windward
or Tahitian, including Tahiti and Moorea.
They occupy an hrea ox about 700 square miles
and are mostly of volcanic origin, surrounded
by coral reefs. The climate is healthy and
the oocoanut, banana, sugar-cane, orange and
vanilla are grown. The principal exports
comprise copra, mother-of-pearl, fruit, edible
fungus, and cocoauut oil. Th^ are adminis-
tered from Papeete in Tahiti. The natives are
Polynesians of fine physique. The islands were
discovered in 1606 by Pedro Fernandez de
Quiros, the Spanish sailor, visited by Cap-
tain Cook in 1769 and formally annexed in 1880
to France, which had extended a quasuFro^
tectorate over them during the forty previous
years. ^ By some geographers the Leeward are
regarded as an independent group. Pop. (esti-
mated). 18,000.

SooillMf the Latinised form of the name of
Soccini or Sozini, the descendants of a Tuscan
banker named Sozzo, and the founders of the
theological sect still known as Socinians.

(1) Loblio Fbancxsoo Maria Sozino, theolo-
gian, was born at Siena, Italy, on January
29th, 1525, and educated for the law at
Bologna. He was drawn into the Evangelical
movement, and after a stay at Venice, then
the ^headquarters of religious reform in Italy,
travelled through Switzerland, France, Eng-
land, and Holland, making the acquaintance
of Philip Melanchthon, Sebastian Miinster,
Johann Forster, and other kindred spirits,
and settling in 1554 at Ziirich, where John Cal-
vin became a close friend. However, his specu-
lative intellect raised questions as to the resur-
rection of the body, predestination, the sacra-
ments, and the nature of the Trinity, which
Calvin declined to solve. He, nevertheless,
came to no open breach, warned, perhaps, by the
fate of Michael Servetus, and died at Zurich
on May 14th, 1562, in some pecuniary straits,
owing to the sequestration of his Italian pro-
perty. His principal extant works are De
^(icramentu DimertaUo and De Bemrrectidm,
Ih3 latter in a fragmentary condition.

(2) Fausto Paolo Soziho, theologian, nephew
of the foregoing, was born ht Biehei Italy, on
Beoeihber 5th, 1689, and was educated prinoi-

at home. Having inherited a cbnsiderable
fortune, he led a rather desultory youtti as a
piehiber of the famous Aocademia degli Intro-
nati. Sn 1562, after a short residence at Lyons,
he' 'joined 'the Beformersi^at 'O'oneva, ''and 'pnh- .
%hed the BxpZiooeio of the proem to ^


0oepel« in which he did : not recognise^^^^ t^^^
divinity of Christ in the imual orthodox sense.
He relapsed to Catholicism in 1563, but re-
turned to theology in 1570 with a treatise,
De A iJtciorUaM Sunctm Beriptmoe, and, settling
at Basel, wrote Dt Juu Chii^o BervaMore
(1578). He now went into Tran^lvania* and
thence into Poland, casting in Ms lot with
the Antitrinitarians, thou^ hp never fully
accepted their doctrines. Mis i>e Jeeu Okrieii
Natura was published in 1584. Hitherto he
had written anonymously, but when the Holy
Office at Siena deprived him, in 1590, of his
estates, he threw on the mask. A mob at Cra-
cow attacked him as a heretic, and he had to
take refuge at Luclawice, some thirty miles
to the east of that city, where he died on
March 4th, 1604. It is said that his toipbstone
bore the following bitter epitaph, but no trace
of it on the stone is now discernible : —

Tota ruit Babylon: destruxlt tecta Lutherus,

CalvlnuB zauros, eed fandaiiienta Socinus.

This may be Englished “Babylon [that is, the
Catholic Church] is in ruins : Luther destroyed
the roof, Calvin the walls, and Socinus the
feundations.”

Sociology' is the name given to denote the
endeavours that have been made from time to
time to investigate social phenomena and to
establish some law governing their occurrence.
In a wide sense it is coterminous with what
the ancients called “Politics,” but now it
generally concerns itself with the actions of
mankind as forming general society. The
science rests on no assured basis, and, so fair,
the so-called laws seem in a great measure
fanciful. Herbert Spencer (1820 — 1903) is per-
haps the greatest authority on the question as
it exists at the present day.

Socotra, an island in the Indian Ocean, 135
miles E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui, a promontory
of Somaliland, Africa, and close to the mouth
of the Gulf of Aden. The area covers 1,382
square miles, the shores being flat, but the
central table-land attains an altitude of 800
feet, and in Mount Haghier reaches a height of
4,656 feet. The products include aloes, myrrh,
frankincense, dragon's blood and other gums,
tamarinds, tobacco, millet and dates, ^eep,
cattle and goats abound, the ghee, or clarified'
butter, maae from the milk of the cows and
goats, being the principal item of export.,
Mabidu on tne north coast is the capital. The
island came under British protection in 1876
by arrangement with the Sultan of Socotra
and constitutes a dependency of AdPn. Pop.
(estimated), 12,000.

Socni>t08| philosopher, the son of Sophrbniscns,

a 'Statuary,- and- 'Phanarete^' -w '--mldwifei- .was.

born in Athens about 470 b.c. He followed at
first his father's profession of Bcmlpt<^, giving
^it up to start on a sort of nnoXa! and intof-
. leotnal rniission, "'^to '^which /Bev'Was' "-urged, '''he
oottbeived',':'' by- ^"'divine' 'impulse'. :HowSyer,'' 'he',
dischurged the duties nl U citiieh; first at a





( 317 )


aol^ier Botidaoii, Belium. Mid Am|dii{>oli8
(where he showed ooura^ and steadfastness),
later as a senator, when he boldljf resisted un-
oonstitntional measures. But the work of his
life was to oonirict his fellow^oreatures of igno-
rance, and, above all, to expose the spurious
teaching of th^ Sophists. His method was to
lead chance people, whom he met in the public
places, into couTersations on moral and social
topics, and by a skilful process of questioning,
to unveil the falsity or inadequacy of their
ideas and principles. The results were nega-
tive, though the tendency of the process was
towards establishing a h^her ethical standard
than that of the age. Many took part in the
discussions as mere lessons in the art of verbal
fencing. A smaller number sought counsel and
strengthening for the duties of life; whilst
a few grasped the true significance of the
master's mission, and formed the nucleus of a
school. The power of the man may be inferred
from the fact that characters so widely dif-
ferent as Plato, Alci blades, Xenophon, and
Critias came under his influence. Personally
he was short, stout, grotesque and sensual in
feature, his appearance suggesting a Silenus
rather than a saint, yet his habits were simple
to austerity. He wore the same clothes sum-
mer and winter, dispensed with shoes, ate and
drank like the poorest slave, but did not ab-
jure social pleaaufes or advocate asceticism as
an end in itself. Ironic humour was one of
his most potent instruments, but he used it as
a philanthropist, and for grave wrongs he had
sterner weapons of direct reproof. Socrates
showed profound respect for even the conven-
tional religion of his age and country, observ-
ing the usual rites, and accepting the signs
and oracles, whilst he rejected the grosser
legends and superstitions, which he attributed
to lying poets. He claimed, however, to have
a special divine sign or voice, sometimes called
his "daemon," and the precise nature of this
belief of his has provoked much wntroversy.
ProWbly he meant no more than is expressed
by our word conscience, with the addition of a
direct religious sanction, such as fervent piety
often aocepts as an objective phenomenon.
With his wife, Xanthippe, a shrew, and a
woman incapable of appreciating his aims, he
seems to have led a wretched existence, tem-
pered by his philosophic forbearance. Though
^posed to the oligarchical tyranny of the Four
Hundred and the Thirty, Socrates was even
more adverse to the un mixed democracy, with
its election by lot and its payment for political
services. Accordingly, on the triumph of the
demagogues, he was in 399 accused oi denying
the gods and corrupting the young, and being
convicted by an overwhelming majority of the
jury, was sentenced to death. He passed thirty
days before execution (the sacr^ ship sent
annually to the festival on the island of Delos,
durinsr the absence of which no one might be
put to death, havii^ been providentially de-
layed for an exceptional period) in the noble
diaonursee bn tke immortality oi the soul.


which was recorded in Blatd% Jpkmdo, 4^

, cup of hemlock,, and died. : , He" left no' writings,
but we know a great deal ibout the philosopher
and his omuions from the Hemoirs and other
works of Xenophon aod Hato's Dialogues,

SooratM of Church hismiian,

is only known to hs through his MwhaiaHimjt
Htsfory, which takes up the thread of Husebiue
in A.D. 306, and carries it on to 439. He peed
materials provided by earlier writers, but in-
troduced a good deal of oral tradition hnd
contemporary information. Origen is his hero,
and he occupies a middle position between the
Athanasians and Arians, but dislikes dogmatic
reflnements and protests against perseoutiou.
He was born and educated at Constantinople
and flourished probably between 380 and 440.

Soda. The substance known under the name
of soda consists chemically of the cairbonate
of sodium, NajCo., in combination with wnter.
The ordinary washing soda has 10 molecules of
water—i.e., NaaCojlOHaO, — but loses some of
it when exposed to the air^ The carbbnet©
of sodium is obtained, to a small extent,
naturally, forming d^osits upon the soil, and
existing dissolved in »oda Lakes in Bgypt and
Hnngary, and in the water of many geysers.
Formerly also quantities of the compound were
obtained from marine vegetation under the
name of barilla; the greater quantity, how-
ever, is obtained by artificial preparation from
salt by one of two processes; (1) the Leblanc;
(2) the ammoniacal process. In the first, the
salt is heated with sulphuric acid in a furnace
constructed for the purpose; sodium sulphate
and hydrochloric acia result —

2NaCl + H,SO, Na^SO, + 2HC1.

The sodium sulphate known as salt cake is
then powdered, mixed with powdered limestone
and coal, and heated strongly in another fur-
nace. Ilie fused mass, known as black ash,
consists of soda and calcium sulphide, and from
it the soda is dissolved out by warm water and
recrystallised. In the ammoniacal process am**
monia gas and carbonic acid are passed into a
strong solution of brine, when bicarbbnate bl
soda and ammonium Chloride result, tli^ former
being converted into sodium carbonat#%y heat-
ing, and from the solution containing the
monium chloride the ammonia is again evolved
by the addition of lime. Soda bryetal8»
NajCOalOjHO, crystallise as large, prismatic
crystals of the Monoclinic system, and dissolve
in 2 parts of water at 38° C. The anhydrons
sodium carbonate is a white powder Which fuses
to a porcelanous mass at about 806®. The bicar^
bonate of soda, NaEGOj, forms a white powder
which is not as soluble in water aS the
previous salt. Soda is very extensively used in
a great number of technical and mannlactut-
ing processes as well as in pure chexhistry . Thus
it IS an important adjunct in many metallurgi-
cal processes, is employed iu the manufacture
of glass, soap, and paper, and in the bpeiM
tions of bleaching and dyeing.




( 3t« )


loift.


CAxnstic. [SoDitru.] >

JMUitill symM, Na ; Atomle weight,

23). JLltlioiigh not occntring naturally ih a
free i^te, tms metal ie, in combination, one of
the most abundant of the elements. As com*
mon salt it occurs largely dissolved in sea
water, salt lakee, end in saline deposits; it is
found as nitrate in dep^its on the soils in
Chile and other countries, and occurs also
naturally^ ifts carbonate, phosphate, and borate.
The silicate exists in many rocks and minerals,
being an important constituent of the micas.
It is also found in mauT plants, particularly
in marine vegetation. The metal itself was
first prepared by Sir Humphry Davy, who
obtained it in 1^7 by the electrolysis of the
fused hydrate. It is now manufactured by
strongly heating a mixture of carbonate of
soda and charcoal in iron retorts, recent years
having brought great improvements in the de<
tails of the process. It is a silver-white metal,
soft enough to be easily cut by a knife. It is
a little lighter than water, having a specific
gravity of ’97. It melts at 97*60® C., and may
W volatilised in absence of air, the vapour being
of a blue colour. If exposed to thi air, the
surface of the metal immediately tarnishes and
beconies covered with a coating of the hydrate.
If placed upon water, it immediately melts
into a small ball, which floats upon the liquid,
decomposing it with the evolution of hydro-

gen— 2H,0 + Na^ = 2NaOH + H,.

The substance NaOH which is formed is known
as sodium hydrate or caustic soda and remains
dissolved in sea water, to which it imparts
powerful alkaline properties. It is a white solid
which is prepared usually by the action of milk
of lime upon a boiling solution of sodium car-
bonate. It is a strong caustic and alkali, and
is extensively used for technical, chemical,
and manufacturing purposes. Sodium forms
two oxides, which are, however, unimportant.
Among its salts, however, are many important
compounds. The carbonate is known under the
name of soda, and the nitrate forms the com-
pound Chile saltpetre. This silicate is soluble
in water, and is known as soluble glass, being
employed for fire-proofing, etc. The phosphate
is important chemically, and the borate
[Bobax] has many applications. The soaps
are also but sodium salts of certain organic
acids, while common salt is the chloride" of
sodium, NaCl. The metal itself is used in the
preparation of other elements, notably alumi-
nium, which has become cheaper than it used
to be in consequence of the improvements in
the processes of obtaining sodium.

Sodpnii the chief of the Cities of the Plain, was
according to the Hebrew Scriptures, destroyed,
along with Oomorrah, Zeboim, and Admah, by
fire from heaven as a punishment ior its vices.
Lot and his family alone escaping. The site is
to be marked by the Bead Sea, called
by the Arabs “the Sea of Lot.*" In the U^t
of modern cnticism the story of the destruc-


tion of the cities is to be regarded as a folk-
lore myth, there being allied legends in the
mythology of seyeral ancient peoples and eyen
in Wales, where meres have been formed, ao*
cording to popular tradition, by the subsidence
of cities whose bells may still sometimes be
heard pealing merrily. In most myths the
cities appear to be destroyed bv water. Had
the destruction of Pompeii ana Herculaneum
occurred in the infancy of the historic period,
or in the prehistoric period itself, it is
easy to understand how such an awful catas-
trophe would impress popular belief and be
embodied in tradition, which would probably
read into the calamity some condign punish-
ment decreed by Pate for widespread wicked-
ness.

Sodonip Apple of. Josephus, referring to the
Bead Sea, on which the country of Sodom
borders, speaks of the ashes produced in the
fruits of the region. It is eupposed that he
alluded to the fruit of the osher tree, called by "
Hasselquist Q765) Poma Sodomitica, which

rows plentiiully in this district and near

ericho. He said that when attacked by an
insect the inside was gradually turned into
dust, the skin remaining intact like a shell
and of a beautiful colour. According to Canon
Tristram, the tree is from 12 to 15 feet high,
and the fruit, about th§ size of an average
apple and bright yellow, hangs in clusters of
three or four close to the stem. It bursts
readily wh^n mature and is preyed on by a
large black and yellow cricket. “Bead Sea
fruit “ thus came to have a figurative meaning,
implying what is fair to the eye but nauseous
to the palate. Lord Byron expressed this in a
passage in the third canto of Childe Harold* 8
Filgrtmagt : —

Like to the apples on the Dead Sea's shore

All ashes to the taste.”

Sofia» or Sophia, or Triaditza, the capital
of the principality of Bulgaria, near the left
bank of the Isker, a tributary of the Danube,
about 315 miles W.N.W. of Constantinople. It
takes its name from the mosque of Sophia, once
a Christian church erected by a Byzantine
princess of this name and now in ruins
through an earthquake. The town stands on
a plateau on the north flank of the Balkans,
and has a severe winter climate. The route
from Belgrade to Constantinople passing
through it brings a considerable trade, and
there are some local industries,' such as silken
and woollen manufactures, tobacco, pottery and
leather. The princmal buildings comprise the
mosque of Buyuk-Jami, the Prince's palace,
the university, founded in 1888, the catnedral ,
of St. Alexander and Parliament House. It
is the seat of a Greek metropolitan and a
Bcman Catholic archbishop and became the
capital in 1868. It was the Sardica of the
Eomans, the capital of Baoia Elpensis and the
seat of a Church Council in 343. It was plun-
dered by the Huns, captured in 809 by tl^a
Bulgarians, who kept it till about 1380, when



mat wmr.


( 819 )


it fell into the hands of the Turks by whom
it was retained until the creation of tne prin*
cipality of Bulgaria (1878), Pop. (1900), 67,920.

Soft Wmt&Vf water almost entirely free from
lime or magnesia salts and thus really form*
ing a lather with soap without leaving a curd-
like sediment. On this account it is the ideal
water for laundries and wash-houses, but un-
fortunately cannot be “laid on “ to order, since
its nature depends upon the character of the
beds in which it rises and the strata through
which it flows.

SollOp a district in Central London, lying
between Oxford Street on the N., St. Giles’s-in-
the-i:ields on the E., Leicester Square on the
S., and Berwick Street, or thereabouts, on the
W. Its name is of uncertain origin, but, hav-
ing been formerly known as Soho Fields, it is
conjectured to have risen from “ So Hoe ! ” —
the huntsman's phrase in calling off the
Jbiarriers after a run, this locality b^ing suffi-
ciently rural in ihe 17th century to have per-
mitted of the sport of coursing. The chief
feature of the district is Soho Square, which
was begun in 1681 and named at first King’s
Square in honour of Charles II. The Duke of
Monmouth's house stood on the south side
and “Soho” was the cry of his followers at
the battle of Sedgemoor in 1685. It is sur-
mised that the name of the Square was changed
by his admirers after the Duke's execution as
^ a tribute to his memory. Other occupants of
p the Square were Aldermail Beckford, Sir
^ Clowdisiey Shovell, Bishop Burnet, Sir Joseph
^anks. Sir J. E. Smith and Dr. Robert Brown
the botanists, and Thomas Barnes, editor of
The Times. Before its removal to Burlington
House the Linnean Society (founded in Ger-
rard Street in this district in 1788) was housed
in the Square and in the north-western angle
was opened, in 1816, Soho Bazaar, the first of
its kind in England. The statue of Charles II.
that used to stand in the middle of the Square
was removed in 1876. For long a feature, and
latterly an undesirable one, of the district was
Newport Market where, on the strength of his
father being a poulterer there, Horne Tooke
told his schoolmates his father was “a Turkey
merchant." In Gerrard Street John Dryden
and Edmund Burke lived for a time, and at
the “Turk’s Head," at the corner of this street
and Old Compton Street, Dr. Johnson and Sir
Joshua Reynolds founded in 1764 the famous
institution called The Club. It was in the
same tavern, too, that the Society of Artists
met who successfully petitioned George III. to
establish a Royal Academy of Art. St. Anne's
(1686), the parish church, contains the tomb
of Theodore* the so-called King of Corsica,
who died in 1766, and in the churchyard Wil-
liam Hazlitt was buried in 1830. Sir Samuel
Romilly resided in Frith Street j Sir J ames
Thornhill, the painter, whose daughter married
William Hogarth, in Dean Street, and at the
Royalty Theatre, in this street, poor Adelaide
Neilson made her d&mt as “Juliet" in 1866.


Greek Street received its name as the rendesr
vous of Greek merphante from the Levant, and
Wardour Street became famous for its shops
where old furniture (much of it manufactured
for the purpose), bnc-k-brac, and curiosities
were sold. The district teems with French
restaurants and shops of all kinds, e^cially
laundries, kept by French people ana might
almost be called Little France, This settlement
dates from 1686 — a date of remarkable interest
for Soho— when, on the revocation of the B^ict
of Nantes, Huguenots and other refugees —
“aliens" whom it would have been a crime
t-^ exclude— sought, and not in vain, the
hospitality of England and London.— Soicb is
also the name of a suburb of Birmingham knd
famous in the annals of industry as the place
where Matthew Boulton founded his factory in
1762, being joined in partnership by Jamea
Watt ten years afterwards.

Soils, Origin of. The name “ soil " is generally
applied to the disintegrated surface of rocka
penetrated, or at least penetrable, by plant
roots. Soils may be of two widely aiffereht
origins: they may be local— derived, that is#
from the decomposition of the substratum; or
they may be transported. As examples of the
former we have sandy soils on sanastone for-
mations and clays, not only on clays and
slates, but also on chalk and limestone. In
this last case the carbonate of lime, which
forms the bulk of the underlying rock, may
be entirely removed by the percolating action
of water, the clay being merely an insoluble
residue. On the Upper Chalk it contains
flints. Transported soils are of three classes —
eluvial, carried by wind, such as blown sani)
and loess; diluvial, carried by the ice of the
Glacial Period, such as boulder clay and gravely
sometimes very chalky; and alluvial, carried
by river-action, such as some sands and gravels
and most loam or briok-earth. Soils often con-
tain a considerable admixture of humus or de-
cayed vegetable matter (leaf-mould), which in
some cases constitutes what is known as black
earth. Soils are commonly classified as rich
or poor, according to the large or small pro-
portion of this ingredient; and as stiff and
cold, if mainly clay, or light and #arm, if
mainly sandy or calcareous.

SoiSBOns (the Roman Noviodunun or Civitm
Suessionum), a fortified town of the second
class in the department of Aisne, France, on
the left bank of the Aisne, 56 miles N.E. of
Paris. A flourishing tribal centre in Julhia
Ceesar's time, it played an important part
under the early Frankish sovereigns, and after
the death of Clovis gave its name for a cen-
tury to a small kingdom, which was merged
in Neustria about 613. The Counts of Soissons
remained powerful vassals until €he 17th cen-
tury, and from them sprang, in female descent,
the house of Savoy-Carignan. Christianity was
introduced in the 3rd century by St. Crispin
and St. Crispinian, who worked as shoemakers
for a living and so became the patron-sainti


Bwliiwto


( *20 )


mu


of tliat ors^it. The town Is
chieHy modern; tmt tke cntliodral (iStk t6 Idtli
cOntnry); the abhey-chtireh of St. LOgOn, the
rehmins of the snofent fonudutioits of St.
MMnrd, and St. Jean dee Tignesi are amoi^
the moat interesting monuments in France. It
is the seat of a bishopric. Soissons has stood
half^#-dosen sieges, resisting the ikllies in 1814
and the Oermans in 1670, and has been the
scene ol seTeral councils and congresses. It
has taihiries, iron-foundries, saw-mills, and
factories for the making of agricultural im-
plements, candles, chocolate, bottles^ flannels
and Uankets. Fop. (1901), 13,240.

SokotOi a province of Northern Nigeria, in the
Central Soonan, Africa, having Bornu to the
B. and Gando to the W., the river Binue
forming the southern boundary. It has been
roughly conjectured to occupy an area of about
ISOmX) square miles, which is probably exces-
sive. It 18 mostly a level country and is not
generally well watered, but has for Central
Africa a healthy climate. Bice, wheat, millet,
maize and several vegetables are the principal
crops. Cotton and indigo and shea butter are
among the more valuable products. Iron is
everywhere plentiful, and silver, lead and other
niineyals are known to exist. The mass of the
inhabitants are Hausas, physically, mentally,
and industrially the finest of the negroes.
The history of the territory begins with the
19th century, when it composed the Great Fulah
kingdom, founded by Othmau, a capable Moham-
medan fanatic. In 1882 it passed (with other
territories) under the control of the National
African Company, a British organization which
in 1886 received’ a charter as the Boyal Niger
Company. When this charter was surrendered
in 1900 to the Crown, Northern Nigeria was
constituted and Sokoto became one of its pro-
vinces. The capital is Wurnu, some 25 miles
N.E* of Sokoto, the former capital. The popu-
lation has never been numbered, but is esti-
mated at io,ood!ooo.

SolAnaoen* a considerable order of gamo-
petalous. dicotyledons, comprising some 60
genera. They are mostly herbs or Sirubs, more
abundant in the tropics than in temperate
latitudes, and in America than in the Old
World. Their leaves, though truly scattered,
are often geminate, owing to local want of
Mparation between the stem and a petiole.
The inflorescence is similarly often extra-
axillary. The flowers are generally polysym-
metricMly and jisostemonously pentamerous,
i.c., there ate five sepals, five petals, and five
stamens, with two many-ovuled united carpels.
There is little to separate the order from the
more polysymmetric genera of Scrophulariacees,
save its generally narcotic properties. It in-
clude the genera Solanijm, in which are the
l^tato and the bittersweet, Capsicum, Nioo-
tiaim (the tobacco), Fetunia, Kysocyamus (the
nenbeae)* Atropa (the deadly nightshade),
Xyoopersicum (the tomato), etc. £!conomically,
conijneroially and medicnnaHy, therefore, it


wcnld be quite impoesible to exaggerate the
importance of the order.

miam mom. [GlNNaT.]

Solano. tSiMoon.]

SollU! Xiogoaoopo is realiy a form of lantern
used for obtaining npon a screen immensely-
magnified images of minute objects. It is
necessary that a small object should be enor-
mously illuminated, for the greater the magni-
fication obtained the less bright is the image com-
pared with the object. For this reason it is con-
venient, when possible, to use the rays of the
sun. A plane mirror is so placed that it re-
flects the sun's rays down the tube of the in-
strument, and the tube is often oouvei^ntly
fixed in a hole in the shutter of a window.
These rays, being parallel, are refracted by a
powerful convex lens of short focal length to
its principal focus, near which the object is
placed. The rays then pass through another
convex lens or set of lenses, from which they
diverge on to the screen. This arrangement can
only be used for objects through which the
light can pass; if opaque objects are used, a
device is employed by means of which the sun's
rays, after passing through the first convex
lens, are reflected by a second mirror on to the
back of the object, and thence proceed to the
magnifying lenses as before. Since the sun's
rays are seldom at our disposal, another source
of light has frequently to be used; the most
brilliant substitute is the electric arc, but, in
the absence of this, the oxyhydrogen limelight
is employed.

Solar System consists of the sun, the planets
and their satellites, the planetoids, and such
other masses of matter as are influenced in
their motion by the attraction of the sun. Al-
though the planets are popularly regarded as
being affected by the sun alone, it must not be
forgotten that every member of this system
exerts an influence upon every other member,
the amount of such influence depending only
on the masses of, and distances between, the
bodies under consideration. The Table on the
next paga contains a list of the principal mem-
bers of the Solar System with a few numerical
data. rPLANBTS, PliANETOIDS, SATELLITES, SiTK,
Moon, Eabth, Mbbcury, Venus, Mabs, Jupiteb,
Saturn, TJbanus, Neptune, etc.]

Solder, an alloy which is employed for uniting
together two metals. The alloy is one which
fuses easily, and, when fused in contact with
the' metals^ on solidifying adheres to both,
and keeps them firmly fixed. It is necessary
for soldering that the metallic surfaces be per-
fectly clean, the quantity of solder itself re^
quired being very sniall. For ordinary p#:^
poses solder consists of an alloy of about equal
parts of lead and tip. Fine solder contains
double the quantity of tin, and coarse solder
dcuble the quantity of lead.

Sola, a fish belonging to tbe genus Solea, of the
family; of Flat Fishes^ wdth^a'bout'ferl^'^ ^species
irbtn temperate and tropical seas. like the



floitiMijr.


.(821 }


zdst of tlie family, they are groaad*fishes (and
are therefore usually taken with the trawl),
and feed freely on other fish. Most of them are
found round the coast, and some enter fresh-
water freely, though all breed in the sea. In
England, however, they breed freely in the
Arun, near Arundel, which is five miles from
its mouth in the English Channel, remain in
the river all the year and bury themselves in
the sand in the cold of winter. Here they are
often a pound in weight, occasionally as much
as two pounds and somewhat thicker than Soles
captured in the sea. Yarrell quotes the case of
a Sole kept in a garden in Guernsey for many
years, which became twice as thick as a sea
Sole of the same size. The eyes are on the
right side; the mouth is narrow, and twisted
round to the left ; the dorsal fin begins at the
snout, and does not join the anal fin, and the
lateral line is straight. The Common Sole
{Solea vulgaris) is a well-known and highly-
valued food-fish, and the largest of the British
species. It is taken more or less all round the
coasts, but the North Sea is the best fishing-
ground. The usual length is from ten to
twenty inches, but much larger specimens are
recorded. One caught off Totnes, in Devon,
was 26 inches long, 11^ inches wide and
weighed 9 pounds. The colour above is brown-
ish with black blotches. Other British species
are the Lemon Sole (;S'. aurantiaca)^ the
Banded Sole (S. variegata), and the Dwarf Sole
(8, minuta), which is not known from any other
waters.




pid in the coils of which a current iqws acts
in most ways like an ©iectJPO-maf net. 4n iron
core introduced intb such a coil is sucked in,
and tends to move until the centres of coll
and core coincide, and the pull exerted by a
solenoid on its core is used for actuating the
mechanism of arc lamps and other apparatus,
in which a greater range of motion is required tban
can easily be obtained with an electro-magnet.

Solonre, or Solothurn, a canton in North
west Switzerland, bounded on the N. by Bijpel,
on the N.E. by Aargau, on the S.E. by Lucerne
and on the S.W. and N.W. by Berne. It oc-
cupies an area of 302 square miles. All the
northern surface is mountainous, the h^hest
points being Hasenmatt (4,746 feet), Rfithe
(4,688) and vVeissenstein (4,220), a resort for
the air and whey cure. The Aare is the princi-
pal ri ver . Soleuro is exceedingly fertile, Contain-
ing rich pastures, mines of iron and coal, valu-
able forests, and factories for glass, etc. Live-
stock are raised and dairying is vigorously
prosecuted. The majority of the inhabitants
are Catholic. Pop. (1904), 106>284.

Soleure, or Solothurn, the capital of the
preceding canton, Switzerland, on both aides
of the Aare, 18 miles E.N.E. of Berne. It was
the Roman Salodurum and claims to be the
oldest town north of the Alps, excepting Treves,
according to the legend on the clock-tower, a
building of the 6th centu^. The chief struc-
tures are the cathedral of St. Ours (Ursusj, the
arsenal, the antiquarian and natural history



Mean Distance
from the Sun
in Miles.

Periodic

Time.

Diameter

in

Miles.

Time of
Hotation
on the Axis.

Mass
compared
with the
Barth vs. i.

San

Mercnry

Venua ... ... j

Earth

Moon

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn ...

XTranua .

Neptune

35.000. 000

66.000. 000
92,800,000

189.000. 000

488.000. 000

872.000. 000

1.764.000. 000

2.760.000. 000

88 days

224 days

365 days

27 days 8 hours
686 days

11-86 years

2dii years i

S3 years

165 years

862,684

8,050

7,608

7,926-6

2,163

6,000

88,200

74,000

88,024

86,620 j

25 days 10 hours

24 hours 5 minntes

28 hours SI minutes

23 hours 56 minutes

27 days 8 hours

24 hours 87 minuses

9 hours 56 minutes

10 hours 29 minutes
f
?

854,980 ‘0
•12
•88
1*00
•018
•18

816*08

101*06

14 -29
24*65


Dennity
refftmd
to Water

sr l.


No. of
Batel-
iitei.


l‘B7
6-77
6-80
6 ‘48


e

0

1


8-44
8-98
1 81
•71


1-47


t

5

9

4

1


[SOUTHWOLD.]

Solm. [Razor-Shells.]

Solenl&ofeiL, or Solnhofen, a village of the
district of Middle Franconia, Bavaria, on the
Altmiihl, 40 miles S. of Nuremberg. It is
famous, in the first place, for its great quarries
yielding the best, indeed the only good stone
Sfor purposes of lithographic printing, and, m
the second, as having furnished the fossil re-
mains of the reptilian bird called Archaeo-
pteryx. The rock is of Jurassic age.

Soleiioid, in electricity, is a coil of insulated
vwire, usually hollow and cylindrical ; its length
is generally several times its diameter. A Solen-

' 213— N.B,;


museums, the town and cantonal libraries and
the picture gallery. From the summit of the
Weissenstein, three hours' walk to the north
of the town, may be had one of the most per-
fect views of the whole Alpine Chain from Tirol
to Mont Blanc. Soleure joined the Swiss Con-
federation in 1481. Pop. (1900), 10,100.

from the Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, etc., of the
musical scale, denotes generally music or notes
without text or fixed time, used merely to
exercise the voice and test musical knowledge-
in fact, the art of reading music. The chief
systems are the fixed Do system, advocated
by John Huilah (1812*84>, the changeable Do
system, and the Tonic Sol-fa.







( 382 )


•oUoitoir, the defligimtion of a llgaf pmc-
titioaer ia the Courts Bapetior aad laferior of
Eaglaad. It was formerly restricted to practi*
tioaers la the Court of thaaoery, ‘‘attoraey**
beiag the desigaatioa of a commoa law prac-
titioaer. Bjr the Judicature Acts the terai
solicitor applies to all divisioas of the Supreme
Court. Soucitors are required to take out an
annual certificate (£9 for London practitioners ;
j 66 fox^ country practitioners); half these
amounts 6nly are payable during the first three
years of their practice. Previously to being
articled they have to undergo what is known as
the preliminary examination ^ which deals with
the several branches of general knowledge.
Midway in their service (which is five years,
except for university graduates when it is
three years only) they have to undergo an
intermediate examination, and before being
admitted to pass the final examination in the
several branches of law «£80 stamp duty is
paid on the articles of clerkship (formerly it
was J120), and somewhat heavy fees on their
admission to practice. Solicitors are **ofiicer8
of the court,* ^ which barristers are not. They
(solicitors) are under stringent rules as to
practice, and their conduct is subject to in*
quiry and control, the Incorporated Law
Society having jurisdiction to consider and re-
port to the courts thereon. In cases of flag-
rant misconduct they are liable to be struck
off the rolls of the court ; in lesser cases to sus-
pension from practice for a certain term, and
to costs occasioned by their misconduct. Their
costs are subject to taxation by officers ap-
pointed for the purpose — in the Supreme Court
the masters — and if a sixth part be taken off
the solicitor has to pay the costs of taxation.
This rule, however, only applies to costs be-
tween “solicitor and client,^ ^ as it is termed,
not to “party and party** costs.

Solicitor-General, a very important law
officer of the Crown, ranking in England next
after the Attorney-General, his functions being
political as well as^ legal. Like the Attorney-
General, he is not in the Cabinet, but changes
with the Government of the day. He is al-
most always a member of the House of Com-
mons, and acts as the deputy or assistant of
the Attorney-General. He is usually knighted
soon after his appointment, and succeeds the
Attorney-General on a vacancy in that office.
In Scotland he ranks next to the Lord Advo-
cate, whom he assists in Crown business, prose-
cutions and in other respects. In the United
States he is the second officer in the Depart-
ment of Justice, and assists the Attorney-
General, whose place he occupies in ah^ntid.
In some of the States of the American Union
the term Solicitor-General describes the prin-
cipal law officer, while in others the term
Attorney-General is used.

Solif^as, or False Spidebs, agronp of Arach-
nida, the members of which somewhat resemble
the spiders in general appearance, but hhve a
segmented abdomen, that is, the cephalothorax


is represented by the head and thr60 thoraofo
segments. The head has two large ocelli And
a pair of huge pincer-like chelicerae. They have
two pairs of palpi, which are as lofig as legs
and look like them, but the apical joint has no
claws. Each of the thoracic rings is fnr-
nished with a pair of legs, so that the creature
appears to have five legs on each side, though
in reality only three, the palpi being carried in
front and serving as feelers. There is but one
family, the Solpugidse, common to the warmer
regions of both hemispheres, but more nUmer-



OALKODES ARANBOIDEB.


0 U 8 in the Old World than in the New. They
frequent desert places and hide by day in
crevices, or under stones, or in cavities which
they have hollowed. India, Persia, Central
Asia, Arabia, North Africa, Central America
and the West Indies are their principal
habitat. The best-known species, Galeodes
araneoides, occurs in the Eussian and Asiatic
Steppes and possibly in Africa, Egypt and elsef-
where. It is two inches long. If it comes in
contact with anything in its nocturnal rambles
it is said to emit a phosphorescent light.
Should this be# edible, it attacks it ferociously
and soon kills it with its powerful nippers. It
will devour a lizard half as large again as it-
self, and attack fearlessly young musk rats
and bats and even try conclusions with a scor-
pion which, however, is a match for it if at-
tacked in front. They also fight among them-
selves and eat the slain, but the females ex-
hibit considerable care for their young. Old
writers went so far as to say that parts of
India had been deserted by the people through
fear of these animals. Their bite seems to
cause pain, temporary paralysis, bad head-
aches and fainting fits. Camels and sheep when
severely bitten sometimes die. Since they fre-
quent the reeds and sedges which are used by
the Kalmucks and other nomads in the con-
struction of their summer dwellings, they aw
readily introduced into the huts and thus aw
able to inflict injuries on human beings. It is
not clear, however, that their bite, in spite of
the serious symptoms it gives rise to ahdl the in-
convenience it occasions, is fatal to man. Sons^


( S83 ’ )


itolOBMm XtlMtOs.


BoUlmlb


3S species liaire l>eeii describedt all very similar
in structure and kabits.

SoHlmUf a town of Warwickshire, England,
ej miles S.E. of Birmingham, not far from the
borders of Worcestershire. The church of St.
Alphege, a large cruciform building, excepting
the west end of the nave and the south aisle
(which are Late Perpendicular), is a good ex-
ample of the Decorated style. The ffev. Dr.
John Feckenham (born Howman, ?1518), who
was rector for ten years, was afterwards Dean
of St. Paul s and Abbot of Westminster, being
the last mitred abbot to sit in the House of
Lords, He died a prisoner in Wisbech Castle
in 1585. The Grammar School founded by
Richard n. was reorganized in 1879. Its most
distinguished pupil was William Shenstone, the
poet. Pop. (1901), 7,617.

Solingeilf a town of Rhenish Prussia, Ger-
many, near the Wupper, 13 miles S.E, of Dils-
seldorf. It is one of the principal seats of the
iron and steel industry, being noted for its
speciality in sword blades, which have been
made since the 11th century, the manufacture
having, according to tradition, been intro-
duced during the Crusades by smiths from
Damascus. Cutlery generally, scissors, surgi-
cal instruments, files and tools also are fabri-
cated in vast (quantities, many of the opera-
tives working in their own homes. There are
iron-foundries and cigar factories. Pop. (1900),
45,260.

Solitaire {Pezophaps solHarius). a great pigeon
somewhat resembling the dodo though, owing



, SOLITAIBE.


to its longer legs, not so heavy and clumsy-look-
ing, formerly living in the Mascarene Isle of
Rodriguez, in the Indian Ocean, to the east
of Madagascar, It is believed to have become
extinct ih the 17th century, but was dcscnbed


from personal observation in 16904 by Francois
Le Gnat (1637-1735), who^ along with some
companions, underwent severe hardships in an
attempt to colonise the group of islands and
who published in 1708 an account of his travels
and adventures. Fortunately, in 1865, Profes-
sor Alfred Kewton discovered bones enough to
show that the description was correct. Eince
then other finds have made it possible to re-
construct the skeleton.

Solomon; (Hebrew, “Man of Peace”), the
son of David by Bathsheba, succeeded his
father on the throne of Israel about 1016 B.c.,
being then eighteen years old. He began his
reign by putting to death his brother Aaonijah,
and Joab, and by banishing Abiathar. He
married a daughter of Pharaoh, allied himself
with Tyre and other neighbouring nations, and
set about the promotion of the political and
commercial weltare of his country. The Temple
was begun in 1018, and completed in seven
years, and a palace was also bunt in Jerusalem,
the walls and fortifications of which city were
constructed anew. The naval power of Israel
appears to have been vigorously developed. He
devoted much attention to natural history, and
even to the black art, if Arabian and Talmudic
traditions may be credited. Many literary
works were attributed to him; but, with the
exception of Proverbs, it seems probable that
he had no part in these compositions. Eccles-
iastes and the Song of Solomon undoubtedly
belong to a later dale, as does the Psalter bear-
ing his name. Solomon died in his fifty-eighth
year.

Solomon Islands, a group in the South
Pacific Iving NW. of the New Hebrides, and
S.E. of iJew Ireland, and extending in a double
line for 600 miles, between the fifth and tenth
parallels of south latitude. Several members
of the group are of large size, Bougainville,
Malaita, Isabel, Choiseul, Guadalcanar and
San Christoval being the chief, the smaller
islands numbering more than twenty. They
are of volcanic origin, with fringing growths
of coral, and Guadalcanar contains an active
volcano. The central peaks attain a height of
from 4,0(X) to 10,170 feet in MounF Balbi
(Bougainville), and the soil is fertile ^lid well
watered, the chief products being sweet pota*
toes, bananas, pine-apples, coffee and cocoa.
The exports also include tortoiseshell, sandal-
wood, ivory and nuts. Owing to the excessive
rainfall the climate is unhealthy on the coasts,
which are indented with many commodious
bays. T%e natives belong to the Melanesian
race, and present several marked characteris-
tics, Bishop Patteson was the first who suc-
ceeded in establishing an influence over them.
Forced labour for the Commonwealth of
Queensland was obtained from the group, but
the recruiting ceased in 1903. Discovered by
Mendafta in X568, they were re-discovered
by French and British sailors in the Iktter
half of the 18th century, Bjy the tjp^ty of
November 14th, 1890, part of the gtohp, in*





( d2t)




eluding Bougainville and Bujca, ifie oisigneU
to Oerinany, and the remainder to (ireat
Britain, induding 0uadalcanar, Malaita,
leabel, Kausagi and Choieeul. The area of the
British section is estimated at 6,357 square
miles, that of the German at 4,200 square
miles. Fop, of British section (estimated),
150,000; of German, 46,000.

Sdlomott'ff-Saal (Polygmatum), a genus of
liliace&hs plants which derive their scientific
name from their many*knee"d flesh;^ rhizomes.
These give of tall, slender, drooping annual
braaphes, bearing sessile broad leaves, either
ip two rows or in whorls, and axillary clusters
of greenish-white fiowers resembling bunches of
seals hanging from a fob. The fiowers are suc-
ceeded by bluish-black, berry-like fruits. There
are three British species; but they are not
common.

Solon, a descendant of Codrus and kinsman of
Fisistratus, was born at Salamis about 638 b.c.
Eeturning to Athens after a long voyage, he
found the state torn by factions, undermined
by the system of slavery for debt, and preyed
upon by Megara. By a poem he stirred the
citizens to recover Salamis, and was rewarded
by being appointed archon. He at once set to
work upon the reforms with which his name is
associated. Ho wiped off all existing mort-
gages, classified the citizens according to
property, gave votes to all, but limited the
exercise of high office to the wealthiest, estab-
lished trial by jury and the elective council of
400, strengthened the aristocratic Senate or
Areopagus, invited foreigners to settle as
“metoikoi” under the protection of citizen
patrons, regulated education and introduced
many social restrictions. He then bade fare-
well to his country for ten years in order to
give his constitution time to get into working
order. He visited Egypt, Cyprus, and Asia,
and came home to find the old evils cropping
up once more and the tyranny of Fisistratus
imminent. Between the latter and Solon there
seems to have been some sympathy, though the
lawgiver objected to absolute government,
Herodotus’s story of his visit to Croesus, King
of Lydia— to whom he said, “Fronounce no
man happy until we have seen his death,”—
has been declared apocryphal on the ground
that Solon's travels were ended before Croesus’s
reign began. Solon died at the age of eighty
before the new dynasty had fully come into
ower. Fragments of his poems have come
own to us.

8olotkiir&. [SoniuBB:.]

Solo Whist, a variety of whist played by four
persons with an ordinary pack of 62 cards,
though, as thiB name suggests, greater oppor-
tunity is affotded for single-handed play than
in the older game. Usually the deal at the
beginning is assigned to the player who holds
the lowest (aco counting as one) of the first
four cards dealt out (in some companies, though
the reason is hard to discover, the dear is


allotted to the player who recefvae the first
Jack dealt out). There are no partnerships ex-
cepting in the declaration known as ” Mar-
riage," but there is informal partnership or
combination amongst the other players against
the person who ha.s made a singie-haudea call.
It is customary to play for money, but the
stakes in that case should be kept as low as
possible, else the tempt atiout to gamble will be
great. NotwithstanUing this, money stakes
are not at all necessary, counters leading to
quite as good a game. Two packs are gene-
rally employed to save time, one being shuffied
for the next round by the player opposite
to the dealer, whilst the other is being
dealt. Nevertheless, with a view to affording
reasonable opportunities for a declar|ition, it^is
not thought desirable to shuffie the pacx quite
so thoroughly as in Whist, in which it is pro-
per to endeavour to eliminate the element of
mere luck. The deal having been settled as de-
scribed for the first hand (in succeeding hands
the deal passes to each player in turn), the
dealer deals out the cards three at a time,
starting with the player on his or her left, for
four rounds and the last four cards one to each
player, the last card being turned up as
^‘trumps” in the meanwhile, pending any de-
claration that may be made. The ace is the
highest card and a player must follow suit if
he can. The player on the dealer’s left has the
first call. He may make one of several declara-
tions or elect to pass ; in the latter event the call
will belong to the next player and so on in
rotation. The following are the usual declara-
tions, beginning with the highest, which takes
precedence over all: — “Abondance Declar^e,*'
‘‘Abundance,” “Misfere Ouvert,” “Misere”
(or “Misery”), “Solo,” “Marriage” and
“General.” In order to win “Abundance
Declared ’ ' the player must make every trick —
an exploit which is so rarely possible that the
call is never heard. To make “Abundance,” a
player must score 9 tricks out of the 13, the
other players doing their best to prevent him
from succeeding. He is entitled to choose his
own suit for trumps, but should he elect to go
on the suit of the turned-up card, he^has the
option of doubling the stakes, provided he
announces his intention before a card has been
played. The lead always falls to the player on
the dealer’s left and this must constantlj^ be
kept in mind in making a declaration, since
the declarer cannot get his own game on until
he has won a trick. It is clear that he mhst be
overwhelmingly strong in one suit (which he
will, of course, make trumps) and should also
be very strong in one or two others, if he is to
win at least 9 tricks. If he hold the six high-
est Hearts (making this |rumps), the ace and
Queen of Spades, the King and Queen of Dia^
monds, and the 10, 9, and 6 of Clubs, he might
get “home,” provided he contrive to let the
lead in Spaces come from the player on Jlie
left, in which case he will hold the two master
cards (ace for the King and Qheen fpr t)ie
Knave), but otherwise it is very doubtful



Solo WUiL


( 826 )


wlietlier even with an apparently powerful
hand he will get “home,” The golden rule al-
ways is for the declarer, whatever the call, to
get out the trumps the moment he secures the
lead. Of course the rest will avoid trumps, in
the hope of being able to use them in trumpiz^
a strong card in the declarer’s of -suits, n
**Abun&nce ” is made, the declarer will re-
ceive (the writer preferably assuming the stakes
to be little more than of nominal value) 4d.
from each of the other players and id.
for every trick made over 9. If “Abundance”
fail, the declarer must pay 4d. to each of
the other players. In “Mis^re Ouvert” the
declarer wul play to the first card led and
then expose his hand on the table, playing
the remaining 12 in view of his or her col-
leagues. Thm, too, is a call scarcely ever
attempted. In "Misfere,” the next highest
call, there are no trumps, and the declarer
must not take a single trick. If he suc-
ceed, he will receive 3d. from each player, and I
if he fail, he must pay 3d. to each. For such
a declaration a wretched hand is a sine qud non
(hence the name of the call), but a player hold-
ing an ace or King that is covered by four or
five low cards of the same suit may risk the
declaration, because he will have a good chance
of throwing the ace or King away on a suit of
which he has none or only one. For example,
should he hold ace, 8, 6, 4, and 2 of Hearts
and no Spades, or only one, he will play the
ace the nrst or second time Spades are led.
The danger is that some one may hold more
Hearts than he has and by constantly keeping
the lead may at last force him to take the
trick with his ace and so lose. In “Solo/* the
next highest call, the declarer must make at
least 6 tricks, the turned-up card indicating
the trump suit. Comparatively speaking, this
is an easy call, since the presumption is that no
one will make it who does not think he sees his
way to a sure 5, and is overpaid at 2d. for
the "Solo^* and id. for every trick made in
excess of 5. Failure to make “Solo ’ mvolves
the declarer in a payment of Id. to each of the
rest of the players in addition to Id, for every
trick below the necessary 5. “Marriage ” is the
only declaration involving an active partnership.
The turn-up is the trump suit. If, for instance,
the player on the dealer’s left t^nk
four certain tricks and a possible fifth, he
will say, **1 propose.” The players, in rota-
tion, have the option of taking him in the
words, “I accept’^ (vulgarly, this call is known
as “Prop” and “Cop”). The proposer and
accepter Wst take 8 tricks between them. If
they snoceed, they will receive Id. for the Mar-
riage ” and id. for every trick made in excess
of 8— the proposer being paid by one of tne
opponents, the accepter by the other. If
fail the proposer must pay one opponent Id.

call and 4d. for every trick he is

“down** ^that is, below 8).
must pm the other opponent similarly. A pr^
miser should hold four^rtain tricks and a pr^
i^le fifth* an accepter three certain tncks


and a highly probable fourth. II an offer of
“Marriage “ be still unaccepted by the time
the call has reached and bfeen declined by the
dealer, the player on his left has an option
of acceptance. If the ofer even then be re-
fused, the proposer has the privilege of trying
for “Solo,^’ should he elect to run the risk-
Should “Marriage” fail and no “Solo** be
attempted, the situation will bring us to the
remaining declaration, which is known as
“General,” and of which there are two
kinds. In one variety there are no trumps,
and whoever takes the last trick will pay
Id. to each of the other three players.
Obviously, in such rounds, the policy is to
play out the highest cards in the aifferant
suits and hold the lowest, care being taken,
however, not to be left with the lead and the
best sequence, even of low cards. But assum-
ing that no declaration at all has been made the
second sort of “General” will follow, meant
doubtless to demonstrate the sincerity of the
call, since everybody must hold bad hands if
none be strong enough to warrant a declara-
tion of any kind, for in this variety the player
who takas the most tricks must pay Id. to each
of tho players. Those players who care more
for the stakes than for the game are accus-
tomed to treat both sorts of “ General * with
contempt and, instead of playing to it, each
person pays Id. to a pool which is destined for
the player who shall be the first afterwards to
make a successful single-handed declaration.
Either kind of “General,” however, is well
worth playing on its merits and should on
no account be dropped. Players are expected
to make a fair declaration according to their
hands, because the rest of the company will be
guided to some extent in their calls by the at-
titude of their neighbours. In a revoke the
guilty player must pay the fees of the parti-
cular call in which the revoke was made. (In
a “Marriage” the penalty falls upon the guilty
partner only, not on both.) Should a player not
only make his points but take every trick, he
performs what is known as the “Grand Slam *
and is entitled on that account to double
stakes. In the opinion of many players of both
games. Solo Whist is superior to Bridg^.

Solstices are those points of the ecliptic whiqb
are farthest removed from the equator. When
the sun in his apparent path reaches either of
these points, he appears stationary; hence
the term solstice, from the Latin sol and
He then progresses no farther towards the
poles, but returns towards the equator. At
these two points the sun is vertical at the
Tropic of Cancer or Capricorn; hence the
solstices are also known as the tropical points.
Tlie term solstice is often used to denote the
time when the sun reaches the two points.
Thus in the northern hemisphere the sunwer
solstice will be June 21, and the winter solstice
December 21. The Solstitial Colure is »

nassinff through the solstices, and cjits
IS* ecliptie at right Ukgles,



( 326 )


0ollitioa« Most liquids have power of
dissolving substanceah-r^that is, oii^iiig such
substances to liquefy **-and no liquid has tnis
power so much aS» water. Tbe dissolved sub-
stance ipay be either a gas or a liquid or a
solid. When a gas is absorbed by a liquid, the
amount dissolved varies with the temperature
of the solution, the pressure to which the solu-
tion is subjected, and the nature of the gas
itself.. It is usual for the amount of gas con-
tained in a solution to decrease with rise of
temjjerature ; thus the oxygen and carbon
dioxide contained in cold water are given off on
boilihg. William Henry (1774-1836) discovered
the law connecting the amount of gas dissolved
with the pressure, and this law states that the
volume of gas absorbed varies directly with
the pressure. Thus, if water at ordinary pres-
Buie-^i.e., under one atmosphere — will dissolve
one litre of a gas, it will also dissolve appar-
ently one litre under a pressure of two atmo-
spheres; but one litre of the gas under two
atmospheres is equivalent to two litres under
one atmosphere, so we see that in the second
case twice as much gas has really been ab-
sorbed. The amount of any gas dissolved from
a mixture is determined by the pressure of that
gas alone, and the law of such absorption is
known as Dalton^s law of partial pressures.
Usually a solid becomes more soluble in a
liquid as the temperature rises ; but there are
a few exceptions to this, notably lime, which is
much more soluble in cold than in boiling
water. When the liquid will not dissolve
any more of the substance, it is said to be
saturated. In some cases, when a hot saturated
solution is allowed to cool slowly without agita-
tion, the solid is not precipitated, and hence
the solution contains at the lower temperature
more substances than it would dissolve natur-
ally at that temperature. Such a solution is said
to be supersaturated. It is in an unstable
state, ana generally slight agitation, or the
addition of a grain or two of some solid, will
cause solidification to occur so rqpidly that
a rise of temperature is at once observed.
Sodium sulphate shows this phenomenon ex-
ceedingly well, and it generally occurs best with
those Balts which contain a large amount of
water of crystallisation. When substances are
dissolved in any solvent, the solution exhibits
properties different from those of the pure
solvent. Thus if a solution of sugar and water
be contained in a tube, with what is known as
a semipermeable membrane at its base, and
this be placed in water, the solution rises in
the tube, owing to the entry of water through
the membrane, until a constant limit is
reached. [Osmosb J There is thus a head of
solution indicating a pressure, and this is
kfiown as the osmotic presstire of the solution.
Osmotic pressure might be measured in other
ways, and by means of this experimental
quantity Jakob Hendrik van't Hoff (b, 1852)
fbund he could apply thennodynamics to solu*
tiops* and hehce originated what is knovrn as
the new theory of sblutiohs; For dUnte sdlh*




lions at constant temperature it has been found
that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the
concentration, and further that the value of
the osmotic pressure is the same as that
which the substance would exert if it could be
gasified and made to occupy (at the same tem-
perature) a volume equal to the volume of the
solution. It will thus be seen that in dilute
solutions the dissolved substance behaves very
much like a gas. It has been found also tnat
the vapour pressure of a solution is lower than
that of the pure solvent, and that the amount
of lowering depends on the molecular weight of
the dissolved substance. This causes the boil-
ing-point to be higher, and the freezing-point
to be lower, for a solution than for the solvent,
and observations on these alterations of tem-
perature are often used as a means of deter-
mining the molecular weight of a dissolved sub-
stance. It has been found that salts, acids, and
bases give abnormally large values of the os-
motic pressure and related properties ; they be-
have as though more molecules were present
than are actually there, and hence it has been
suggested that these substances have really dis-
sociated. Since those substances which ex-
hibit these peculiarities are always found to be
conductors of electricity, a theory of electro-
lytic dissociation has been largely accepted. In
the case of a solution of hydrochloric acid, for
example, Michael Faraday supposed each mole-
cule consisted of two paits oppositely charged

with electricity, thus J ^ These parts he

called the ions, and the passage of the current
■was supposed to consist of the movement of the
two ions in opposite directions. These ideas
of Faraday’s nave been supported by many
workers, and in 1887 Arrhenius publish^ his
hypothesis that in such solutions a portion of
the molecules exists decomposed into ions even
when no current is passing. It is not possible
to expound this theory more fully here, but
work done on solutions of many different elec-
trolytes shows that, whatever may be the real
state of an electrolyte in solution, the ion
theory affords a trustworthy working hypo-
thesis.

Solway Firth, an inlet of the Irish Sea,
running inland, in a north-easterly direction,
like a wedge and dividing the English county
of Cumberland on the S^. from the Scottish
shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries on the
N. It has a breadth of 26 miles at its mouth
between Little Boss and St. Bees' Head, and
diminishes to 2 miles at its eastern extremity,
where extensive tracts of sand are exposed at
low water. Its length is about 40 miles. The
Dee, Urr, Nii^ Annan and Sark, on the north,
and the Esk, Eden, Ellen and Derwent, on the
south, are the principal feeders. The shore
turf is in great request for bowling-greens,
owing to its springy nature and ability to
Stdnd wear and tear. A railway viaduct
yards long spans the tidal creeh bietween Bb*#-
ness And Annau. Solway Moss, 7 mUes in cir*


Solynun XX.


< 327 )




4 sitziiferenc 6 « the scene of tlie defeat of the
Scots under Sir Oliver Sinclair in 1542^which
is said to have broken James T/s haarti — lies
a little to the north-east.

SolyaiAXI SoiilMAN, or SULBIMAN, sur-
nam^ “Thb Magnificent, ” was born about
1490 and succeeded his father, Selim 1., as
Sultan of Turkey in 1620. Having made peace
urith Persia and quelled a rising in ^ria, he
directed his arms westwards, captured Belgrade
and Bhodes, and ultimately pushed on to the
gates of Vienna (1629), whence, after three
weeks* siege, he had to retreat. He attacked
Venice, but ultimately came to terms with
Charles V in 1538. In 1534 he renewed the
war with Persia, took Tauris and Bagdad, but
was beaten before conquering Yemen. Tunis
and Algiers and parts of Greece were added to
his smpire. In 1540 he again invaded Hungary
and annexed the greater portion of it. Bespond-
ing to the invitation of Francis I., he sent a
fleet under Barbarossa to co-operate with the
French against Charles V. A second expedition
to Persia in 1547 resulted in the conquest of
Georgia. From 1662 to 1562 be was engaged
in fresh hostilities against Hungary, and in
1565, though he brought a vast arm-ament
against Malta, he failed to take the island. Ho
died on September 5th, 1566^ at Sziget whilst
opening a new campaign against Hungary.

SomOf in Hindu mythology, is closely connected
with Indra, as the deity of light and fire, in-
cpiring courage, poetry and song, and bestow-
ing long life, joy and immortality. At a later
fit age he is absolutely identified with the moon.
In one of his aspects the god appears as the
aoma plant, a kind of milkweed, from which
is extracted an intoxicating liqueur, used
freely in the rites of this divinity. Tbe bever-
age is prepared with mystic solemnities pre-
scribed in many of the most ancient hymns of
the Bigveda-Sanhit&, and the plant is itself
made an object of worship.

Somali, a people of East Africa, whose domain
tsomprises most of the eastern peninsula termi-
nating at Cape Guardafiii, and stretching from
the Gulf of Aden south to the Juba river, with
not very closely defined western limits towards
Gallaland and Abyssinia. The Somali who
belong the Ethiopic or eastern branch ot
the Hanaitic family, intermediate between the
Western Gallas and Northern Afars (Danakil),
form three main divisions, with several im-
portant suWroups, as under; (1)
(Mijertin, War-Sengali, Bolbohanti, Habr-
Awal, Habr-Tol, Habr-Yunis, Issa, Gadibursi),
from Tajurah Bay round to the Indian Ocean,
and from the Gulf of Aden south to the central
plateau of Ogaden; (2) Hamya (Habr-Jaleh,
Habr-Gader, Karanl^, Ber-Bollol), Ogaden and
W6bi-Shebeli basin; (3) Bahanwin (Kalalla,
Barawa, Wadan, Abgal), southern
baeiu. The tyn© diicrs little from that of the
Gallas, except that the Somah are taller (5
feet 10 inches to 6 feet), and darker (a deep


shad© of brown), with smap®r and longer
heads, slightly arched nose, fdll lips, deep-set
black eyes, long oHsp blhck hair, slim extremi-
ties ; but there is a strain both of Arab and
Negro blood, causing considerable modifica-
tions in different districts. Ail are Moham-
medans, and the little culture they possess,
such as a slight knowledge of letters, and the
national costume (a flowing robe of white edt-
ton, clasped to the left shoulder), is entirely
due to their Arab teachers. Beneath thill out-
ward varnish the savage instincts are still ram-
pant, as shown in the prevalence of brigandage,
lawlessness, tribal feuds, the vendetta, end a
curious indifference to physical pain. The chief
possesses little authority over the innumerable
rers or fakidas (dans and septs), and even
the so-called Sultans of the Hasiyas exercise
scarcely any influence beyond their immediate
surroundings. The coast people engage in
fishing, navigation, and trade, or caravan lead-
ing. In the interior nearly all are nomads,
and possess a tine breed of camels, noted for
extraordinary staying power. By international
conventions the Northern Somali have become
British, the Boiithcrn Italian subjects. A rising
under the Mullah took place in 1902. and a
British force was despatched, but after con-
siderable fighting the Mullah escaped, and the
military operations ceased in 1904.

Somalilaiid, an r^rea of Africa, which may be
verv roughly described as that portion of the
continent lying east of the Juba, the meridian
of 40° E., Abyssinia and Eritrea, bounded on
the N. by the Gulf of Aden, on the E. and S,
by the Indian Ocean, and on the W. by the
Jiiba and Gallaland. It has been taken under
the protectorate of several European powers,
but their jurisdiction is practically confined to
the coastal region and the immediate hinter-
land. In the north French Somaliland lies
between the Italian colon;^ of Eritrea and
British Somaliland, extends inland for an aver-
age distance of some 66 miles, occupies an area
of about 12,000 square miles, and has a pop^. of
about 50,000. The port of Obock was acquired
.in 1862, Sagallo and Taj u rah were obtained in
*1884, and Arabado was acquired in >1886. By
agreement with Great Britain the territory
was delimited in 1888, in which year Jim|ia
(15,000) port was established, afterwards be-
coming Gie seat of government, the territory
being administered by a Governor and Privy
Council. British Somaliland, extending from
Lahadu, west of Zeila, to Bandar Ziyada, in
49° E., both on the Aden Gulf coast, and
inland for distances varying from 40^ to 200
miles, is administered by a Commssioner,
who is also Commander-in-Chief. The area
amounts to 60,000 square miles and the pop.
numbers 300,000. The boundaries of the pro-
tectorate were arranged with Italy , in 1^4
and in 1897 with Abyssinia, to whiOh
square miles were then ceded m order that
the Emperor might be in position effect-
ually to deal with the unruly tribes on his




( 328 )






southern borders. The chief town ^ , Berbers
(30^000), and the other large town# ire S&eila
(15,000) and Bulhar (12^000). The sole means
of tran8|K>rt is bj camels and donkeys. IriXiAN
gouaniZiAirn extends from 49^ E. on the coast
of the Gulf of Aden; doubling Cape Ouardafui
and then proceeding southwards to the mouth
of the Juba. It has an area of 100,000 square
miles and a pop. of 400,000. Italy first ob-
tained a footing on the coast in 1889, when the
Sultan efl Obbm placed himself under her pro-
tection and she proclaimed her protectorate
over the Benadir coast from the Juba as far
north iis 2° 30' N., excepting the ports of Brava,
Merka, Mogadisho and Warsheik, which be-
longed to tne Sultan of Zanzibar. These she
leased in 1893, in which year she took over the
administration of the region. In 1905 she
bought out the Sultan and then obtained
sovereign rights. Somaliland has thus an ap-
proximate area of 172,000 square miles and a
pop. of 750,000.

SomarSf or Sommebb, John, Lord Somers,
Lord Chancellor, was born at Whlteladies,
Claines, near Worcester, England, on March
4th, l&l. He was educated at Worcester
Cathedral School, private schools at Walsall
and Sheriff Hales, and Trinity College, Oxford.
He was called to the bar in 1676, and by dint of
hard study soon became an expert. He was
junior counsel for the Seven Bishops in 1688
and next year was elected M.P. for Worcester,
a seat which he held till he was raised to the
Woolsack. If he did not write the Declaration
of Bights, he presided over the committee that
drew it up. In 1689 he was made Solicitor-
Oeneral and was knighted soon afterwards.
Three years later he was promoted Attorney-
General and on March 23rd, 1693, was appointed
Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and on April
22nd, 1697, Lord High Chancellor, being raised
to the peerage by the title of Baron Sommers a
few months later. During his ofiiciar and, poli-
tical career he never intermitted his keen de-
light in letters, learning and art. In 1704
Jonathan Swift dedicated to him the Tale of a
Tiihi but, preferment not being forthcoming,
ratted to the Tories and became his enemy.
Prom 1699 to 1704 he also served as President
of the Eoyal Society, and his opposition (1694)
to the renewal of the Licensing Act was
prompted by regard for the liberty of the press.
Having been made to bear a larger share of
the blame for the Treaty of Eyswiok (1698) and
the Partition Treaty (1699) than can be justly
laid upon him, Somers grew unpopular and sur-
rendered the Great Seal on April 17th, 1700.
His enemies were not appeasea, however, and
demanded his impeachment, but he was ulti-
mately acquitted on June 17th, 1701. This hos-
tility was continued during the early years of
Anne's reign, but he was virtually the head of
the Whig party, and slourly but surely his in-
fluence reasserted itself* The* burden of the
defence of the Act of Dnion with Scotland w^as
entrusted to Somers in the House of Lords And


in 1708 he became President of the Council.
Though he was opposed to the impeachment of
Henry Sachevereu, he was loyal to his coir
leagues and fell with them in 1710. In 1714
he accepted a place in the Cabinet without
portfolio, but his health soon afterwards failed
and he died at his villa near Korth Mimms, in
Hertfordshire, on April 26th, 1716.

Somersety a maritime county in the south-
west of England, bounded on the N.W. by the
Bristol Channel, on the N. by Gloucestershire,
on the E. by Wiltshire, on the S.E. by Dorset,
on the S.W. and W. by Devonshire. The area
of 1,616 square miles consists of marshy levels
on the coast, slaty cliffs to the east, and allu-
vial plains or valleys to the south, divided by
the bleak ranges of the Mendip, Polden, Quan-
tock, and Breudon Hills, and the plateau of
Exmoor. The chief rivers are the Avon, Parret,
Yeo and Axe. The soil is good in the low-
lands, the Vale of Taunton yielding fine crops
of wheat, barley, oats, turnips, mangolds and
otatoes, and the pastures supporting large
erds of cattle, whilst sheep thrive well on the
hills. Horses and pigs are also raised in large
numbers. There are extensive orchards of
apples for the manufacture of cider. Some coal
is found in the east, but the chief mineral re-
sources are Bath-stone, slate, iron and lead.
Woollen and linen goods, machinery, tobacco
and snuff, bricks and tiles, gloves, lace, paper
and Bath-bricks are the principal manufac-
tures, besides brewing and printing. Bath
(49,839), the capital, is famous for its waters,
and other centres of population are Taunton,
Bridgwater, Chard, Wells, Yeovil and Glaston-
bury. The Eoman occupation was pretty
thorough in this area and important remains
are found at Bath, Ilchester and elsewhere.
After the retreat of the Romans the district
formed part of Damnonia, or West Wales, and
is celebrated in the Arthurian legends. In re-
ligious history engrossing interest attaches to
the Vale of Avalon and Glastonbury. During
the Danish warfare Alfred the Great found
shelter at Athelney. At the time of the Civil
War the shire stood by the Parliament and
Sedgemoor witnessed (1685) the last battle on.
En^ish soil. Pop. (1901), 508,104.

Somersett Dttke of. [Seymour.]

Somerville, Mary, writer on science, daughter
of Vice-Admiral Sir George William Fairfax,
was born at Jedburgh, in Gotland, in 1780. She
te light herself mathematics, but her real pro-
gress in science began in 1812, when, having
lost her first husband, Captain Samuel Greig,
she married Dr. William Somerville, inspector
of the army medical board. She acquired »
deep knowledge of astronomy and physics, and
was intimate with Laplace and other learned
men. Her first work was a translation of the
Micanique (I4leste (1831), and in 1834 appeared
The Oofmedim of the Physical Sciemm, fol-
lowed in by her Phpmml Qeogrq^pl^f and
In by if oiccwlor am Mkronco^t M^




Sommt.


( 329 )


ScnuEMill^'


She was elected an honorary member of the
Boyal Astronomical Society, and received a
(!!ivil List pension. She died at Naples on No-



MARY SOMERVILLE.


vember 29th, 1872, and in her honour were
named Somerville Hall and the Mary Somer-
ville Mathematical Scholarship for Women at
Oxford.


So21Ull6y a department of France, bounded on
the N, by Pas-de-Calais and Nord, on the E.
by Aisne, on the S. by Oise, on the S.W. by
Seine-Inferieure, and on the N.W. by the Eng-
lish Channel. It occupies an area of 2,443
square miles. The .surface is generally level,
but undulating in parts and composed of sand
dunes off the coast. The chief river is the
Somme, from which the department takes its
name and which, rising in the department of
Aisne, flows in a north-westerly direction to the
English Channel, which it reaches after a course
of 125 miles. Other streams are the Ancrc, Avre
and Selle (affluents of the Somme), the Authie
and Bresle. The principal crops are wheat,
oats, barley, potatoes, garden poppy and beet-
root for sugar. Horses, cattle, sheep, mgs
and goats are raised in great numbers. Ine
leading industries are the spinning and weav-
ing of linen, hemp, cotton, sugar-refining, dis-
tilling, peat - cutting, lock -making, tanning,

paper-making and the fisheries. St.
a fashionable seaside resort. Amiens (90,758),
famous for its cathedral and its velvets, is the
capital. Pop. (1901), 537>848.

Somnatli. or Puttun-Spmuath, a decayed
port of the Presidency of
the south-western coast of the Kathiawar pen-
insula, the marine quarter, Vepwal,
traces of its ancient fortifications and jjom-
inercial prosperity. The place takes its name


from the great temple of Siva, the ruins of
which attract meny pilgrims. Mahmud of
Oharni, in 1024, carried Ofi the famous gates,
which are now at Agra. Fop. (estiinated)^
6 , 000 .

Sonata, a musical composition, introduced and
much used in the 17th and 18th centuries. It
should have a single, common idea running
through the movements, which are varied, and
originally it was intended for one instrument,
generally the violin, later the piano. If it
iH intended for more instruments than one,
one instrument should always predominate in
the same movement, and the others be looked
on as accompaniments. Bach, Haydn, Moaart,
Mendelssohn, Beethoven and Brahma are cele-
brated for their sonatas.


Song, a short poem, or set of words in rhythm,
adapted to music. The song may b© for a
‘oin^c voice, for a chorus, or a part-song, or all
combined, and generally contains a story or
sentiment, and should be directed to the emo-
tions, sentiments, or passions. The national
songs of England, Scotland, Ireland, etc., Llb-
din^s nautical songs, and the volks- and solda-
ten-lieder of Germany are good examples of
what sonjgs should be, as are also the short
songs in Tennyson’s Idylh of the King,

Songhay (Sokrhay), a historical people oi!
West Central Sudan, whose empire, overthrown
by the Moroccans in 1691, at one time oom-

f Vised a great part of West Sudan and the
ahara, with Timbuktu and many other great
cities. They still number about 2,000,000 along
both banks of the Middle Niger from Lake
Debo round to the Sokoto confluence, and at
some points stretching as far as the Hombori
Hills within the great bend of the Niger. The
Songhay language, which is of Sudanese type,
but in other respects fundamentally distinct
from all the surrounding forms of speech, ie
oven still current in the Asbeu district, a proof
of the former great extent of their empire to-
wards the east. But nearly all are now sub-
ject either to the Tuaregs or to the Fulahs of
Sokoto and Gando, or to the French since the
occupation (1894) of Timbuktu. The culture is
purely Mohammedan, but the type Negroid,
that is, Negro much modified by Arab and
Tuareg (Berber) intermiuglings.


Songka. [Bed Bivbe.]

Sonnet, a short poem of fourteen lines, gener-
ally containing a single idea or sentiment. It
seems to have first appeared in Italy, perhaps
in Bologna, in the 13th century, and later in
other countries, llie kinds are chiefly two:
the simple stanza (as Shakespeare's) and the
compound stanza (as Petrarch's). The simple
stanza consists of three quatrains^ of lines
rhyming alternately, and ending with a coup-
let ; the compound of eight Hn©a myming
1,4, 6, 8: 2, 3,6, 7 *. and six linee of two tkf
rhymes, varying in order. Among Eaglisn
writers of sonnets are Shakespeare, Drayton i
Keats, Wordsworth, and Milton. e


s



( 330 )


SopllOOlMI.


fecmiim.'


SmiOlfai A state of Hexicot bounded the N.
hy the United States, on the B. by Chihuahua,
on the S. by Sinaloa and on the W. by. the
Oulf of California. It covers an area of 76,900
square miles^ heinff the second largest state of
the Kepublic. T^e heights of the Sierra
Tarahumare occupy the eastern surface, but
the coastal land is generally level and fertile.
The \ chief rivers from north to south are the
Asuncion^ Sonora, Matape, Magin, and Mayo
and thei# affluents. The mineral wealth com-
prises gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, coal and
graphite. The principal crops are cereals,
tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane and fruit. Her-
mosillo (17,618J, on the Sonora, 65 miles from
the coast, is in railway communication with
Ariasona, California and New Mexico. Pop.
(1900), 221^682.

Scmtag, Hknriette, Countess Rossi, singer,
was born at Coblenz, in Germany, on January
3rd, 1806. Her parents being actors she was
engaged on the stage from her earliest years,
but after her father’s death studied at the
Conservatory of Prague. Soon after her at
the age of fifteen she was engaged at the Opera
of Vienna, where she sang in numerous roles of
German and Italian operas. At her first ap-
pearance in Berlin (1824) she achieved an elec-
tric success and was appointed Singer to the
Court. She was enthusiastically received at
Paris two years later and in London in 1829,
the rivalry between her and Malibran evoking
extraordinary demonstrations. Soon after her
marriage (1829) to Count Rossi, Secretary of
the Sardinian Legation at Berlin, she retired
from the stage, but consented to appear in
Rossini’s Semiramts at Berlin in 1830, when
she won another triumph. Family reverses
having obliged her to return to the stage in
1848, it was soon apparent that her beautiful
voice and gracious presence were as charming
as ever, and her renewed career in France,
Germany and Great Britain was marked by a
succession of brilliant performances. Unfor-
tunately during her tour in North America she
was aeized with cholera and died at Mexico
on June 17th, 1854. One of the most gifted
singers the operatic stage has ever known, as
an actress she was somewhat deficient in the
dramatic power needed for tragic parts.

Sontlialt (Saktal), a large Kolarian nation of
East Central India in Baghalpur, north-west of
Murshedabad, reachiiig from the Daman-i-Koh
(Hajmahal) Hills on the right bank of the Gaines
southwards to about 24® N., north-west of Cal-
cutta. The chief tribal divisions are Saran,
Murmu, Marli, Kisku, Basera> Karwar, Chorai.
Many of the Sonthals engage themselves as
oOolies in the British colonies, and large num-
bers have become Protestants. *Their languajge,
reduced to written form by the nussionarms,
and spoken by over 1,000,000* is the best
knq^n, the most highly infiected, and by far
the most important of all the Eolarian lah-
gui^es, Ethnologically consideredi, their type
seems more Bravidian than Kolarian, and


they present an almost round face, large
mouth, tumid lips, flat forehead, moderately
promiueut cheek-bones, coarse, black, lank
hair, short stature, robust constitution, and
show a remarkable immunity from fever in
malarious districts. This characteristic en-
ables the Sonthals to work on plantations
where the climate would be fatal to almost
any other race. i

Soochoo, or SuCHOw, a city in the province
of Kiang-Su, China, about 56 miles W.N.W. of
Shanghai, and close to Lake Tai-hu and the
Imperial Canal. Outside the walls, which
mate a circuit of ten miles, are populous
suburbs. The Taeping rebels took the place in
1860, and it was recovered in 1865 by General
Gordon. It had suffered incalculable damage
during the interval, being in parts reduced
to ruins. It contains several pagodas, of
which the nine-storeyed one of the northern
temple is one of the finest in the empire.
The city is the headquarters of the silk manu-
factures, but its artisans are adept also in
carved article.s and metal, lacquer and glass
wares. Pop. (estimated), 600,000.

Sophia Dorothea of Zell, the only daughter
of Duke George William of Brunswick-Liine-
burg-Zell (or Celle), was born on September
16th, 1666. At the age of sixteen she married
Prince George Louis of Hanover, afterwards
George I. of England, and bore him a son and
a daughter, the first becoming George II.,
whilst the latter was mother of Frederick the
Great of Prussia. In 1694 Sophia was dis-
covered in an intrigue with Count Philip von
Konigsmark^ was divorced, and passed the fest
of her days imprisoned at Ahlden, where she
died on November 13th, 1726.

Sophists* primarily professional teachers of
rhetoric and other branches of learning in
Greece in the latter part of the 5th century
B.c. Professing as they did to teach the newest
learning, they (or rather some of the most
conspicuous of them^ came to appear as a kind
of sect or school oi philosophers representing
and intensifying the sceptical tendencies of
the time. The earlier Sophists were declama-
tory and rhetorical : the later perhaps imitated
Socrates’ dialectic. They were renowned for^
their power in rhetoric and grammar, both of
which subjects they taught for pay. Much of
what we know of them is derived from Plato
and Aristotle, who judged them by a some-
what transcendental standard. Protagoras*
Gergias, and Prodicus were among the leading
Sophists.

Sophocles* the Greek tragic poet, was bom in
the district of Colon us, a suburb of Athens*
about 495 b.c. Very little is known of his life.
Tradition affirms that he led the chorus of boys
who chanted in celebration of the victory of
Salamis (480), and allusions in Aristophanes
prove that he died not long before 405. He
discharged his ordinary civic duties, appears
to have served with Pericles as a g^eral In



( 331 ) Sortot ViavIpUaaai


Swltoiuu.


tke Samian War, was of a a^enial temper, and
somewhat susceptible to the tender passion,
and is rumoured to have become miserly in his
later years. The well-known story of his re-
citing a passage of the (Edipua Colomus to
prove his capacity in extreme old age for man-
aging his property rests on slender evidence.
It is said that he produced his first tragedy in
468, wresting the prize from .^schylus, and he
was twenty times successful, producing more
than a hundred pieces, only seven of which
are extant, namely, (EdipU8Tyramua,tEdipus
ColoneuSi Antigone, Electra, Ajax, Fhiloctetes,
and TrachinAce, He shows a distinct advance
over .ischylus in dramatic construction, sim-
plicity of language, and mastery of metre,
but lacks the tragic intensity and lyrical
power of the older poet. His patriotism,
though noble, is less strenuous. On the other
hand, he never sinks into the sickly and
monotonous sweetness of Euripides. Consum-
mate art marks every line of his works, and in
this respect he still remains without a rival.


with the utmost courtesy and *a«pect» and, in
fact, society was iwmnda^^B^^^ at iJeeing, for the
first time, a kind bf oifi#al position at Court
assigned to the King’s mistress. Agne$%
chief merit was that she had the sensO to act
with and not to thwart the distinguished men
whom Charles VII. was privileged to summon
to his counsels; but the notion, once current,
that she was the King’s good genins, a sort of
second Joan of Arc, has been exploded by the
researches of G. du Fresne de Beauoouit in
kevnt du Questions Aiatorigttes (1866).

Sorghtun, a genus of grasses cultivated, under
the name of millet, guinea-corn, durra, etc.,
in tropical countries and a few temperate cli-
mates, and employed for various puriMJses.
Among the Shaker communities of the united
States sugar is manufactured from the stems.
The grain is employed as food for poultry,
horses, etc., and in India is eaten by the
poorer classes. The stalks of the grain-bearing
panicles are made into brooms, clothes-brushes,
etc.


SorbozLUe, The, is the outcome of a theological
institution founded in the University of Paris
in 1257 by Kobert de Sorbon (1201-74), chap-
lain of Louis IX. It was intended for secular
priests, who there studied and taught theology,
and its members gained a great reputation,
so that the Sorbonne had much influence in
the ecclesiastical and social world. Cardinal
Hichelieu rebuilt it in 1626 and following
years. It was suppressed and disendowed at
the Revolution (1792), but was revived in 1821,
when the faculties of theology, science and
literature of the University of Paris were in-
stalled there along with their libraries. The
new buildings date from 1889 and retain the
name. The church, which contains the tomb
of Richelieu, its founder, was preserved in
consequence of its architectural beauty. Ine
greatest honour in the history of the Sorbonne
was its introduction of printing into France in
1469. Its greatest shame were its persistent
persecution of all new thought and its thick-
and-thin support of the vilest measures to
crush it.


Sorcery. [Magic; Witchcraft.]

Sorel, Agnes, mistress of Charles VII., was
born at the castle of Fromenteau, near Vil-
liers-en-Blenne, in the Tonraine, France,
about 1422. She was of good parOTtap and
btoame attached to the wealthy DucheM of
lioraine, Isabel, wife of of Anjou.
of Anjou, E^n4’8 sister, had married Charles
Vn. and thus there was considerable intM-
course between the families. In IWl tne
Maid of Fromenteau,” as she was called, was
introduced to the King, who
by her Wuty and induced *0
mistress. The liaison, at 7®®

ItMrtra in 1444, and **”*?„*»L™

death at Anneeilje, near
an- flth; 1460, Agnes nerer left the Kin^
maid of honour of the queen, she was treated


Sorrel (I^umex acututus)^ sometimes distin-
guished as French sorrel, is a hardy perennial,
native of France and Italy, introduced into the
country as a vegetable in 1596. The blunt
hastate glaucous leaves are more fleshy and
less acid than those of the Common Sorrel {It
acdom), a British species that was formerly
used in the same manner. Sorrel is rich in
oxalic acid, and is considered a valuable anti-
scorbutic; but it is more eaten in Prance,
where it is used in salads and soups, than in
England.


Sorrento, the ancient^ Surrentum, a town of
the province of Campania, Italy, delightfully
situated on the southern horn of the Bay of
Naples, 13 miles S. by E. of Naples. Em-
bosomed in groves of orange and lemon trees
and blessed with a mild and healthy climate,
in the age of Augustus it was a grander
city than Naples. Its former glor;ir seems to
have wholly passed away, although its natural
charm and beauty still give it deserved vogue
as a health and holiday resort. Its traditional
industry is wine-making and its wines are now
in local r^ute. ft has manufaetur^ silk.
Torquato Tasso, author of Arninta and Germa-
kmme Liherata, to whom there is a statue m
the Piazza, was born here in 1544. Pop. (lyuA),
8,933.


Sortes VirgiliiWi«f ^ method of divination
which consisted in opening by chance on a
passage of Virgil, and taking the passage m
found as prophetic. The ancients practise it,
and in later times Charles I. and l^rd Falk-
land found in this way a forecast of
eventual fate. Another method
on slips a certain number of verses ftom a
particular author, deposit the slips in an ^n
and then draw them out by lot. Fron^tw
nature of the contents of the ^

was to be inferred some hint M to tha

good or bad. Of the consulter of the oraole*



( 8 S2 )




Thottgli oondemned bj tbe
tbe samo metliod of diyininfir "*^^8 ^jpliod to
certain r^li^one books, and tbe Bible is ^yen
now resorted to by some for the same purpose.
Suck lots baye oeen actually called Sortes
Biblids, or Sortes Sacr®.

Satliaifli/BowaRB Askew, actor, was born at
Liverpool on April let, 1830, and was very
early attracted to the stage, appearing at
Boston, iJpited States, in 1851, Tor several
years, however, he failed to distinguish him-
self, but in 1858 he at length made a great hit
at New York as ‘‘Lord Dundreary” in Tom
Taylor% Our American Cousin, practically
creating the character. In 1861 he brought
the play to England, and acted it many hun-
dreds of times at the Haymarket and in the
provinces. On its production in London it ran for
496 consecutive nights and brought into vogue
the long, flowing Dundreary whisker and the
Dundreary garb (frock coat, white vest and
shepherd's-tartan or other light trousers and
eye-glass). This was his substantial success;
for, thoi^h he obtained some popularity in
David Garrich, Brother Sam, and The
Prompter's Box, he never quite got the same
hold over the public. In 1878 he returned to
England after an absence of some years in
the United States, and died somewhat suddenly
in London on January 2l8t, 1881.

6otil}ise» Benjamin de Bohan, Duo de,
soldier, the second Son of E4n4 II., Vicomte de
Bohan, was born at La Eocjielle, France, about
1689, and began a military bareer under Prince
Maurice of Orange in the Netherlands. In
1621 he, with his brother, took the command
of the forces of the Huguenots against Louis
XIII., conducting operatmns, with more or less
success, in the west and along the seaboard,
his most brilliant achievement being the cut-
ting-out of the French fleet in the Blavet.
From 1626 to 1628 he had charge of the defence
of La Eochelle and, had his counsels prevailed,
the abortive expedition against the lie de Bh^
might have haa another issue. On the failure
of his hopes he withdrew to England and died
in London on October 9th, 1642.

flonbita, Charles be Bohan, Prince be,
field marshal, was born in Paris on July 16th,
1715, being the son of a mistress of Louis XIT.
Tliough an incompetent soldier, he was en-
trusted with high command by Louis XV.,
and in 1757 was ignominiouely defeated by
Frederick the Great at Bossbach. In the
next year, under the guidance of Marshal
d'Estrees, he to some extent retrieved his repu-
tation, and in 1762 was successful at Johannis-
burg. His later years were spent at Court,
where he enjoyed the patronage' of Madame de
Pompadour and Madame Dubnrry. He died
at Paris on July 4th, 1787.

. SoUdAlip or Sudan (Arabic, “Blacks”), in
ita most comprehensive sense, is a somewhat
vague geographical term used by Arabs -to
desighato the habitat of the Negro tribes of


flkm^UuAa


Africa, thus being the Black Zone of the
continent, and adopted by European writers
when writing generally about Central
Boughly speaking* the district thus nam®d lies
between 6® and 18® N., and stretches from Cape
Verd on the Atlantic to Massowah on the Bed
Sea, having the Sahara on the north and
Guinea and the Congo territories on the south.
The area considerably exceeds ^two millions of
square miles, has a population, stated some-
wnat at a venture, of 57,000,000, and presents
marked physical contrasts with the northern
and southern portions of the continent, being
elevated, well-watered^ fertile, and habitable.
More particularly, it is divided into the Wes-
tern Soudan, comprising the Niger basin, the
Central Soudan, which is drained into Lake
Tsad, and the Eastern or Egyptian Soudan,
which sends its waters into the Nile and its
feeders. Ethnologically the vast majority of
the population belongs to the Negro or Negroid
race, Mandingoes, Hausas, Yorubas, B^hir-
mis, and Battas being marked varieties. Ham-
ites, such as the Tuaregs, Fulahs, Serrakolets,
etc., exercise a predominant power in the west,
but their blood is often mixed with that of the
Negro. Semites or Arabs do not settle much
west of Kanem, but are the practical masters
of all the Eastern Soudan. The first-named
division is occupied chiefly by Bambarrah, the
Fulah States, the Hausa aud Tuareg tribes,
and the territory attached to Timbuktu, and
practically constitutes French Soudan, which
thus extends from the Niger to the Atlantic
coast, with the exception of the British littoral
possessions in South Nigeria, Ashanti, Sierra
Leone, and Gambia, the independent Bepublic
of Liberia, Portuguese Guinea, and German
Togoland. In Central Soudan the principal
states are the Niger provinces, Bornu, Kanem,
Logon, Baghirmi, and Wadai, and these have
been appomoned among Great Britain (which
takes North and South Nigeria, Lagos and the
bulk of Sokoto and Bornu), France (to which
has been assigned Damerghu, Kanem, Wadai
and B^hirmi), and Germany (which possesses
South Bornu, Adamawa and Cameroon). The
Egyptian, Equatorial, and Bahr-Ghazal pro-
vinces, embracing Darfur, Kordofan, "and
Khartum, and forming Anglo-Egtptian Sou-
dan, were, after the Mahdi rebellion, which
broke out in 1882, more or less reduced to an-
archy, but they were restored to Egypt by the
success of Lord Kitchener's campaign, culmin-
ating in the victory of Omdurman (1898). The
Khalifa, the last hope of the insurgents, was
slain in the battle of Gedid in 1899 and his
followers Were captured. This success ended
the revolt. Angio-Egyptian Soudan extends
from the frontier of Egypt in the north to
Uganda and Congo Free state in the south,
and from the Bed Sea, Abyssinia and Gallw-
land in the east to Wadai in the west, is ad^
ministered by a Governor*General, nominated
by Egypt subject to the approval of Great
Britain, and comprisee the provinees of
Khartunif Blue Nile, Dongola, Berber, Kassida,



( 883 )


Soul,


Seimar, Kordofan, White Nile, Bahr-^l-Ghaial,
Haifa, Suakitt and Upper Nile, thus defined
occupying an area approximately of 960,000
square miles and supporting a population of
2,000,000, which would appear to be a decided
under-estimate. There are great stretches of
fertile land in many parts of this vast region
where durra, millet, sesame, pulse, cotton and
wheat are cultivated. Some of the tribes own
large herds of fine cattle. The forests produce
trees of economic value, such as the gum acacia
of Kordofan, the ebony, bamboo and the rub-
ber of the Bahr«el~Ohazal. The mineral wealth
includes gold (from Kordofan especially), cop-
per (from Hof rah and elsewhere), and iron
(from Bar Fur and other districts). Tlie chief
exports embrace ostrich feathers, ivory, cotton,
minerals, hides and skins, cattle, gums, timber
. and medicinal plants. Khartum (14,023), the
seat of government, contains the Governor’s
palace, the Government offices, the Gordon
Memorial College, and the finest modern
mosque in the whole Soudan, and is in railway
and telegraphic communication with Cairo.
Other large towns are Omdurman (39,916), the
old Dervish capital, Haifa, Berber, Suakin,
Kassala and El Obeid. The blacks are an in-
dustrious, decent, well-behaved people, upon
whom the slave-traders have practised their
hellish traffic for over 5,000 years. Tlie rule of
the Arab was an unmitigated curse, and if only
because it put an end for ever to the horrible
cruelty of the slave-merchant the reduction of
the Soudan will be amply justified in the his-
tory of civilisation. Missionary labours are
carried on with considerable success by the
American Mission, which would seem to act
with unusual sympathy for the sentiment and
point of view of the natives. Recurring to the
Soudan in the widest significance of the word
the statistics of area and population may be
summarised thus ; —


Territory.

Area in
square miles

Population.

Bbitxsh (East, Central, West)
Fbungh (West and Central) ...
0BRMAN (West and Central)...

1,500,000

600,000

200,000

42,000,000

0,000,000

6,000,000

Total

2,800,000

67,000,000


Sonlr A' word of greatly varying and perplexing
signification. By some it is used to signify the
principle of life, by others the thinking and
self-conscious part of man, and by others a
certain inner man, independent of body or
mind, constituting the real man as independent
of mind and body, and outlasting them both,
thofigh the different parts will be united here-
after, But this last is rather a religious belief
than a philosophical tenet, and indeed the
whole question of the soul as such enters wore
- into the region of theology than that of philcn
Sophy. As denoting the principle of sentient
life, the soul seems to be as much an attri-
as of mankind, and some


imHb


vhave gone so far as to claim it even fon plants^
Possibly this idea gave ancient mythology its
belief in the Haihadryade, besides other forms
of Nature worship. Much profitless contro-
versy has been entered upon by people #ho
differed upon fundamentals and so misunder-
stood each other's arguments. Joseph Butler,
Bishop of Durham (1692-1752), makes miah
use or the soul argument in his

Boult, NIOOLAS JfiAN DE DiEtT, DlXKB OF
Dauhatia, marshal of France, the son of a
country notary, was born at St. Amans-la-
Bastide, in the department of Tarn, on March
29th, 1769, He, too, was destined for the Law,



MAKdHAL SOtrr.T.

(From the portrait by Itouillard.)


but, in consequence of his father's death, en-
listed at the age of sixteen, and, having won his
captain’s epamettes in 1793, in the following
year leaped to the rank of brigadier-general
for his brilliant services under Lefebvre in
Flanders. Five years were now spent in Gsr-
many, where the battle of Altenkirchen added
Ho his fame, and ho next joined ^assena in
Switzerland, took a distinguished plrt in tno
battle of Zurich, and pursued Suvoroff into
Italy. He was wounded and taken prisofier
outside Genoa in 1800, but got an exchafiffo
after Marengo. As marshal he comifiauded tno
centre at Austerlitz (1805). and then won the
battles of Jena (1806) and Eylau (1807), and
captured the city of Konigsberg. In lo08 he
began his protracted struggle against the Duke
of Wellington in the Peninsula, and in 1814
gave his services to the new dynasty, coming
to England with the Allied Sovereigns. How-
ever, he went back to his old master for the
Waterloo campaign, and then remained for
four years in exile. Under Louis Philippe he
became Minister of War, ambaasador in Lon-
don, and was loaded with honours. He d^
clared himself a Republican in 1848, and dim






( 334 )




at his castle of Sottltberg, near his hirthnlaae
in the department of Tarn, on Hovemher ^th,
1851. '' '* ,

Sonild. The seosation of sound is produced
In the brain when the auditory nerve is affected
in a particuiar way. Sounds is transmitted
through the air by means of waves; an original
impulse given to certain gaseous molecules
causes these to start outwards and, after hit-
ting others, to rebound. These latter, in their
turn, give up their motion to fresh ones, and
a ieries or to and fro movements is set up,
the effect travelling outwards as a wave. As
each particle starts forward it causes a con-
densation Of air in front, and a rarefaction be-
hind ; while the wave travels onwards in the
same direction as that in which the molecules
are moving. The faster the particles move
to and fro the more quickly does the wave
travel onwards, and, as the rate of rebound of
the particles depends on the elasticity of the
air, it follows that the velocity of sound also
varies with this property. [Acoustics.] The
loudness of a sound diminishes as we recede
from its source, and in such a way that the
intensity is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance; this is true if the sound be
free to travel iu all directions, but if the sound
be forced to limit its direction this law does
not hold. This limitation of direction is ob-
tained when a person speaks into a tube: the
sound as heard ty a person some distance away
is almost as loudT as it is near the speaker.

A continuous sound may appear to us as
music or as noise. If the sound-waves travel
sufficiently rapidly, and follow each other with
perfect regularity, we obtain a musical note,
but directly the regularity ceases the music
descends to noise. It might seem that the
method of production would determine whether
a sound were musical or not, but this is not the
case; regularity is the one essential. The
wheel invented by Felix Savart (1791-1841), the
French physician and scientist, is provided
with a number of small cogs or teeth, regularly
placed round its circumference. If the wheel
be made to strike against a card as it rotates,
a quick succession of taps is obtained, which
gives a note when the speed of rotation is
sufficiently high. In the. siren air or steam is
made to issue in quick, regular puffs, and so
produce a note. In many other ways can
musical notes be produced : by the vibrations
of a stretched string, by the rapid oscillation
of a clamped rod, or by the lightning strokes
of an insect's wing. One of the commonest
methods of getting a pure note is to throw a
tuning-fork into vibration by drawing a bow
across it. Although it is impossible *'to Count
the number of vibrations made by such a fork
by ^merely watching it, yet the fork may be
made to register its movements in a very simple
way. A fine style is attached to one prong, and
tms is made just to touch a piece of smoked
glass (Fig. 1). When the fork is soundihg the
smoked glass is quickly moved downwards with


constant velocity. A series of tiny waves then
appears on the glass.' By counting the nnm*
her of waves in any length, and know-
ing the velocity of motion of the
glass, the number of vibrations can
be found. It will be noticed that, as
time goes on, the sound, although re-
maining the same note, gets less and
less intense. ITiis effect is shown on
the blackened glass by the decreasing
amplitude of tne waves. The vibra-
tions of a tuning-fork may also be
exhibited by means of Lissajouh
figures. These vibrations set up a suc-
cession of rarefactions and condensa-
tions in the air which may be thus ex-
hibited, and the length of a sound-wavo
is the distance between points of the greatest
condensation or rarefaction, i.e., Ci—OsorBi —
(Fig. 2). The actual wave-length of any note
in air is found by dividing the distance
traversed by the sound per second by the
number of vibrations per second of the tuning-
fork. Taking the velocity of sound to be
1,120 feet a second at ordinary temperature, a



no. 1.



no. 2.


fork giving 320 vibrations per second will gene-
rate waves 3^ feet long. Since the pitch of a
note rises with the increase in number of vibra-
tions, it follows that in the same medium a
high note is produced by shorter waves than a
low note. The wave-length of a note is twice
as much as that of its octave higher, and the
waves produced by a woman’s voice are only
about a quarter the length of those produced
by a man’s.

Temperature exerts its effects on the wave-
length : the wave-length increases with rise of
temperature when the rate of vibration is the
same. The use of vibrating strings as a source
of sound is exhibited in the violin and other
musical instruments, but the vibration of the
string itself has to be taken up by et sound-
boara to make it produce an audible sound.
The laws of vibrating strings can be experi-
mentally found by means of the monochord.
It is tnen found that the rate of vibration
varies — (1) inversely as the length of the
string ; (2) inversely as the thickness ; (3)
directly as the square root of the tension ; (4)
inversely as the square root of the density. If
such a stretched string be touched at a point
half-way along it and a bow be drawn across
one segment the string vibrates in two halves.
If heltt at a point one- third of its length from
one end, and the shorter part be agitated, it
will vibrate in* three jparts (Fig. 3). The same
sort of thing happens if the string be touched
at points i, etc., of its length along it, the
string vibrating in 4, 5* etc., equal segteents.
These segments are separated from each other
by points at which there is no motibn, and





( 335 )




these points are called nodes* When the string
is halyed, it follows that the rate of vibration
is doublea« and the pitch of the note is raised,
and we have, in fact, the octave; when the
string vibrates in three parts we have the






FIQ. 8.

twelfth. Those notes which can be produced
by dividing the string into any aliquot parts
are known as the overtones or harmonics of the
string. When it vibrates as a whole, the note
is known as the fundamental ; but when ap-
parently vibrating as a whole, the smaller
vibrations occur as well as the others, and the
overtones are mingled with the fundamental;
it is the presence or these overtones which gives
quality to the sound produ^ced. Some overtones
are not a pleasant addition to the note; so in
the piano, for instance, one of these discordant
harmonics is avoided by making the hammer
strike the wire at a point (about f the length of
the wire from its end) which would naturally
be a node of that overtone, but which is now
set in active motion.

The modes of division of a rod fixed at both
ends, and made to vibrate transversely, are the
same as those of a stretched string, but the
rates of vibration are not the same. When the
number of nodes is 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., the rates of
vibration are proportional to the numbers
3^, 6^, 7®, 9*, etc. A rod fixed at one end may also
vibrate as a whole or in segments, and the
rates of vibration of the overtones are thus re-
lated (Fig. 4). If the rate of vibration of the
fundamental be considered as proportionate to
22 that of the first overtone is proportional to 62

and the rates of
■ the first, second,
third, etc., over-
\ I / \|/ /1\ tones are propor-

tional to the num-
\ I / i\\ ; I 1 hers 32 52 , 72 etc.

With rods of dif-
ferent lengths the
rates of vibration
vary inversely as
the square of the
length. This is
the basis on which
the musical box is
constructed. A rod free at both ends will vibrate
in its simplest manner when possessing two nodes
(Fig. 6). With 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., nodes, the rates of
vibration are nearly proportional to 32 , 5®, 7®, 9®,
eto. This system ns used in the cl^uebois,
but only the simplest method of vibration,
with two nodes, is employed. The vibrations of
% tubing-fork are comparable with those of a
rod free at both ends (Fig. 6b The fundamental


/ !

/

1

1 1

/ i V ;

K

( /

1 ) \


i •


/


i ''i'


FIO. 4.


Fia. f».


has 3 nodes, the first overtone has 4; there is
no diviidon of a tuning-fork b^ three nodes.
Ernst Florena Friedrich Chladni, the Saxon
physician (.1756-18271* investigated the vibra-
tions of plates and obtained hSautiful figures—
known as Chladni' s figures — by strewing sand on
the vibrating body, the sand distributing itself on

the nodal lines.

1 4 The overtones Of

^ plates and also

— those of cells are

- not. simply related

to the fundamen-
tal, so these bodies
are not greatly
ployed in music.
The vibration of
columns of air is
made use of in organ pipes. Pipes may be of two
kinds, open at both ends or closed at one. In th©
tube closed at one end that end is necessarily a
node, while the open tube possesses a node at
the centre. The note from an open pipe is there-
fore the octave of a closed pipe wliose length i.s th©
same. In an open pipe the wave-length is twice
the length of the pipe, in a closed one four times*
In an open pipe the rates of vibration of the
fundamental and overtones arc proportional to
the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., while in the
stopped pipe they are proportional to 1, 3, 6, 7.
etc. Reeds are often connected to columns of
air and set up the vibrations [Rexi>], and the
vocal cords of the human throat act like th©
reed of an instrument. Sounds often occur
which are made up of a number of component
notes. These can be sifted by means of reso-
nators, or by sensitive flames.

Simple sounds may be arranged in scales^
the notes of the scale being related in a simpl©
way; the rates of vibration are proportional to
24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45, 48, the number 24
representing the fundamental, and 48 th©
octave. Between any consecutive two of these
numbers there are only
3 ratios or intervals,
these are f a major
''b' ' R tone, y* a minor tone,
/^. /\ and a limma. To
\ j \ use tiiis In practice
' would be inconvenient,
so the octave is divid#!
into 12 parts, the inter-

1 '— .j between two con-

vS*— ^ secutive notes being th©

' ^ ^ twelfth root of 2 ; this

is known as a scale of
equal temperament.
Discord is produced when many notes are struck
together, and if two consecutive low notes be
sounded at once, that sort of discord is obtained
which gives rise to audible beats. Sound is propa-'
gated by waves in the same way as light. The
laws of reflection and refraction are the sam©
in both cases. Refection is illustrated in the
case of echoes, and refraction is exhibited when
sound is concentrated by means of a lens coH'^
Gaining a gas carbonic dioxide) denser than air.



imuadiag.


( 386 )


Sottttdillgf the process of escei&ining the
depth of the sea« lake, or timt, for the purpose
either of oarigation or of soieEtific ioVestiga*
tion. Oalvaoised wire has replaced the rope of
the Older-fashloned apparatus, and at the end
is a hollow tube whidi, by means of specially-
derised appliances, brings up specimens of the
bottom and even of the water. In such deep>
sea exploration as was conducted by the
OhalMl^er, for example, sounding is constantly
resorted to and indeed without it the expedi-
tion would be futile so far as science was con-
cerned. With the latest apparatus soundings of
1,006 fathoms can be taken in 25 minutes and
of 3,000 fathoms in 76 minutes.

Soiitli y’BoBJDBT, divine, was bom in Hackney,
London, on September 4th, 1634, and was
educated at Westminster School and Christ
Church, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1660, and
two years later became public orator of Ox-
ford university, and was rapidly promoted in
the Church. He was successive^ chaplain to
the Earl of Clarendon (1661), Brebeudary of
Westminster (1663), Canon of Christ Church
(1670), and rector of Islip in Oxfordshire (1678).
In 1713 the bishopric of Eochester and deanery
of Westminster were offered to him, but the
condition of his health was then precarious.
“Such a chair,” he said, “would be too uneasy
for an infirm old man to sit in.” He died at
Westminster on July 8th, 1716, and was buried
in the Abbey near the grave of Busby. He
was a strong opfmnent of the Dissenters, and
poured all the wit and eloquence he possessed
on them and their doctrines. He took no part
in the furtherance of the Revolution, though
he did not strenuously object to it. He was
charged with heterodoxy for attempting to
explain an inscrutable mystery in his famous
controversy with Sherlock on the Trinity. His
chief writings are his Sermons, which abound
with wit and good sense, and are often very
eloquent and refined. They form twelve
volumes, and entitle South to a very conspicu-
ous place in the roll of notable English
preachers. He had a somewhat sarcastic tem-
per, which he gave as his reason for refusing a
bishopric.

Boutll Africa. In the latter half of the
19th century the map of South Africa was re-
arranged on an extensive scale, Tlie great
bulk of the territory is now British, although
part, of the south-western face is German and
part of the south-eastern Portuguese. The
statistics of the different political tracts may
be most conveniently exhibited in the tabular
form which will be found in the next column.
To these add for German South-West Africa
(^maland and Damaraland) an area of
^,450 s^are miles and a population of 200,000,
and for Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique,
Loumn^o l^arques) an area of
® population of
3,1^0TO, and we obtain a grand total for
wonth Amoa of an area of 1,918,297 square
miles and a population of 16,286,077. In the


Somtli AMea.

%


south the surface is a tableland of an average
height of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above th<
sea, broken by mountains, isolated like Tabb
Mountain (3,660 feet), or in ranges such as th<
Boggeveld, Nieuwveld, Zwarte Berg, Lang(
Berg, Sneeuwberg, Stormberg and Drakens-
berg, the loftiest peak of which reaches an alti-
tude of 10,868 feet. The hill country is diversi
fied by terrace-like plateaus, the famed Karroos,


BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA,



pivtatoNs.

AREA IN
SQCARA NILES.

POP. (1904).

Bx8utola:«i>

BaCHUAXAULND Peotectoratj
Gape Oi*i.oNY--

:2 ^ /'East Griqualand

0 1 Tembuland

..9 J Transkcl

I^IWalMshBay ... ...

S p. 1 Pondoland

M 0 \,South BechuaualaTid

Natal

Oranob River Colony
Bbodesia-..

Southern Rhodesia

N. B

N. w. ;;

Transvaal Colony

10,2»S

386,200

m.seo'x

7.604 ^
4,U7 I
2,652 Ig-
480 ^
3,018
61,624j
86,371
60,802

144.000 ) g
106, UOO >

182.000 j U

111,196 ^

848,620
120,776
1,489, 601^
222,685 1 ^
281,472 1 g
177,780 W"
997 1 ^
202,767 1
84,472;
1,108,754
887,816

609,167)1
846,241
400,000 j w
1,284,404

Total

1,802,447

6,965,077



where “ one may live with half a lung * * and
which in the wet season are beautiful with
flowers and grasses, and in the dry are little
better than barren steppes. The great rivers
are the Orange and the Olifants flowing to the
Atlantic, the Buffalo, Tugela, Limpopo and the
Zambesi to the Indian Ocean and the Vaal, a
righthand affluent of the Orange. The north-
ern interior mainly consists of sandy desert,
part of which is the Kalahari, which Parker Gill-
more described as the Great Thirst Land. The
Victoria Falls on the Zambesi constitute one of
the natural marvels of the world, while the
mysterious remains at Zimbabwe in Matabele-
land^ are supposed to indicate the presence of
Semitic explorers or gold-hunters, a thousand
years or more before the Christian era. The
climate in the uplands is invigorating and
healthy, but parts of the eastern seaboard are
malarious. The prevailing diseases of enteric,
ague, dysentery and diarAoea are due to bad
drinking water, or hardships long endured, or
the frequenting of swampy tracts. The flora
comprises the acacia, euphorbia, mimosa, many
kinds of lovely flowers and heaths, and the
diversified vegetation which makes up the
“bush.” The fauna, once abundant, has either
perished at the hands of the huhter or re^
treated northwards to escape extermination,
but the springbok and other antelopes, baboon,
leopard, ouffalo, puff adder, secretary bird,
ostrich and tsetse are common in certain
localities, and occasionally the crdcodile, hippo*
potamus and elephant may yet be met with,
The mineral Wealth ts remarkable and inclodas


< 88 ?)


SOtUi 'AMoi.




eahpeeijkily f oM diamdnda ^ xtt)% tin,

idmif and ndal also occur in different dxsuricts.
But foir tlio iftraiit of water agricnit>uro and
stnek^faising would form the leading industry
and, as syitoms of irrigation are introduced,
farming will advance. The soil yields various
eereak (wheat, oats, barley, rye and maize, or
‘•mealies/' to give it the South African name)



BKETCn-MAP or SOUTH AFRICA.


and fruit of many sorts (grape, orange, fig,
peach, apricot, appk, pear, plum, lemon) grows
profusely ana possesses a choice
Tobacco might also be cultivated with decided
advantage. The grape reaches such a mgn
degree Of perfection that, with up-to-date
methods of production, the Cape might l>®cojne
one of the foremost wine countries of the
world. Unfortunately this industry lias been
hindered by the innate conservatism ot tne
Butch farmer. What was good enough for his
father, he^argues, is good enough for him ^
and meanwhile the colony at
penalty. Bnt salvation may be looked for from
the younger generation of Dutchmen, '''I*®
in touch wth the modern spirit
whom are educated in Europe. The pl“"®
a^ uplands sustain vast flocks of s>i8®P
gSats, and great herds of cattle, horsfs mules
and pigs, wW ostrich-farming is a clmrarter
istic induatty, the feathers^ Ji^n

mteMtals, nraot, nwbair


tMing of eornmon jm
reruor of the Transvaal and Orange Biver

214— Ks»s


Cklonv*' '"'1>ealdeS" .IMng' '/Commaidanf 1^4"
armed forced and disohtorging other aamitt**
istrative duties. The Ckpe Colony, Natal,
Transvaal and Orange 'Blyer are self%overmig'
colonies, while other territories are under the
control of Administrators or Commissioners.

ftonth Aatnxion. [Amsbica.]

SoutllttSULptoilf a seaport, borough and pounty
of itself, Hampshire, England, situated on a
peninsula at the head of Southampton Water,
washed on the east by the lichen and oh the
west by the Test, 13 miles S, by W. of "Win-
chester. Bitterne, a north-eastern suburb^ was
the site of the Roman station Clauseh|iim.
Towards the close of the 6th century the West
Saxons landed in the vicinity under Cerdio and
Cynric and the name Hantun-scir© appears in
the ii'axon Chronicle, the forms Hamtun and
Hantune occurring somewhat later (the latter
in Domesday Book). It was repeatedly ravaged
by the Danes and its beach was the scene of
Canute’s rebuke to his flatterers. The prenx
“South” was probably introduced to distin-
guish the town from Northampton, while as
Hamtun, the port of Winchester, it gave its
name to the ^ire. It was frequently visited
by the earlier English monarchs and from its
position was occasionally the point of dep^turo
of hostile expeditions against France and Sp#n
(such as that of Henry Y. in U16, whw aimed
in the battle of Aginoourt) and was alflb often
attacked by foreign foes (as in ^338 Wpen it
successfully withstood the assault deltyered by
the French and Genoese fleets). Renkins^fik
walls still eaist and North Gate (or Bar Gate),
West Gate ahd South Gate are in fair preserva-
tion. On the landward front of Bar Gate once
stood figures of Sir Bevis of Southampton and
the giant Ascapart, whom he conquered. An-
other interesting relic of the past consists in
the Town Bowling-green near the harbour. If,
as is said traditionally, it was laid down m the
reign of Edward I., it is much the oldest
gr^n in the world and the Club playing on It
has managed fortunately to preserve a lo^g
unbroken user so that they cannot be dis-
pbssessed except by special sra^te.^Tue t<^n
holds charters from Henry I., E^enry 11.,
Richard 1., John, Henry yl. and Charier T
Amongst distinguished natives were Ur .Isaac
Watts^ Sir John Everett Millais and Charles
Dibdin. The last of the castle was taken down
in 1863, its site having grown too valualdc.
Many picturesque ancient bits are extant with*
in the gates, the modern incre^ase having taken
pUce to the north of High Street, the
district in this quarter being known on tMt

account as Above Bar. Y^^n^a^^^mSe
town is its magnificent harhow
dock accommodation^ although

Ages, when it had the bulk of the wine twde,
ithas always carried on_an
with the Continent and the Oiannel Mand*.
Owine to its advantage of double ««»•. »
^nl high tide occurring tiro hours nfter
^ first, as weU as to its natursd position.



( 338 )


SontluunvWB.


StfB^hwnvtoRit.


' d "' ''

the largest vessels can come ana go at all
tides and there is anchorage for the world’s
fleets. The docks, first opened in 1842^ have
been added to at intervals since and in 1892
were acquired by the London and South-Wes-
tern Bail way, a step of far-reaching import-
ance, which marked the beginning of an
enormous stride forwards. Liners now regu-
larly ^il hence to the United States, Australia
and the ^ape and the diversion of the express
passenger service of the White Star line from
Liverpool in 1907 was an unmistakable sign
of the comparative value, in a commercial
sense, of the facilities offered by Southampton.
Bailways extend to all the quays and the vast
warehouses and passengers for the ends of the
earth are conveyed directly from Waterloo, the
London and South-Western terminus in Lon-


There are theatres, assembly-rooms and music*
halls, besides the county cricket ground and a
modern bowling-green, and the headquartets of
the Bqyal Southampton Yacht Club and the
Boyal Southern Yacht Club. There are excel*
lent public spaces in differifent localities and
to the north Southampton Common affords a
fine recreation ground and contains an avenue
of noble elms. One of the ^ most interesting
monuments is the memorial (unveiled in 188^
to General Gordon, who frequently niade hia
residence in the town when he was in Eng-
land. Pop. (1901), 104,824.

Sontliampton, Henby Wbtothesley, 3bi>
Earl of, patron of William Shakespeare, wa»
born at Cowdray House, Midhurst, Sussex, on
October 6th, 1573, being thus nearly ten year®



SOUTHAMPTON SOCKS. [Photo : 5 , Cribb, Sorcthsea.


don, by special trains alongside of their
steamers. The manifold traffic incidental to a
port controlling interests of such magnitude
furnishes the leading industry, but shipbuilding
and engineering are also extensively carried on.
Amongst the miurches are St. MichaeTs, con-
taining some Norman work, Holyrood in the
Decorated style, and St. Mary’s erected to the
memory of Bishop Wilber force (who died in
1873). In the French chapel of St. Julien, at-
tached to the Hospital of God’s House, were
buried the Earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and
Sir Thomas Grey, who were executed outside
of Bar Gate by Hennr V. for treason (1415).
Other prominent builaings are the Watts Me-
morial Hall, the Municipal offices, Guildhall,
Public Free Library, the Grammar School
(founded in 1553)^ Alderman Taunton’s Trade
School (founded in 1760), Hartley Institution,
one of the most important establishments for
technical education In the kingdom (opened in
1862V the Corn Exchange, the Custom-house,
the Boyal South Hants Infirmary, the Female
Orphan Asylum, the Dispensary, St. Mary’s
Cottage Hospital and the Ordnance Survey
Office, where all the maps and plans of the
«arve.Y of the United Kingdom are produced.


the dramatist’s junior. He was educated at
St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he
graduated M.A. in 1589. He had already
entered his name as a student at Gray’s Inn,
and, settling in London, soon became a
welcome figure at Court. He distinguished
himself, however, by his encouragement of
letters. John Florio associated his name with
his Italian-English Dictionary, A Worlde of
Wordes (1598). Five years earlier Shakespeare
dedicated to him Venus and Adonis , and in
1594 his Lucrece. There seems reason to believe,
too, that the patron had presented the poet
with 1,000 to enable him to effect the pur-
chase of some property on which he had set
his heart, so that if Shakespeare addressed
most of his Sonnets to his munificent friend, aa
is very probable, he had ample cause even for
fiorid adulation. After sharing in the Earl of
Essex’s expeditions to Cadiz and the Azores, he
went in 1698 to Paris in the suite of Sir Eobert
Cecil, but in the same year incurred Queen
Elizabeth’s enm^ by a clandestine marriage
with Elizabeth Yemon. He was involved in
the Earl of Essex’s laU (1601), but in his pase
capital punishment was commuted to imprison-
ment for life. The accession of James I., bow-


Bomtli JMuitralift,


( 339 )




erets set Itim free and he obtained a hl|^ place
at Court under the new monarch. He was
made K.G. in 1603 and also Captain of the Isle
of Wigfht, while his earldom (forfeit for his
complicity^ in Essex's treason) was fully re-
stored. Through a quarrel in the Presence
Chamber (1604), precipitated by his hot tem-
per, his inhuence at Court suffered partial
eclipse. Afterwards he took an active part
in colonising Virginia, and, though brought up
as a Catholic, interfered on behalf of the Ger-
man Prbtestants (1614). He accompanied the
King to Scotland in 1617 and was sworn in as
a pnvy councillor in 1619. Thenceforward he
interested himself in home politics, taking it
upon himself to counteract the malign influ-
ence of the favourite, the Duke of Bucking-
ham, and also supporting the attempt to de-
grade Bacon from the peerage. In 1624 he
went as a volunteer to fi^t in the Netherlands
against ^ain, but was attacked by fever and
died at Bergen-op-Zoom on November 10th in
that year. His passion for literature remained
to the last.

South. Australia, a state of the Common-
wealth of Australia, roughly occupying the
middle section of the continent, and, with
the later addition of the Northern Territory or
Alexandra Land, extending from the Southern
Ocean to the Arafura Sea off the northern coast,
a distance of nearly 2,000 miles, and having an
area of 903,690 square miles. It is divided from
West Australia on the W. by the meridian of
129° E. and on the E., from Victoria and New
iouth Wales’ by that of 141°, and from Queens-
land by that of 138°. Before the inclusion of
the Northern Territory its northern boundary
was the parallel of 26° S. The southern coast
‘line of 1,600 miles is deeply indented by Spencer
and St. Vincent Gulfs (which are separated by
Yorke Peninsula), and marked also by the con-
spicuous promontory of Eyre Peninsula and
the massive sweep of the Great Australian
Bight, while the northern coast possesses many
harbours. Except the Murray, there are no
navigable rivers, but the southern part is well
Watered by small streams, and has several fine
lakes, C.O., Torrens, Gairdner, Prome, Island,
Eyre, Gregory, and Amadeus. The la

level or pndulating, the Gawler Range (2,000
feet), Flilkders Range (3,000 feet), and Mt.
Bryant being the greatest elevations. In the
north, Melville and Bathurst Islands and Groote
Eylandt, and, in the south, Kangaroo Islpd
belong to the state. Much of the interior,
owing to the extreme drought, is almost barren
desert. But in the south, where streams are
more numerous and most of the ‘^-kes are
found, the soil is generally fertile, and yiclas
cereuls, roots, exeSilent fruits, grapes, olwes,
and even rice, but irrigation
regions Is often necessary. The climate
ig peculiarly healthy, and invalids I?™!;
timM gent from England for the benefit of
the warm dry air. Coal la scarce, but
copper, silver-lead^ gold, tin, bismuth, man-


ganese, antimony^ asbestos, precious stones^
and iron with otner metkli have been Worked.
Valuable marbles, slates, and building stones
are also quarried. Agriculture is the outstand^
ing industry. In the state proper there are
millions of sheep and great droves of cattle,
horses, and pigs. The export of wool is of
paramount importance. There are fisheHes of
trepang, or b6che-de-mer, and pearls in the
north, but the former whale and seal fisheries






N 0 R T h|e R N


1 ,)^, <

= It E R R I }r O R Y

« 'TMTStuabT


j I -

-M


r I s o

" { A U S T R ,A 't-K A^ '


- j “I?

SOUTH


English Milib
P 100 200 300




BKETCH-MAP of 801JJH AUBTRALU.

in the south are extinct. Much effort has been
made to bring the wines and the fresh and pre-
served fruits of the state into the European
market. The animal life includes the kangaw.
opossum, dasyure, echidna, ornithorhynchi^,
wombat, ant-eater, dingo, many parrots, the
mound-building birds, honey-suckers, emu, and
several poisonous snakes. The flora compnsts
the eucalyptus, acacia, pine, Banksia, Adan-
sonia, varieties of cedar and palm, rattans, and
some spices. The north coast was known to
Portuguese and Spanish navigates about the
middle of the 16th century, but Flmderrs dis-
coveries of the southern gulfs and Kangaroo
Island in 1802 first really attracted attention
to this part of the continent, though it was not
until 1836 that effective settlementB were made
and the colony was proclaimed. In 1?0X it joined
the federation of states compoeing the Copmon-
wealth. The orerland “r

from Adelaide, the capital, to Port Darwin,




( 840 )






in t>lid'iiortli. Tlie'|roWriimeii^:'<iil,’^t0tatie'Oon«
si«ts of a (lOTcy nor nouiiaated by tiio Clrown,
an oxecuiiva council, a Icg^islative oouucii
elected on a propertv Irancliise^ and tbe House
of Ammbly elected oy manbood suffrage. Pop.
(1901), 362,604.

Somlill OavoliM, one of tbe original thirteen
states jpif the American Union, occupies a tri-
angulal' area of 30,570 square miles, being
separated from 0eorgia on the W. by the Saran-
nan ahd Tugaloo rivers, having North Carolina
as its! northern boundary, and extending along
the Atlantic from S.W. to N.E. for some 200
miles. It is popularly called the Palmetto
State, from the prevalence of the Cabbage Palm
{Sahed PedmUto), and originally formed part of
the early Spanish acquisition of Florida, being
also known as New France, from the fact that
Charles IX. permitted Admiral Coligny, in
1562, to plant a colony of Protestants there.
The Spaniards took care to exterminate all such
rival settlements, but in the meantime the
French colonists had named their stronghold
Carolina, after their King. A century later
Bjritish plantation was effected permanently,
and the colonists named Charleston after their
Ningi In the War of Independence the colony
acted energetically against the mother country,
and in 1860 South Carolina enjoyed the bad
eminence of leading the Secession which plunged
the Union into the lamentable strife of the Civil
War. She was readmitted into the Union on
June 25th, 18G6, The state has suffered, at
times most seriously, from earthquake and hur-
ricane. Along the coast the land is low and
swampy, rising gradually to an elevation of
200 to 300 feet in the centre, and sloping more
steeply northwards to the spurs of the Blue
Bidge*, where elevations of over 3,000 feet are
found. The coast districts produce.famous crops
of rice and sea-island cotton. Cereals, pota-
toes, indigo, tobacco, fruits of all kinds, and
grapes are largely grown on the higher levels,
whilst the hilly re^on yields valuable timber.
It is noted for its wealth of exquisite flowers,
including the camellia, jasmine, honeysuckle,
sweet-brier, azalea, hyacinth, violet, dahlia,
tulip, verbena, and heliotrope. The fauna com-
prises deer, wild turkey, raccoon, opossum, and
many kinds of birds, whilst the fisheries yield
sturgeon, turtle, and oysters, in addition to the
commoner fishes. Water is abundantly supplied
by many small rivers, the Peedee, Edisto, and
Santee, with its tributaries the Wateree, the
Congaree, and the Catawba, being the longest.
The climate is mild and healthy except in the
swamps, where malaria is prevalent *, but many
feel it, in the words of the old nigger song,
to be “ a sultry clime.” Numerous bays, creeks,
and islets afford facilities for navigation. Cot-
ton-spinning and the making of turpentine and
artificial manures are the chief industries. Gold,
copper, ipon, manganese, and other minerals are
profitably worked, and China ©lay is a sourde of
cohsiderabl© wealth. (^oltimbiaV the Capital, is
in the ©entre^of the state ; Charleston, wh the


largest population, stands at the hOad of a gulf
on the banks of the Ashley river. Other toums
of importance are Newberry, Georgetown,
Orangeburg, Florence, Camden, and Sumter.'
Pop. ^1900), 1,340,816, of whom more than
one-half were negroes.

Sowtlicottf JoANKA, prophetess* was bom at
Gittisham, in Devonshire, in 1759, and became
a Methodist. She suffered from religious mania,
and in her fervour declared she was the woman
referred to in Bevelation xii., and was to bring
forth a new Saviour, the date of her delivery
being fixed for October 19th, 1814. Great pre-
parations were made for the event by her
numerous followers, but all to no purpose. Her
death in London on December 27th, 1814, was
due to dropsy. She was believed in, however,
for years after her death by some of her sec-
taries. She wrote several lucubrations, and
issued seals which were passports to heaven and
indulged rather largely in prophecy.

Sonth Dakota, a state of the American Union,
bounded on the N. by North Dakota, on the E.
by Minnesota and Iowa, on the S. by Nebraska,
and on the W. by Wyoming and Montana. It
occupies an area of 76,850 square miles. The
surface rises gradually from east to west, cul-
minating in the Black Hills, of which Harney
Peak, the highest point, has an altitude of 7,216
feet. To the south-east of these mountains
occurs the region of the Bad Lands, or Mau-
vaises Terres, where the surface assumes the
most extraordinary forms, though the name has
reference to the difficulties it offers to travel
and not to the poverty of vegetation, for, in
fact, much of the soil in the district forms' ex-
cellent pasturage. The state is divided into
two nearly equal portions by the Missouri,
which, along with its tributaries — on the right,
the White, Big Cheyenne, Moreau, and Grand ;
on the left, the James or Dakota, is the chief
river. The mineral wealth includes gold, silver,
copper, lead, tin, lignite, coal, natural gas and
etroleum, mica, lime, jasper granite, and
uilding stone. Wheat, maize, flax, oats,
barley, nay, rye, potatoes, and sorghum axe the
staple crops, and several kinds of vegetables
and fruits are cultivated. Cattle and pigs are
the principal live-stock. Pierre (2,306) is the
capital, and amongst other towns are Sioux
Falls (10,266), Lead (6,210), and Yankton (4,125).
South Dakota formed part of the Louisiana pur-
chase of 1803, was organised as a Territory in
1861, and was admitted to the. Union in 1889.
ThougE its popnlation in 1870 only numbered
12,887, in ten years it had grown to 135>180, in
consequence of the gold finds in the Black
Hills ahd the development of farming. Pop.
(1900), 401,570.

a vnitciing-place^ Esee*,
England, on the notthern shore of the estuatJT
of the Tbames* 36 miles E. of London. It©
vogue as a health resovt is considered to date
from, '.the: 'Visit 'in '1304 of Qncen Garbline and
Princess C^harlbtte. Gwihg to its comparative



(Ml)


Soviliffili CeoM.




proximity ta the metropolis it has always been
the laTonxite hoMay haunt of Coohneys. West
t)liff, as the west end is called, is entirely
modern, and its air, which has been pronounced
bv Br. Bobert Moir to be only less invigorating
than that of Margate, has attracted a large
residential population, the bulk of whom attend
husiness in London daily. The front has been
tastefully laid out in terraces, backed by orna-
mental shrubbery, and a drive extends west-
wards as far as the picturesque old town of
Leigh-on-Sea, near which is the exceptionally
fine public park of the borough. The bathing
is good, though somewhat interfered with by
the distance to which the tide retreats. The
pier is IJ mile long—the length being inevitable
owing to the necessity of providing permanent
deep water for the Racial Sovereign, Koh-i-
Noor, and other well-known excursion steamers
—but an electric tramway runs from end to end.
Four miles to the north is Rochford Hall, where
itnne Boleyn was born. Pop. (1901), 28,857.

Boutlievil Cross is a constellation in the
southern celestial hemisphere, its declination
being about 60° S., and its right ascension 180°.
It consists of five principal stars arranged as a
somewhat irregular cross, and numerous smaller
stars. The shape of the cross is gradually, but
very slowly, changing, owing to the proper
morion of the stars themselves. The cross is
first seen by travellers voyaging southwards in
the Atlantic when they reach the twentieth
parallel, and it is as noticeable a constellation
m the southern hemisphere as the Great Bear
is in the northern. Its form is used as a decora-
tion on the Brazilian stamps instead of the
usual head.


Southenief Thomas, playwright, was born at
Oxmantown, near Dublin, in 1660, and educated
at Trinity College, Dublin. He came to London
afterwaras and entered the Middle Temple in
1678, and, four years later, produced his first
play, Th£. Loyal Brother, notable, if for nothing
else, for its veiled compliment to the Duke of
York. Later the author joined the army, but
his prospects in this direction were ruined by
the Revolution. Accordingly he settled in
London and wrote for the stage a number^ of
plays, which vielded him more than a living
wage, but of which only two were conspicuous
successes, namely. The Fatal Marrio.ge, or Tm
inmeent AduUery (1694), and Oroonoko, or the
Royal Slave, Southerne died in London on May
22nd, 1746.


SontBdyf Robbet, Poet Laureate, the sen of a
draper* ^Es born at Bristol, England, on Au^st
lail, 1774. He was chiefly educated at West-
minster School, for his subsequent admission
to Ballio! College, Oxford, did not have much
effect on Mi onlture. He travelled abroad for
a year or two (marrying secretly on Nwember
im. 1796. before M started |drth^Pric^er,
whose. Bister, Sara, bad marri^.S. T. Wendge
in the previpus month), and liwd in Ireland
lor a teir mpnthfl, holding an official appoint-


ment there. In 1803 he settled at K^wick, in
gimberland, near Ckileri^e and Wordsworth.
He was at this time very well known as a poet,
his Wat Tykr having appeared in 1794. and
other works, influenced by the events of the
French Revolution* such as Joan of Arc (17^),
following rapidly. Besides a ooiiple of collec-
tions of smaller perns, he published Thalaba
the Destroyer in iSoi, Madoc in 1806, The Cwrm
of Kehama in 1810, and Minor Potme in 1816,
Many of these were adversely and not unjustly
criticised, and at the present day Southey is
considered a better prose- writer than a poet, his
Life of Lord Nelson (1818) being one of tho
finest biographies in the language, and the story
of "The Three Bears ” in The Doctor (1884^17)
being inimitable in literature for the young.
In 1813 he was made Poet Laureate, in succes-
sion to Henry James Pye (upon whom, at all
events, he was a marked improvement), and in
1837 was offered, and declined, a baronetcy.
He was a most voluminoua writer, and a few
of his lyrics are still admired. In 1839 he mar-
ried his second wife, Caroline Bowles, a petess
of some merit. He died on March 2l8t, 1843,
and was buried in Crosthwaite churchyard.


South Zslaudf formerly known as Mtdbl®
Island, New Zealand, occupying an area of
58,526 square miles. Pop. (1901), 381,661. [NiW
Zealand,!

South Pole. [Antabctio Sea; PpiAE Ex-

ELOEATION.]

jBouthporty a watering-place of Lpcashiret
England, situated between the estuaries of the
Mersey and tho Kibble, 18 miles N. of Liver*
pol. Dating from 1792, it is almost exclusively
a residential quarter, the streets being epcious
and well-kept and the dwellings mostly of 4
superior order. The beach consists of
Btretch of firm BBnds, in the middle of wbieb u
a pier a mile long, backed by a promenade ap4
marine drive 2^ miles in length. The attrac-
tions are numerous. The Winter Gardens pm-
prise a commodious conservatory, aquarium,
and theatre. Hesketh Park, opened in "Wm»
contains a lake well stocked with waterfowl
knd a meteorological observatory. Other fine
open spaces are the Botanical Gardens, Kew
Gardens, the South Marine Park, and the Pub-
lic Recreation Grounds. The more prominent
buildings are the town hall in the Classic s^le,
the Atkinson Free Library and Fine Art Gal-
lery, Cambridge Hall, largely used for conoertSy
the Market Hall, the Infirmary, Convalescent
Home Hydropathic Hospital, Sanatorium for
Children, Trinity Hall, a college for the educa-
tion of the daughters of Wesleyan mm| 8 ter 0 ,
and the Victoria Schools of Science and Ari.
The Victoria Baths, opned in 1871, the Glocm-
rium. and the opera-house also provide addi-
tional recreation. Pop. (1201), 48,083.

, BoutlUM, a wBteriDg.p^

England, a south-eastern suburb n£
of which borough it forms a part. ^oMh
castle at the Bouthern extremity ^of Fortsea




( 342 )


StatikWfuifk.


island was erected in the reign c^f Henry YIII.,
the town# as a health and pleasure resorti dates
only from the middle of the 19th century, since
whic|i period it has rapidly grown in popular
esteein, partly owing to its salubrity — being
quite level, it gets the full benefit of every
breeze— and partly in consequence of its live-
liness. Between the town and the beach is
Bouthstea Common, a drilling-ground of the
garrisM. At the west end of the Common are
the Clarence Esplanade Pier, Assembly Booms,
and Jubilee Gardens, and between the castle
and Lumps Fort is the South Parade Pier.



SOCTnWAKK CATHBPRAL.

{Photo : Pictoricd Agency.)

South Sea Bubble is the name given to one
of the most extraordinary financial transactions,
in its issue a gigantic swindle, in the History of
the United Kingdom. In 1710 a South Sea
Company was formed, honestly promoted by
Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford (1661-1724), to
take up the national debt, then amounting to
^10,000,000, for which it was to receive 6 per
pent, interest, in addition to the monopoly of
trade with South America. The Peace of Utrecht
0713) and the resulting conditions imposed by
opain bn the commerce, rendered the monopoly
worthless. But in 1720 England went mad on
the point, and everyone possessed of money was
eager to obtain the South Sea stock at any pre-


mium. The Company now obtained leave from
Parliament to take up jB 800,000 more, and the
Bank of England entered into the competition
with counter-proposals that were not enters
tained. The South Sea Compapy, hoiyever^ made
more astonishing proposals, and the public
enthusiasm rose still higher, the ^100 shares
touching ^1,000 at the crisis of the mania ; but
their success, which partly arose from the fact
of paying interest out of capital, raised many
imitators, whom the Company tried to suppress
by arguments people soon recognised as applic-
able to the Company also. The inevitable
crash came and calamity was wide-
spread. Sir Robert Walpole was called
in to alleviate the distress, and in-
quiry showed that large sums had
been spent to bribe in high places.
He began by confiscating the estates
of the directors, and eventually many
of the victims received a dividend of
33^ per cent.

South Shields. [Shields.]

Southwark# a district of London
on the southern bank of the Thames
between Tower Bridge and Black-
friars Bridge, communicating with
the (^posite bank by these bridges
and Southwark Bridge. Apparently
there is no mention of it under this
name until the 11th century, though
there can be little doubt that tne
Romans had a station here which,
after their retreat, the natives main-
tained as a stronghold which in time
the Londoners described as the South
Work, or Wark. It has been popu-
larly known as the Borough since
1296, when it first returned members
to Parliament. It formed a separate
community until 1327, when E^ard
III. granted it to the City of London,
of which it has, since 1551, despite
the fluviun dissociabilis, constituted
an integral portion under the desig-
nation of the ward of Bridge With-
out, although it is not represented
on the Common Council, and Jhe
sinecure position of alderman of the
ward is held by the senior alderman
of the City. The '^hole district teems with
interesting associations. On pikes at the
south gate of London Bridge — the Bridge
Foot, as they termed it — ^were exhibited the
heads of many illustrious victims of tyranny
and bigotry, among those thus dishonoured
being Sir William Wallace and Sir Thomas
More. The highways to Hent and Surrey
all originating here, processions of every de-

f ree of magnificence have passed through it.

he imnosing Gothic church of St. Saviour’s,
originally the church of the Priory of St. Mary
Overy, was built in the 14th century, and com-
prises a nave and aisles, transepts, a choir
and aisles, ahd, at the eastern end, a Lady



fiouthwivic.


(3i3)


mfmmXL


Chapel while at the intereection of the nare,
tranaepta, and choir there rises a tower of
singularly stately proportions. Having the
grandeur of a cathedral, the structure lent
itself readily to the status of a cathedral when
the bishopric of Southwark was created in 1891.
Here Cardinal Beaufort was consecrated to the
see of Winchester in 1404, J axnes I. of Scotland
was married in 1424, and “ MoraP John Gower,
the poet (1408), John Fletcher, the dramatist
(1626), and Philip Massinger, another dramatist
(1639), were buried. To the north-west of the
church stood Winchester House, built in the
12th century as a palace for the bishops of Win-
chester, while to the south of it stood, till its
removal to Sumner Street in 1838, St. Saviour’s
Grammar School, founded by Queen Elizabeth
in 1662. Bankside, as the rivershore westwards
of London Bridge was and still is called, came
to be the favourite locality for theatres and
out-of-door places of entertainment. Amongst
these theatres were the famous Globe, opened
in 1594 as a summer theatre for the company
that played at Blackfriars during the winter,
the Rose, for which Ben Jonson wrote, the Hop
and the Swan. Shakespeare, as an actor at the
Globe, lodged in Bankside and perhaps 150
years later Oliver Goldsmith practised as a
doctor for a short time, with wonted ill luck.
On the site of the Globe there afterwards rose
Thrale’s Brewery, at the sale of which, in 1781,
Hr. Johnson was present as one of the execu-
tors. Being asked what the property was
worth, be made the celebrated reply, “Sir, we |
are not here to sell a parcel of boilers and vats,
but the potentiality of growing rich bepnd the
dreams of avarice.^^ The firm later styled Bar-
clay and Perkins acquired the property , and it
was on their premises, in 1850, that the work-
men hustled Marshal Haynau, the Austrian
butcher," who flogged women, and seemed like
drowning him in a vat had he not fled in timc^
•Paris Garden, or the Bear Garden, construct^
in the 16tb century, was notorious fp its bai^
ing of bears and bulls, Edward Alleyn (156^
1626), the actor and founder of Dulwich Col-
lege, being once keeper or master, said to have
been a lucrative post. In the vicinity were
the Pike Gardens, where pike were bred for
the Royal table, Asparagus Garden, and Pim-
lico Garden, the latter a resort where the
fashionable world were wont to
the forerunner of Ranelagh, Vauxhall, and Cre-
morne. Southwark inns were Among

them were the ^Tabard," immortalised by
Geoffrey Chaucer as the rendezv<m8 of the
Canterbury pilgrims, a tavern which refused
to conceal its identity behind the later name

of "^Talbot"; the ^Falcon, Shakespeare s

honse of call; the “Boar’s Head.’ the pr^ert;r
of Sir John Falstolf, and the
the headquarters of Jack Cade and ev
jnemorahle in connection with

Sam Weller. Two 6f the lirreatest of Bondon s

hospitals had their origrin in the yoro"!"-
aai^ly, St. Thomas’s, which, startang in 12W
as a hostel for concerts and boys, was devoted


in 1552 to the purposes of a sitk hosnital and
was removed (1870) to the bankside of Lambeth,
facing the Houses of Parliament, and Guy’s
(named after its founder, Thomas Guy), which
was opened in 1725 and still remains in South-
wark. Other noteworthy features of South-
wark were the Fair, dating from 1660, which
was held on St. Margaret's Hill on September
7th to 9th, and later (when painted by William
Hogarth) lasted fourteen days, and was sup-
pressed in 1763; King’s Bench Prison, founded
in the reign of Richard II. and disused as iv
debtors' prison in 1860, within the "rules,**
or privilege, of which resided for a time those
gifted but wayward sons of genius, George
Morland and Benjamin R. Haydon; the
Marshalsea, in whicn Edmund Bonner, Bishop
of London, died (1569), after several years' im-
prisonment ; the Mint, where Henry y III. had
money coined for n few years, and which after-
wards became flagrant as the haunt of vice
and villainy; Lant Street, where Charles
Dickens lived for a while when a boy; Tooley
(that is, St. Olave's) Street, famous as the spot
where three tailors palmed themselves off as
*'We, the people of England " ; St. Olave's
Grammar ScliooL in Tooley Street, founded in
1561 by Queen Elizabeth (the name Olaye per-
petuates King Olaf’s exploit of destroying an
early, if not the earliest, London Bridge in the
11th century), and the market for hops and
potatoes especially. Among later natives of
Southwark were Eliza Cook, the poetess;
Joseph Lancaster, the educator, and Dr. John
Elliotson, to whom W. M. Thackeray dedi-
cated the novel of PendenvU,

Southwell, a city of Nottinghamshire, Eng-
land, 12 miles N.E. of Nottingham, on the river
Greet, named from its well, of old reputed to
possess wonderful healing properties. When
the bishopric was createa in 1884 (comprismg
the counties of Derby and Nottingham, for-
merly belonging to the dioceses of Lichfield
and Lincoln), the magnificent structure of^St.
Mary's was advanced to the status of a cathe-
dral. It w'as originally founded in 630 bv
•Paulinus, the first Archbishop of Tork, and
dates from the 12th century. The nave, tran-
septs and towers are Norman, the choir, aisfes
and small eastern transepts are Early English,
and the chapter-house is an extremely beauti-
ful example of Decorated, In the Early Eng-
lish chantry on the eastern side of the north-
west transept is kept the library, which in-
cludes the WMU Booh of SouthwelL To the
south of the minster stands the ancient palace
of the Archbishpps of York, several df whom
were intimately connected with the ciiurch,
at least, six of them having been inter^ within
its preoinotB. Charles I.’s associations with
the town were melancholy. He_ was thew <m
August 18th. 1642. before he raised his stand-
ard at Nottingham; he was there again aftw
his defeat at Naseby in 1645, and f”

1646, he surrendered hinlself at the Kin^a
Arms’* to the Scots Commissioners, then



cm)


Docupyiug th« arciiiepiBcopal paii^. Hiere
ar« silk and lace lactones, and brick-

making and baaket-makiug are carried on.
Pop. (1901), 8,160.

Boliitliwolli. BoSEBt, poet, was born abont
1560, at Horsbam St. Faith, 4 miles west
of Norwich, Norfolk, En^and, and, after
completing his studies at Douai College, be-
came Jesuit at Borne (1578). He returned
to Enpand as a missionary (1587), and his
zeal in conyerting was so obnoxious to the
authorities that he was thrown into the Tower
of London In July, 1592, remaining there three
years. He was finally executed at Tyburn on
February 22nd, 1595, on a charge of dissemi-
nating Catholic doctrines in l^gland. His
poems are chiefly religious, ana are often
excellent. St, PeUr's Uompla^ntt 1693, and
Mmni€e^ a collection of hymns, published in
1565, are his best-known works. His prose
writings are less familiar, but are descrying of
praise.

SdUtllWoldi a watering-place of Suffolk, Eng-
land, 12 miles S. by W. of Lowestoft. It is
finely situated on rising ground facing the
North Sea and enjoys a great reputation for its
invigorating climate. The handsome Perpen-
dicular church of St. Edmund contains many
interesting features, the open rood-screen, the
pulpit and the stalls being exceeding^ good
examples of carved oak. A carved Jack in
armour, locally called Jack smite the clock,"
above the vestry, warns the congregation at the
bepnning of every service of tne entry of the
clergy. This church escaped the great fire of
1659, which destroyed most of the town. The
cliffs are beautifully laid out in promenades
with shrubbery and flower-beds and there is a
common, to the south, where golf is played.
Gun Hill Cliff is so named from the battery
of six 18-pounders presented in 1746 to the
Corporation by the Duke of Cumberland.
Fisheries, especially of herring, smelt, sprat
and shrimp, are the leading industry, but
brewing, iron-founding, rope-making and salt,
sauce and pickle works are also carried on.
In Sole Bay the British and Dutch fleets fought
two obstinate battles in 1666 and 1672. In the
former the Duke of York and Prince Bupert
gained the day, but in the latter (May 28th)
the encounter Was long, bloody and indecisive,
the Dutch beii^ led % de Buyter and the
British by the Duke of York and the Earl of
Sandwich, who lost his life in the engage-
ment. Sutherland House in High Street was a
favourite residence of the Duke of York, after-
wards Jamed H, Pop, (1901), 2,800.

Sontay ^9A0, Odentali^t^was Ibim at
Syria, about 1730* Ccming to Euy^a ^
plete his education, he settled ip Lisbon and
ivas appointed by the Jdarquis of PomW itt*
ttrpreler to the embassy sent to Morocco in
1??3, On the nomination of Queen Maria^^ he
beoaiae'.Prpfessor ,of„ Arabic,' aiid-^^as,,,rthea; aib
'.pointed to. th'e .'.Secretaryship of 'the
Among his wotks were im ^


Mmmim of AwbU Ton^m H /Ifgg)

and Arame Poemimto in Iho AftMwo if
He died in Lisbon in 1812.

Bonm-BotaliiOf Josi Mabu, diplomatist;
was of illustrious descent,! and was born
at Oporto, Portugal, in 1758, and educated
at Coimbra. He entered the army in 1778,
and left it in 1791, having obtained some
recognition of his diplomatic abilities. He was
successively minister of Portugal in Sweden,
France, and the United Kingdom, and showed
great firmness, patriotism and tact. He was
an enthusiastic admirer of Camoens, and pub-
lished splendid editions of that poet's works
in 1817 and 1819. He was engaged upon a
HiBtory of Portugal when he died in Paris in
1825.

Sowereignty, the power that resides in a
person or community for its governance. When
a person is permitted to arrogate absolute
power, the sovereign then becomes a despot
or autocrat and the people whom hb rules,
though ostensibly free, really enjoy only such
a measure of self-government as, from pru-
dential motives origpinating maiuly in fear, he
may think it proper to grant to them. In the
case of a limited monarchy, the sense of free-
dom is greater, because the sovereign knows
that his authority is (jfiialified and that, were
he disposed to push his power to an extreme,
he would speedily be confronted with revolu-
tion, not necessarily bloody. When, however,
the government of any society or state is
completely and voluntarily organised on cott-
stitutio.ial principles and none other, the
people are perfectly free, being themselves —
whether the form of government be mon-
archical, as in the United Kingdom, or Nor-
way, or republican, as in the United States, or
France, or Switzerland — ^the sovereign state,
for though they may delegate authority to
one person or to a body of persons, still in the
last resort both the guiding hand and the
directing voice are the people^s. When, there-
fore, sovereignty is ^^broad-based upon the
people’s will " a condition of democratic govern-
ment is reached in which the greatest^^happi-
ness of the greatest number is assured.

Sowerby Bridgg, a town of the West Biding
of Yorkshire, England, on both sides of the
Calder, 4 miles W.S.W. of Halifax. Till about
the middle of the 19th centuiy it consisted of
some scattered houses, but since that period
has grown to a manufacturing centre of con-
siderable importance^ It has worsteds eotton
and corn mills, chemical, iron, dye ancl t oil-
eloth works. The principal buildings are ^rist
Ghurch, originally established in 1526 but re*
built in 1819, and the town hall. . ArohMdliop
Tilloteoii was a native of Sowerby parieh on
the right of the Calder. Fop. (1901), 11,477.

, Itow-Tlillitln (Sonehut), a genus of succulent

. , , ''brier ' .Ownposlte.,,: i^|tb

....tiie;:;.;bgidate ':.4b.rete., ' .and"': /lailky' .'...|uioe^ . 'cnarAc-.'





( 345 )


y p il lP li '


teristic of th© sub-order Ciohoraoese. The leaves
air© prioklf >hd the towers yellow. It is said
to b© relished by hares and rabbits^ sheep^
goats and pigs» but not by horses and cattle.

SoydtaSi an isolated Samojede people of Sooth
Siberia, Asia^ near the sources of the Yenisei
On both slopes of the Sayan Mountains. This
region is supposed to have been the original
home of the Samoyedes. In the same district
are the Karagasses and other kindred tribes,
who are now of Turki speech.

a watering-place in the province of Li^^ge,
Belgium, picturesquely situated amidst wooded
hills in the valley of the Wayai, 16 miles S.E.
of Liege. Many charming walks and
drives have been constructed for the
enjoyment of the hahituis. The chaly-
beate springs became famous in the
16th century, when the fashion of
drinking them was set by royalty and
the nobility of different countries,
and for many years a gambling estab-
lishment enhanced their attractions.

The principal source is the Pouhon
in the town itself, but there are
several others scattered about the dis-
trict. The counter-attractions of the
numerous baths and springs which
came into existence in Germany ana
France during the 19th century for a
time threatened the prosperity of Spa,
but in the long run it continued to
hold its own. In course of time the
word “spa” acquired general vogue
as a synonym for a watering-place,
appearing even in London at Beulah
Spa and such now unlikely neighbourhoods as
Clerkenwell and Bermondsey. Pop. (1901), 8,192.

Spadix, a form of inflorescence characterised
by a fleshy peduncle and sessile flowers. It
may be simple — i.c., a spike, as in aroids, or
branched, as in some palms. The flowers on a
spadix are often, but not always, unisexual,
and are sometimes sunk in its fleshy surface.
The spadix is generally enclosed in a large
sheathing bract or spathe, and is the charac-
teristic inflorescence Of a series of Nudifloral
Monocotyledons, the Spadiciflorae. The spadix
of the common Lords-and-Ladies (Arum macu-
latum) is iiomewhat exceptional in its large
club-shaped starchy appendix beyond its
flower-bearing portion.

SpagBoletto. [Bibeba.]

Spada, a country which includes the greater
part of tb© south-western peninsula of Continental
Burope, the little kingdom of Portugal occupying
rather less than one-seventh of the whole peninsula.
Its coastal outline Of remarkable symmetry presente
some resemblance in appearance to a heraldic
shieM and Its peninsular chamcter is so strongly
marked that it is known, tmw excellence, as The
Peninsula. In the north the lofty ridges of the
Pyrenees difide Spain from Fnppe, its other bound-


on the u^est and the Mediterranean on the south
and east. The sgM of the country is XSD,60a
square miles, not quie lour times that of Bbgblildf
The population numbers 1%61 8,086, indudteg
Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean (311,6^9)
and the Canaries off the north-western coast of
Africa (368,664).

The highest summits in Spain are in the Pyrenees
(over 10,000 feet) and in the Sierra Nemda in
the extreme south (over 11,000 feet). The whole
central portion of the country is a plateau hterag-
ing about 2,600 feet above the sea, this tableland
being divided into wide valleys by the mountain
ranges of “sierras” (sierra, “a, saw,” “a broken
ridge of mountains or rocks”). Each yaltey is


drained by a river the course of which is generally
broken by rapids, bars of rock and gravel and
other obstructions, so that even where there is a
considerable volume of water the rivers are of
little use for internal navigation. In some places
they have been partly canalised and thus made avail-
ablefor traffic. The Ebro, the Guadalaviar, the Juoar
and the Segura are the only considerable rif era
flowing into tlie Mediterranean, all the rest having
a westerly or south-westerly course to the AtlatttiCt
the chief being the MiRo in the norlh, bounding
with Portugal, and, in the south, the Guadiana,
which partly flows through Portugal, and thp
Guadalquivir. The Douro and Tagus, thopgli
rising in Spain, are more properly to be considered
as Portuguese. The only lakes of any oonsequene©
are the coastal lagoons of Albufera in yalenoiatMar
Men or in Murcia and Janda in Cadiz. Tams are
numerous in the mountains. The fauna includes
the genette, porcupine, Ichneumon, the Barbary ape
(the only monkey found wild in Europe), tlie lyp*,
vultures and eagles, the red-legged partridge, the
blue magpie (Whose most nearly allied species
belongs to Eastern Asia), the flamingo, the hemipode*
the eyed lizard, the grey amphisbiena, the scorpion^
the salmon, sardine, anchovy and tunny.
climate of Spain varies considerably* In the iMwtbt
along the Biscay coast. It is oftSn cold and ratey t
in the south it is tropical during a great thW

year.



i*hoto] SPA. Paris.


<m}






ift in t^e xnain an africnlliiiiil
fully ona4iall of tbo onnntry is nnonli^^ate^ and
indoed much of the mountain litod is uhfit lor
oultiratlon. The principal cereals are wheats
barley, oats, rye, maise, rice and millet. Garden
and feltchen crO|^ are several kinds of beans, pease,
lentils, garlici onions, tomatoes and Spanish pepper.
The chief fruits are the grape (of prime import-
ance), grange, olive, fig, almond, ^megranate, date,
banan£%nd other sub-tropical fruits. The sugar*
cane is extensively ohltivated and cotton is grown.
Spanish chestnuts and Barcelona filberts form, with
raisins, a source of great profit. The north and
the uplands of the centre afford grazing-grounds to
lierds of cattle and goats, and vast fiocks of sheep
and droves of swine. The asses and mules are the
best of their kind anywhere and the rearing of
bulls for the bull-ring is in some districts a very
remunerative business. In the south especially


Spanish peninsula. The vegetation of Andalusi
and of Morocco is much the same; the Uttl
monkeys of the Bock of Gibraltar are the onl
animals of their kind living wild outside of AMca
and, finally, there is some community of blooi
between the races on both sides of the Strait. Th
history of Spain is closely connected with that o
Northern Africa. The question of the primitiv
population of the Peninsula is still a much*dispute<
one, the only certain point being that there was ;
Celtic and a pre-Celtic race in the country, th
Basques of Northern Spain perhaps representing i
still earlier element in its population. The firs
historical references to Spain tell of the trade
chiefiy in metals, carried on by its southen
districts with Phoenicia, Egypt and Greece. A1
these three countries sent their ships to tradinj
ports on what is now the coast of Andalusia
bring back silver, copper and lead in exchange fo
their own commodities. In this oonneotioi
Spain is indicated in the Old Testamen
under the name of Tarshish or Tharsis, Ii
the 3rd century B.o. the Carthaginians at
tempted regularly to conquer and oolonisi
the Peninsula, and this brought them inh
conflict with Rome, and in the end th<
latter obtained dominion over the whoh
of Spain. The country remained a par
of the Roman Empire till the barbariai
inroads, and in tjie person of Trajan gav<
Rome one of its most famous soldier em-
perors. Latin became the language of th«
country. The Castilian or Spanish of to-
day is a modernised form of Latin. Among
classical Latin writers not a few were
natives of Spain, the list including the
names of Martial, Quintilian, and the
Christian poet Prudentius. The first wave
of barbarian invasion, that of the Sueves
and Vandals, came over the Pyrenees ir
A.D. 409. Five years later they were
followed by the still more formidable
invasion of the Visigoths or West Goths.
Before the middle of the century they
had driven the Vandals into Africa and cooped
up the Sueves in the hills of Galicia and Asturias,
and Spain formed a part of a Gothic^kingdom
extending from the Loire ^o the Strait of Gib-
raltar. After the death of King Euric (484) the
Gothic power north of the Pyrenees fell before the
Franks and henceforth the West Gothic kings ruled
over Spain only. Teutons by race, Arians in religion,
they and their nobles were at first a foreign ruling
caste, separated in many ways from sympathy with
the Latinised Spaniards. But the fusion of the
two races was ra|)idly accomplished. One great
cause of dissension was removed when King
Recared (686-601) abjured Arianism and gave the
Catholic bishops a place at his councils. Under
King Suinthila (620*631) the last garrisons of the
Greek Empire were driven from the coast, and
under Chindasuintha (642*652) the laws of the two
races, the Teutonic and the Latin, were fused into
One code. The end of the 7th century witnessed
the first raids of the Saracen fleets upon the coast,
the ports of North Africa, which they had oonqttered,



wine-making is the most important industry, and
the manufacture of corks is carried on in the same
districts. In the towns of Catalonia, notably in
Barcelona, there is a considerable cotton manu-
facture. Other leading manufactures are woollens,
linens, silks, tobacco, sword blades (Toledo being
noted still), leather, paper, sugar, porcelain ana
charcoal. The iron mines of the north, the great
copper mines in the south (especially those of Rio
Tinto), the mines of lead, silver and quicksilver,
and the salt-making industry of the coast districts,
also employ a large population. But there is still
great room for industrial development in Spain, and
even the agricultureof the Country might be greatly
improved, the Old wooden plough of Roman days,
little better than a big forked stick, being still used
-on many farms.

It has been said that “Europe ends at the
Pyrenees.” The saying is of course an exaggeration,
but it is quite true that Spain forms in many ways a
kind of borderlandofNorthemAfrica. Themeuntain
eystem of the Atlas is a continuatioii of that oi the





Spain.


(S4T)


being their base of operations. A rebellious noble-
man, Count Julian, invited them to invade Spain in
force in 711, factions among the nobles and the
fierce hostility of the Jews, whom the Goths had
persecuted, giving
them good prospect
of finding adherents
in their enterprise.
They landed near Gib-
raltar, and met and
defeated Roderick,
the last Gothic king
of Spain, in the great
battle of Guadelete,
near Cadiz, which
lasted a whole week
(July 19-26, 711), be-
ginning and ending
on a Sunday. Rod-
erick was seen no
more after the fight,
and his disappear-
ance is the subject
of many Spanish le-
gends. Tarik — whose
name survives in
Gibraltar (Gebel-el-
Tarik, “the hill of
Tarik ”) — was the leader of the force that subdued
the “last of the Goths.” Within ten years after
the battle of Guadelete the Saracens or Moors had
overrun the whole country except some of the
mountainous districts of the north.

The history of Spain now runs in a divided
channel. It is partly that of the Moorish kingdoms,
partly that of the Reconquest. The Moors ruled
over a greater or smaller area of Spain for seven
centuries. The first four of these were the golden
age of the Saracen power in the West. The Caliphs
of Cordova were munificent patrons of learning and
literature, and, if other arts were in abeyance under
Moslem rule, that of architecture flourished : wit-
ness the magnificent mosque of Cordova, erected
in the 8th century (now used as the cathedral).
From the Moors of Spain, Christian Europe received
the Arabic numerals and the Aristotelian philosophy.
Averrhoes, the great commentator on Aristotle, was
a Moor of Cordova. But the conquerors were
divided among themselves. It was only for a time
that they obeyed a single ruler, and their dissensions
opened the way for the Reconquest. In the high-
lands of the north, new Christian kingdoms had
been organised as the tide of Moorish conquest
ebbed before the attacks of a hardier race. The
kingdoms of Asturias and Oviedo were thus founded
in the 8th century, Leon and Navarre in the 10th,
and Aragon and Castile in the first half of the 11th.
From this period the Moorish war continued with
little interruption ; there were occasional truces,
never a lasting peace; and though the Moslems
could boast of some victories, the fortune of war
declare against them In the end. Toledo, once
the 0 I 4 Gothic capital, was recaptured in 1086;
Cordova, once the seat of the Western caliphate,
wa^ taken in 1236 by Ferdinand III. of Castile;
Granada, the last of the Moorish kingdoms, was



QUEBK VICTORIA EU06niE
OF SPAIN.

{Photo: Beresford, Brompton Rd.)


conquered in 1492, the long sl^e of its capital
mmaing the olosinjl episode of the Beconquest,
Daring the long war the minor kingdoms had been
one by one united into more powerful states, the
marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of
Castile in 1481, the conquest of Granada in 1492,
and the expulsion of the French from Navarre in
1512 united all Spain under one central Govern*
ment. The Moorish war had not yet end^ when a
new and wider sphere of enterprise was opened to
the chivalry of Spain. It was in the camp of
Santa Fh, before Granada, that Isabella granted
the request of Christopher Columbus to be allowed
to open a new way to the Indies as a Spanlsli
admiral. It was in 1492, the very year of the conquest
of Granada, that he discovered the New World,
and the first step was taken in the foundation of
the Spanish empire beyond the aejas. which soon
included the West Indies, Mexico, Central America,
Florida and California, and all South America
excepting Brazil. Ferdinand succeeded in making
goo<l his claim as King of Aragon to rule over
Naples and Sicily, and by the marriage ot his
daugliter to tlie heir of the Hapsburgs it came to
pass that the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella^
Charles V., united the sceptres of Spain and of the
German Empire, and thus ruled over the greater
part of Europe.

The reign of Charles V. saw the power of the
Crown in Spain transformed from a limited into
an absolute monarchy. The cities were played off
against the nobles; the wealth derived from the
Indies enabled the Crown to support a strong
standing army ; local privileges were abridged or
abolished, and the Cortes became a mere delibera-
tive assembly, whitdi
soon was not even
asked to give its
formal consent to
taxation ; and the In-
quisition was used as a
kind of Star Chamber
for political purposes.

This was the period of
the greatest power of
Spain. Its decline
began in the latter
part of the rei^rn of
Charles’s son, Philip
II. (1666-98). He
succeeded in tempo-
rarily annexing Por-
tugal to Spain; but
he lost the Nether-
lands, where the harsh
rule of Alva bad pro-
voked a revolt. The
failure of the Armada
crippled Spain upon
the sea, and English,

French, and Dutch
adventurers preyed J

upon her commerce. By the end of the iTtn
century Spain had become a second-rate pbwer in
Europe. The extinction of the direct line of the
royal house on the death of Charles II. in 1700 lea



KINO ALFOKSO Xlll. OF SFAIM.

(Photo: r. S. Stmrt,)





< m )




to <$l&|iikaot9 lor the tbroiio beUig by

f ranod aad tbo German Empire^ Henoe arose the
War of the Spanish Saoeession (I70I<-1S), in which
aU; ^ the Western powers were inrolTed either as
pri&cipali or as alUes. Great Britain in 1704 seized
Gibraltar in the name of one of the rivals and k^t
it for herself. The Spaniards have never given np
the hope of reconquering ityand still appoint a
tltniai governor of the fortress, who resides at
AlgeoiTM. The war ended with the Treaty of
UtrScht, whidh gave the throne of Spain to Philip
Vv, of lie House of Bourbon, it being stipulated
that the two crowns of France and Spain should
never be united on one head. Daring the 18th
century the policy of Spain was in the main
modelled on that of France. On several occasions
the Spanish fleets and armies as the allies of the
French unsuccessfully besieged Gibraltar. On the
outbroai of the French Bevolution Spain joined the
other powers In the coalition against the Bepublio,
but was forced to make peace. An alliance with
Napoleon resulted in the Spanish fleets being de>
stroyed by Jervis (afterwards Earl of St. Vincent)
and Nelson, and a little later French treachery
obtained the abdication of the king and the
occupation of the fortresses by French garrisons,
and Napoleon’s brother Joseph was proclaimed
King of Spain. A popular rising against the
invaders, and the help of the British army under
Wellington, secured after a long struggle (1807-14)
the expulsion of the French and the restoration of
the Bourbon kings. The reign of Ferdinand VII.
(from the end of the Peninsular War to 1833) was
marked at home by conflicts between the Liberal
and Beactionary parties, in the course of which the
king in 1823 called in the aid of a French army ;
and abroad, by the loss of the Spanish colonies in
America, all of which #xoapt Cuba and Porto Bico
drove but their Spanish Governors and declared
themselves free republips. The death of Ferdinand
in 1833 Was followed by the first Carlist War, his
brother^ Don darlos, endeavouring to obtain, in virtue
of the old Sallo law, the crown which Ferdinand
had left to his lafaht daughter, Isabella II. The
Begent , Oueen Christina succeeded in defeating
Oarlps, thanks to ]^tish and French assistance.
The reign .of. Isabel^ was disfigured by palace in-
trignes e^d military revolutions. It ended in 1868
by per flight in the presence of a military revolt,
^ter tup ^eacs of a provisional government, the
orown waej||i^,|B7<) accepted by Amadeus of Savoy.
He only jbr three years, during which he
had to contend ^it|\ the ^pmrlists on the one hand
and the Kepublioansjqii the other, the grandson of
the first Carlos ralsh^a formidable insurrection in
the^^norMh^md:;-™ openly plotting

On his '-abdication in
1878 thnilepablio was ppitlaimed, but dissensions
among its supporters and its failures tO suppress
the Carlist insurrection led to the recall of the
Bourbons in December, 1874, in the person of
Alfonso XII., the son of Isabella. In 1876 Carlos
gave up the struggle in the north. Alfonsb died
suddehjy 1885,;nni:-;%ain' was ‘iruled I'fiSr-'nijany:-
yehrS' 'by bia^-pridow, ■' Qwep’ Christina,' '•'.acting'-'- .as
ItegenllbittiiSsoh,


some months after his father’s death. Dnder h
rule Spain made oonsiderable progress towkr
stable government, but the curse of the oounirj
past had not yet lifted and it had to drain to t
dregs the cup of national humiliation and sorro
Throughout Its Jhistory, and since the period
Absolutism and the Inquisition partioulafly, Spa
has had to expend enormous #]f^s tb df^ay t]
cost of ruinous civil wars at home and of the su
pression of formidable revolts ind^p^oa and Oul
A number pf fortified posts on tb^ coast of Moroc
are garrisoned by Spain, which vainly cherishes tl
hope of succeeding to the control of the whe
country when the Moorish power finally goes
pieces. Little wars with the tribes "in the neig
bourhood of these places have been carried on wi
a vigour which shows that the old spirit of the W
of the Beconquest is not dead in Spain. It w
ever easy to obtain eager volunteers in Spain foi;
war against the Moors, although to the onlookers
other nations, who proverbially “ see most of tl
game,” it was yearly becoming more and more a
parent that the ooveted Moroccan prize was slippii
from its grasp, and now all that is left to Spain
its ancient and widespread empire are the Canari
in the Atlantic and a few posts in Africa. In 181
the United States called upon Spain to put an ei
to the misgovernment in Cuba, or to withdraw fro
the island. Spain refused to recognise the right
America to intervene, and war ensued. Spain Wi
defeated, and compelled to give up Cuba, Port Bic
and the Philippines, and in 1893 the Caroline I
lands were sold to Germany. When therefore, :
this same year, Spain closed its Colonial
for ever, it bowed to the inevitable, but there wi
a cruel pathos in the acquiescence that spol
of the nation’s anguish. But the decision of tl
sovereign and statesmen to concentrate attenti<
and energy upon home afiairs was wise and a ne
and regenerated Spain is not beyond the bounds <
hope and probability. In 1902 Alfonso XIII. can
of age and assumed the reins of government. C
May Slst, 1906, he married, in Madrid, the Prince
Ena of Battenberg, a niece of Edward Vll. Tl
ceremony did not pass off without untowai
accident, for when the newly* wedded couple wei
returning from the church pf San Geronitno a bon
was hurled at them. They escaped injury, but tl
dastardly outrage claimed several victims. It wj
decided that the queen was to be styled Vtctorj
Eug4nie. On May 10th, 1907, a son was bom to tl
king ana queen. In Spain the government
vested in a hereditary monarchy and the Cortes, i
Parliament, consisting of a Senate (pnp4hird <
which are hereditary legislators, one-tbir4 are nom
nated by the sovereign for lif^ and one-third aj
elective) and a Chamber of Deities, elected b
universal snflErage in the |iroportion of one Depot
to every 60,000 inhabitants. The Catholic is t|
State religiph of the " most Oatholio ” kihgdorn i
the world, but other forms of religion are yiews
with a toleration that has unhappily been someiyhf
^ow in the groy^tb.

The. ''Oxtonsive'; remains -of M'oorisb-.'htbhiibebtm
give an Oriental aspet to most of the Souther
.''oaihedral' 'M Cksrdov%.,;th



( 848 )






mcaxar ol Se ville, and the pakoe of the Alhambra at
Orahada being the most striking examples. Christian
anshiteotare in Spain is a yery ornate (akthio, of
lyhich the splendid cathedral at Burgos is the
^ical example. In art the most famous name
in Spain is that of Velazquez. In literature the
names of Cervantes, the author of Don Qidwotc^
and Calderon, the (dramatist, have become world-
famous; but these are only two’among the many
names deservedly held in honour in Spain itself as
poets, dramatists, historians, or roraancists. Other
Spanish names that Imve won a world-wide reputa-
tion are those of Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of
the Jesuits, and f randis Wavier, the great mission-
ary, both of them of the Basque race qf the north.

SpftlatOi or Spalatko, a city of Dalmatia,
Austria, on the Adriatic, situated on the eastern
side of the peninsula dividing the Gulf of Brazza
from the Gulf of Salona, 160 miles S.E. of Fiume.
It is noteworthy for the remains, in a good state
of preservation, of the palace which the Emperor
Diocletian caused to be erected for him on his
retirement from the purple in a.d. 306. This
colossal structure occupied nearly eight acres.
Quadrangular in plan, the faces corresponded to
the four points of the compass. The Porta Aurea,
or Golden Gate, of the western front was the main
entrance to the building. The main street from
each gate met in the centre and was lined with
arcades. The mausoleum of Diocletian was trans-
formed into the cathedral towards the middle of
the 7th century, and a temple of Jlsculapius was
afterwards used as a baptistery, both edifices lying
within the precincts of the palace. Three or four
mites to the north-east are the ruins of Salona,
which was repeatedly ravaged by the barbarians in
the 6th an(i 6th centuries. In 639 the ‘Avars
attacked and destroyed it, the inhabitants fleeing
for shelter to the palace of Diocletian. Here they
remained, practically converting the building into
a town. They could plead in justification, besides
the necessities of their case, the fact that part of it
had been employed as a cloth factory soon after
Diocletian's death. Spalato is a bishopric, has a
most interesting museum of antiquities, and does a
brisk trade in wine and oil. Pop. (1900), 27,198.


Spaldinffy a town of Lincolnshire, England, on
the Welland, 14 mites S.S. W. of Boston. The river
divides it into two portions, of which the area on
the left banlt is the larger. It is navigable for
vessels of 80 tons, and the embankments between
here and the Wksh are believed to be of Kornan
workmanship. Traces* of the castle built when
Spalding wae a prominent place in the kingdom of
l^rcia can yet be made out and there are remains
of the ISth^century Benedictine Priory, m succes-
slon to an eterlier monastery, of which Fulney Farm,
a mite and a l^alf to the south-east, dating from
1080, te Supposed to have been the dairy farm.
The church nf St. Mary and St. Nicholas, origin-
ally liarly Ihiglish, was rebuilt in 1294 and con-
tains severAl Decorated and Perpendicular ^tures.
Ottoar buildings are the Corn Exchange, the Masonic
ttaH Johnson Hospital, the Christian fmofsmtim
and literary Institute, the Mechanics instituce,


Gamlynk Almehouset (founded in lOhO) and the
Grammar School, of which the welLkttown scholar,
Richard Bentley, was appoinM headmaster In 1882.
There are flouts and saw-milhi, and great quantities
of fruit and vegetables are grown for London and
other markets. Popi (1901), 9,386.

Spaldlngi William, man of tetters, was bom
in Aberdeen, Scotland, on May 22nd, 1809, and
studied at Marisohal College in his native City, He
qualified as an advocate in 1883, but soon showed a
strong bent towards literature and a mastery of thC
Elizabethan drama. He was elected Professor Cf
Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in Edinburgh Univer-
sity in 1840, and exchanged the chair & thct of
Logic, Rhetoric and Metaphysics at St, Andrews In
1846. Besides several articles in the Ddift^rgh
Bovim, which attracted general attention, heJ pro-
duced an edition of Shaheipmro't Worlu (1846) and
a book on Skahospeare s Critics (1849). In 1868 he
published his History of MfiglUh LitOftctitrOy with cm
Outline of the Origin and Growth of the English
Lang^tagCy an admirable compendium, which came
into almost universal use as a textbook and still
enjoys a wide vogue. He died in St, Andrews on
November 16th, 1859.


Spallansaniy Lazako, physiologist, was bom
at Scandiano, in Modena, Italy, on January 12th,
1729, and studied at Keggio di Modena and Bolo^a.
He was a versatile man, being equally aooompU^ed
innatural science, physics, physiology and literature.
He filled the chairs, successively, of Logic, Meta^
physics and Greek at Reggio (1754-60) and Modena
(1760-9) and of Natural History at Pavla, whither
ho was summoned in 1770. In 1778 he explored
Vesuvius and the Lipari volcanoes, in 1781 the east
coasts of the Mediterranean, and in 1786 Turkey.
He died at Pavia on February 12th, 1799. He was
an industrious investigator, but particularly dis-
tinguished himself by his researches in physiology,
especially on the senses of bats, respiration, spon-
taneous generation (the possibility of which he
disproved) and reproduction. He was the first to
elucidate the true processes of digestion, demon-
strating his theory by the means nrtlflcml
digestion experimentally conducted outside -of the
stcfmach in sealed tubes. His chief ijgrb® wot©
Dei fenomeni della oiroulazione (1777), ^usooli m
Mca animale e vegetaUle (1777), DuseHahoni di
pica animals e vegetaUle (1780) and Vmggi Oils
due Sioilie (1792).

SiHUldall, a fortlfled town In pro^oe ot
Bramienburg, Prussia, 8 miles W. *2^ ^
at the point where the Havel joins the Spre^
a place of considerable antiquity, receiving-town
rights in 1282, and for many yrars “"ed m a
p^n and treasury, a

kept in the Julius tower of the citadel for mW-
tanr emergencies. The works have^been gr^tly
strOTgthen^d of late years, end Is^e
been erected for guns, powder and aJl the ^ m“® j
tioDS of war. Boat-building, fishtog and
laneous manufactures ate the ^nor
Tt was token by the Swedes in 1686* by the Fmnch
to «rtored to Prussia to 1818. Baron



( 350 )




Tronolc wim liere abooi 1760. Fpp.

(liKK))* 65,014.

Sp#»lililp ft general name for several breeds
or siiFalns of the domestic dog, agreeing in their
silk^ coat and affectionate disposition, intelligence,
and very decided power of scent, though differing
much in siee and appearance. They fall into three
groups 1 -^( 1 ) Land or Field Spaniels, used chiefly
to flhlh game. Here belong the Cooker, with long
hair, very long drooping ears and an elevated tail,
and, owing to Its small size, able to enter thickets to
flush woodcocks and pheasants, which Setters and
large dogs cannot enter ; and the Springer, a larger,
stronger and steadier dog, from which ^e OlumDer,
Sussex and Norfolk Spaniels have sprung. (2) The
Water Spaniels, an Irish breed, the largest of the
group, with reddish-liver coat, used in shooting, in
which it not only finds the game but also brings it
unmangled to its master. (3) Toys. Of these the
Blenheim Spaniel is a good example. The King
Charles differs from it in its black>and-tan color-
ation. In the latter the Spaniel characteristics
appear in exaggerated form. The forehead is
round and prominent, the eye is large and moist,
the coat is long and silky, and the ears are pendulous.
The toys are drawing-room pets. The King Charles
has been rendered familiar by Sir Edwin Landseer’s
famous picture of “ The Cavalier’s Pets. ”

Spanish Hy. [Cantharis; Blistering.]

Spanish Main, the term commonly applied,
especially in the days when Spain was supreme on
the Continent, to the north-eastern coast of South
America between the Orinoco and the Isthmus of
Panama. Occasionally it was also used of the
Caribbean Sea, from the secondary sense of main ”
as an expanse of ocean.

Spar, now merely a popular term, generally
applied to anv translucent and distinctly crystalline
mineral, such as rock-crystal, calc-spar, fluor-spar,
fel-spar, etc. In 1820 the German mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs (1773-1839) attempted to use it
as a classificatory term, including under it most
silicates.

Sparkfff Jared, President of Harvard Univer-
sity, was born at Willington, in Connecticut, United
States, on May 10th, 1789. He was enabled to study
at Harvard, and was made tutor of mathematics
and natural philosophy 4n 1817. Reread theo-
logy deeply, and in 1819 was ordained a Unitarian
pastor, writing several theological treatises. Retir-
ing in 1828 from the ministry, he settled in Boston,
where he purchased and edited from 1824 to 1831
the North Amoriem during which period

he made an extended visit to Europe in search of
materials for his Life of Washington. In 1832 he pro-
duced his valuable Zife of Gouvemsur Morris, and
between 1884 and 1888 Life and If nriwys of George
tVashirMom, He also published an edition of Ben-
jamin Franklin’s works (1886-40), and edited The
MpLmiatie Corresptmdence of the Ameriem Mevolu^
Urn (1829-30). He was Professor of Ancient and
Modern History at Harvard from 1839 to 1849, was
President of the College from 1849 till 1868, and
died at Cambridge, Mass^husetts, on March I4th,


1 866. He left unfinished a Mistory of the Jimerie
Mevolistion,

SpanfOW, a genus (^Passer) of birds of t
Fincn family, with about thirty species, confined
the Old World. The bill is strong and subconio



with the nostrils at the base half-hidden by proje<
ing and recurved frontal plumes ; tail moderate
long and nearly square ; claws rather short ai
curved. The House Sparrow (P. domesticus)
common over the British Islands, Europe, and t
north of Asia. The length is about six inche
the male has the mantle brown striped with blac
the head bluish-grey, the cheeks greyish-white, t
front of the neck black, and the under parts ligl
grey. On the wings are two narrow bands, o:
white and one rusty yellow. The female is me
plainly clad. These birds are omnivorous ; they
much damage to grain and fruit crops, but it is
question whether they do not more than repay t
damage by the vast quantities of insect lar
they kill for the purpose of feeding their your
Opinion is divided as to whether the sparrow shoe
be reckoned among the farmer’s friends or foes. I
Coues, the American ornithologist, regards the i
troduction of this bird into the United States, f
the purpose of destroying harmful insects, aa a m
take, and speaks of it as a pest and a curse. T
Tree Sparrow (P. montanm), with a more restrict
range, differs little from the House Sparrow exoe
in its smaller size.

Sparrow-Hawk, a bird of the Falcon gen
Accipiter, with six secies almost universally d:
tributed. They are allied to, but smaller than, t
Goshawk. The Common Sparrow-Hawk (A. nieti
is about a foot long, dark-brown on the upper at
face, with the under surface rusty-brown barr^
with dark bands. The female is somewhat larg<
and has the ground-tint of the under surface greyia
These birds are fairly common in the Unih
Kingdom, though they are relentlessly perseouh
by gamekeepers on account of their preying <
young game birds. So keen are they in the pinmii





(361 )


of prey they have been known to dash through win-
dows and been caught in the room, while it is
recorded that a trained Sparrow-Hawk penetrated
so far into a blackthorn bush, where it had slain
a bird, that it had to be cut out.

SpaartEf or Lacedj3MOn, next to Athens, the
most powerful state in ancient Greece. It was less
a city than a cluster of villages occupying a plain
on the west of the river Burotas between the
heights of Taygetus and Pamon, and almost in
the centre of the Peloponnesus. The rise of this
rustic city to be the head of Laconia, the supremo
power of the peninsula, and the rival first of
Argos and then of Athens, dates from the reforms
of Lycurgus in the 9th century, but was due also
to certain racial characteristics which it is im-
possible to trace to their source. The Spartans
represented throughout history the aristocratic and
agricultural interests as opposed to democracy and
commerce. To push these principles she colonised,
and meddled in the affairs of other states; but
selfish isolation was the keynote of her policy.
To secure her influence she could temporise with
Persia, massacre her helots, and stamp out liberty
in neighbouring states. Now and then she seemed
to be inspired with national enthusiasm, but the
fit was short-lived, and usually ended in petty
oppression. The periods of her greatest influence
were in the 6th century b.c., when she took
the lead in crushing out the popular tyrannies,
in the 4th century, when Athens was ruined by
the defeat at iEgospotami (405 B.c.), and in the
3rd century, when she resisted Pyrrhus and en-
deavoured to form the Achaean League. Nabis,
a low freebooter, then made himself master of the
city of Menelaus, and Philopoemen razed the walls to
the ground. In the middle of the 2nd century
Borne stepped in, and a few ruins near Mistra and
Sparti, the present capital, are all that is left of
one of the most famous of human communities.

SpartaCTLBf leader of the Italian gladiatorial
revolt, was a Thracian by birth, and was originally
a shepherd. The year 113 B.c. has been assigned
as that of bis birth. Very little is known of his
career, but it is certain that after the conquest of
Macedonia he was forced to serve in the Roman
army, and his size and strength led to bis being
selected for training as a gladiator. In 73 he
organised a rebellion of his fellow-slaves, and
their number, originally 70, increased, it is be-
lieved, to 70,000. For a time they were brilliantly
successful. Spartacus having a genius for general-
ship defeated or outwitted the Roman commanders
opposed to him, and it was his real misfortune that
the hordes at his disposal were undisciplined ill-
used mep. Had they loyally supported Spartacus,
whose aim was to conduct them out of Italy
altogether so that they might reach their native
countries, there is every reason to believe that
he would have achieved this object. But the
ohanoe of plundering unprotected communities
appealed to their cupidity and cruelty, and t^y
made themselves detested by their abominable
eameases. Spartacus stood by them, however, in spite
of their c^mes and foolishness; but at length,


a^r a struggle which has earned the admitation
of the world, they were defeated by OraMUs, and
their gallant and capable g^eral was killed in 7L

Spasm, the involuntary contraction of muscle
Spasm is tonic or clonic. [Convulsions.] The
ordinary “cramp** affecting the muscles of the
calves of the legs is a good instance of musculav
spasm. In tetany the spasm affects the muscles of
the hands and feet. The muscles of the eyes are
sometimes thrown into a condition of spasm pro*
ducing deviation of the eyeballs such as occurs in
the “ inward fits *' of children. Contraction of the
muscles which close the eyelids produces what is
known as blepharo-spasm. When the muscles of
the mouth are affected, cynic spasm is produced.
The common form of wry-neck is due to musoular
spasm. Epilepsy, chorea, and tetanus are diseasea
in which spasm of muscles plays an essential part.
Spastic paraplegia is a condition met with in a
peculiar form of disease affecting the spinal cord,

Spatangoidea, an order of Sea Urohins or
Echinoidea including those in which the anal
aperture opens outside of the “apical system,**’
and is not on the extreme upper point of the shell
or test, and which have neither external gills nor
an internal series of jaws or teeth. It is divided
into two sub-orders, the Cassiduloides and the
Spatangoidea, of which the latter includes the
more typical forms such as the Common Hcart-
Urchin or Sea-Bun {^atangus tho

common Chalk fossils, Miorasier and Echinoooryi,

Spathe, a large sheathing bract enclosing a
whole inflorescence, and occurring almost exclu-
sively among Monocotyledons. It may bo herbaceous,
as in Lords-and-Ladies ; petaloid, in texture and
colour, as in the Trumpet-Lily {Riohardia athiopioa);
or membranous, as in Narcissus and in the Palms.
In the Daffodil it only encloses a single flower ; but
in other species of Narcissus, such as the Jonquil,
as in most other cases, a number. The spathe of
the Date Palm is commonly used in Southeto
Europe for packing oranges.

Spathio Iron Ores consist of the carbonate
of iron in a comparatively pure state, with but
little admixture of earthy matter. The carbonate
of manganese is, however, frequently present, but
this is not detrimental as it enhances the value
of the ore for many purposes. The ore when putf
forms rbombohedral crystals of a white colour, but
is usually yellow or brown. The chief looalitiea
where it occurs are Durham, Somerset, and Corn-
wall in England, in the Austrian provinces of
Styria and Carinthia, and in Prussia.

Spavin. [Bog Spavin.]

Speaker, Thu, the presiding oificer of the
British House of Commons, and as such taking
precedence as the First Commoner. He is elected
m each Parliament from among the members, is
not necessarily chosen from the party in power,
and, if returned to the House at the Generrn Elec-
tion, is eligible for re-election. His chief duties
are to regulate debate and preserve order under the
rules of the House. In the case of an e<|UA|


( m % )






dlviiioti ^6 a cdifl»t|ng to

8{>Oi^lii Ooiiitiiitto0 ol the whole ohair

ooooi^d ln such a seasioo by the Ohalmaa
ol , Oommittdes. In orlsea his responiiblllty is
eitreme. Bering the illegal ineidents leading up
to the OivU War, the position of Speaker was
very trying, but his obedience was to the
House and not to the monarch acting arbitrarily
and optside of the Constitution. Sir Peter de la
Mare^* elected for Hereford in 1376 in the Parlia-
ment known as the Good Parliament, was chosen
Speaker, and is the first on record, although Sir
Thbmas Hungerf ord is the first whose name appears
in that character in the rolls of Parliament.
Charles II. refused his assent to the choice of Sir
Edward Seymour in 1878, and Sir William Gregory
was elected in Itis stead. The number of Speakers
who have been false to their trust is exceedingly
few, but Sir John Trevor was expelled for accepting
a gmtuify in 1695. The most dramatic incident in
modem times was witnessed in 1881, when Mr.
Speaker Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden),
refused to hear any more speeches in
the debate for leave to introduce the Coercion Bill.
W. E. Forster had moved for leave on January
Slst, and, after a sitting of 41 consecutive hours,
the Speaker intervened as stated at 9 a.m. on
February 2nd. His action was undoubtedly illegal,
but the House accepted the situation, and reformed
rules of procedure enlarged tlie Speaker’s powers
of dealing with obstruction, When the Speaker
retires finally, he is customarily raised to the
peerage. In the House of Lords the Lord Chancellor
officiates as Speaker. The presiding officer of the
TTnited States House of Representatives is also
known as the Speaker, but in that assembly he is
avowedly a partisan, as a rule, the leader of the
party having a majority of the members being
elected to the post. He possesses the power of
appointing all committees and, as a member, can
t^e part in a debate after calling another member
to the chair, and can vote on all questions. The
latter rights, however, are seldom exercised.

Spgaking Trumpet, an instrument which
forms, as it were, a sounding-board for the voice,
and enables speech to be heard, especially in certain
ciroumstanoes, at a far greater distance than would
otherwise be. possible. It consists of a cone cut
near its apex to form a convenient opening into
whiob to tpeak. The other end is curved slightly
outwards. The compressions and expansions of the
air in the trumpet are protected from the effects of
violent wind outside; hence the whole of the air
Just outside the opening is set in motion by the
waves of sound. Without the trumpet the initial
waves would have been destroyed in a storm, or at
any rate much weakened before they had traversed
a distance' equal to the len^h of the trumpet. The
instrument is of great use at sea in enabling orders
to be heard across the ship in boisterous weather.

a generk weapon, the prototype of the
whole, race:, of throwing ''stabbing-weaponsi-
The': ear^--'Spear consisted' ■ydonbtless''^of’/('- -wood'
sharpened' at the 'end''and'hardeimd'hy:'''fme4':,;''^^
next stepjwere to head it with fith-bone^ ffinW


bone, sb^, and eventually metalf the ilnishi
touch being to poison the point. The mOdimi
lance was sixteen feet long. The spear has lo
existed side by side with the javelm and t
Matabele warrior had ancient precedent for can
ing his long assegai and his stabbing assegai,
the period before weapons of precision came in
vogue, the spear was a formidaok weapon, partic
lariy in the formation drawn up to receive a hoi
attack. Many an onset of cavalry has gone
pieces on a forest of spears. In sport, the spear
still used in wild-boar hunting, and in spme kin
of fishing, and in the case of whale-catching it
sometimes fired from a gun. The modem oaval
lance, from eight and a half to eleven feet long,
becoming more general as the work of cavalry
war becomes restricted to reconnoitring and pu
suing.

Species^ the unit of classification for anima
and plants — that is, a collection of individuals (»
specimens) that make up a genus. So long \
naturalists held the doctrine of fixity cf specie
there was no difficulty in framing a definition <
the term, for the dictum of Linnd was general’
accepted that ** there were as many species as tl
Infinite Being had created forms in the beginning
This, if true, would fix the origin of species, an
from this it followed that a species was ‘‘a group <
organisms, descended from a pair divinely create^
possessing similar characters, and capable of n
producing organisms like themselves.” Lamarc
in the early part of the 19th century, suggeste
that species were subjective, and not objective
but the influence of Linn6 prevailed, and it was n<
till the publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin <
SpeeieB in 18B9 that the Linnean conception w«
replaced by the theojry of Evolution. Since the
date, though the term “ species ” is retained as
convenient one for a group of individuals agreein
in essential characters which can be transmitted t
their descendants, it is recognised that it is ii
capable of strict definition, and that what on
naturalist would class as a species another woul
class as a mere variety, while a third would possibl
give it generic rank. Professor E. Ray Lankeste
in his article on “Zoology” in the Bncyclopmdi
BHtannioat says that ** Species, as weiris generi
orders, and classes, are the subjective expression
of a vast ramifying pedigree, in which the pnl
objective existences are individuals.” The'trut
of this will be evident on consideration; and 1
proof were needed, it would be afforded by a con
parison of the classifications of different naturalist
especially those dealing with the lower forms c
life. There is comparatively little difficulty i
separating the larger animals into species, but th
nearer one gets to the base of the genealogioal tre
the more hopeless does the task become of drawip,
with a firm hand the dMding line between speck
and variety, so closely do many of the Ibrib
approach their neighbours on each side.

SMCifie The absolute specifi

gravity of a substance is the weight of matte
oenlalned In a unit volume of thb substance. Ii
abselute ^.G^S'.'" unites this would 'be "'expressed ^as s


0p#otoaM Saar.


( 3535


many degrees per cubic ceutimetre* and would vary
ditferent places on the earth’s surface. In
practice, however, gravitation units of force are
always used, so that the absolute specific gravity is
given as so many grammes per cubic centimetre,
and the number expressing this is identical with
that expressing the absolute density of the sub-
stance. The aWlute specific gravity can also be
expressed in terms of the pound, cubic foot, or
other units. The relative specific gravity of a
substance with regard to some standard substance
is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of the
two Substances. This is seen to be the same as the
ratio between the absolute specific gravities of the
substances ; for let the weight of v volumes of
the standard A be Wa, and that of v volumes of
some other substance B be W 3 . Then the specific

gravity of B relative to A is but this is the


same as — -5-


, the absolute specific gravities of


■ V ^ V

the two substances. It is usual to take water at
40 C as the standard substance, and then if we
use the O.G.S. system, the absolute and relative
specific gravities are expressed by the same number,
because the unit of weight-the gramme-is the
weiffht of the unit volume— the cubic centimetre—
of water at C. [Density.] But this is not the
case if we take, for instance, the cubic foot as the
unit volume and the pound as the unit mass, or
gravitation unit of weight. One cubic foot of steel
wGiffhs 487* lbs. : so, using these units, its absolute
Tpectfi^ S would be 487-5. One cubic foot or
water weighs 62J lbs. ; so its absolute specific
gravity would be72-5. The relative specific gravity
of steel with regard to water would be, therefore

_ -.g relative specific gravity is, of

fi 2*6 — ' •

course, the same whatever units
dealine with the variation o£ specific gravity ot
liquids at different tempratures it avoids much
confusion always to use the absolute speoificgra^ty
in C.G.S. units, because there can be
with regard to the temperature of the stantom
substance. Specific gravity of liquids ^

measured bv means of hydrometers, or more accu-
rately with'pyknometers, which are various modij
floations of the specific gravity f

form consists of a cylindrical
with a thick glass neck of fine bore. The
the neck it expanded and fitted with ^
ground stopper, while upon ij,e

toe scale. PreUminary

volnnjes of the bulb “”be

so that all that need he ^one “ letermimng the

specific gravity of any liquid is S

bo^le whea empty and

The difference in the two weights gives

of the liquid ; its volume is seen at once, ana

division of the weight by the ^InamtusTused
absolute specific gravity.

for the determination of the specific gravity 01
gases.

frwth?^ruvian Andes, measuring about thre




feet and a hall in l^gth. The fur is black, and
there is a light-colopred ring round each ^e. The
greater part of the face being black, these rings
have the appearance of a pair of goggles, **throt 3 igh
which,” says Professor Jeffery ^ker, “ the be^t
seems to look with an air of mingled wisdom and
imbecility.’^ From this feature is derived the
popular name.


SpaotskOlBS are lenses or other refracting
objects used for aiding the sight when the eyes
are defective. Spectacles of convex lenses are
supposed to have been invented about the end of
the 13th century, and are used by long-sighted
people. These produce a virtual image of the
object farther away than the object from the eye,
and hence at a more convenient distance for a long-
sighted person. Concave lenses were used soon
after the others in spectacles for short-sighted
people, an image being produced nearer than the
object to the person. These are the commonest
forms of spectacles; but other kinds are used In
certain cases— ( 9 .y., prisms are employed in some
cases of squinting, and cylindrical lenses are used
to remedy astigmatism. It was at one time the
rule to number lenses according to their focal
lengths given in inches, but the system was not
convenient, especially as the inch is not a universal
unit. A more scientific system is one in which


1 is taken as the number ; this has been

local length

named a “tlioptric,” when the metre is the unit of
length. The number of dioptrics therefore varies
directly with the refractive power or strength of
the lens. Spectacle.s may bo furnished with blue,
irreen, or other-coloured lenses to protect weak eyes
from the glare of light. In divided spectacles the
lens is composed of two parts of different focus
exactly united, one part for observing distant and
the other near objects. Spectacles which have no
temples or ear-rests and are supported on the nose
only by means of a spring are ciiiMptnoe-7m. The
single eye-glass is known as a monocle. Contrary
to the general opinion, it was not invented by Joseph
Chamberlain.

SpoctroBCope. [Spectrum.]

’ ’SDectrum. Light, coming from any source
can by suitable means be split up into its component
parts ^ This was first discovered by Sir Isaa'
Newton, who allowed a fine beam of sunlight to
enter a dark room throngh a small hole m the
.wtpr If allowed to fall unmolested upon a

sereeTan to^eTthe sun was formed there, but

when a prism was placed in its path,
round image of the sun, there appeared a brilliantly
coloured bLd upon the screen. In the
d^uram fFig. 1) H A is the beam of sunlight
entering at H, and tending to form the sun s
at ^The interposed prism, P, however, aff^ts
the beam at a, and v R Is the long band of wlour
f Jr.? An the screen. This coloured band waa
called by Newton a spectrum, and

^adually from violet (v) ItTnoricrd

Ireen, v&ow, and orange to red (r). it iSi^oticea

ihat tL violet ray is bent most away from the





imy


SjMMltSKIilll* ' - '


prigimtl dirootion, ir a Jk\ of the Ijeftm. Hence
the weires el violet light are said to be the most
refrangible and those of red light the least re*
frangible of the visible spectnim. However, our



eyes are by no means able to detect the whole of
solar radiation. Beyond the violet end of the
speGtrum there are waves capable of promoting
active chemical decomposition, and this is specially
the case with regard to silver salts. The presence
of these ultra-violet waves can be shown in another
way. Their rate of vibration is extremely rapid,
but, if they fall upon some substances such as
fluorescein or quinine sulphate, they produce slower
vibrations in these bodies, and hence the eye is able
to detect them. Bodies which possess this power
are said to be fluorescent, and Professor Sir James
Dewar has shown that many bodies which are
not fluorescent at ordinary temperatures, become
brilliantly so when extremely cold, at about — 180®
0. If, therefore, we let the spectrum fall, not upon
a white screen but upon one painted with quinine
sulphate, we shall see the screen rendered luminous
where it was originally dark beyond the violet end.
Just as there are vibrations of too frequent periods
to be detected by the eye, so also are there waves
whose vibrations are too slow, and these occur be-
yond the red end of the spectrum. We constantly
experience the fact that heat and light are in the
habit of accompanying each other, and, if we
examine different parts of the spectrum with a
sensitive thermometer, we find the temperature
low at the violet end but rising in the red part,



and continuing to rise rapidly in the invisible
region beyond the red, until a maximum tempera-
ture Is reached, after which it rapidly falls. The
accompanying diagram (Pig. 2) exhibits this alter-
ation in temperature, ab is the length of the
visible spectrum, and the height of the curve above
this line represents the heat at each point. Thus,


B € is proportional to the temperature at B, the e
of the red spectrum, and D B is the maximi
temperature at some ^int, D, in the ultra-red pa
Every substance does not behave in the sai
manner to different radiations; by passing the lig
through a cell containing a solution of alum we o
stop idl the heat and let only the light through ;
using a solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide '
can ^et rid of the light and leave the radiant h<
in viable to our eyes, but capable of all the heati
effects possessed by the original beam. Instead
using sunlight for obtaining a spectrum, it is gen<
ally more convenient to use artificial light. If, ho
ever, we examine the light of an incandesce
vapour, we find that we do not obtain a oomph
spectrum. A strong electric current is capable
heating silver to such an extent that it boils ;
vapour is then seen to be green in colour ; and,
this light be seen through a prism, its spectri
simply consists of two green bands. Zinc, treat
in a similar way, gives bandsin the red and blue pai
of the spectrum, but only darkness exists whe
the other colours might be. What is true of sih
or zinc applies to every other metal ; the heated ^
pour of each gives rise to its own particular ban
and no others, and the bands are never the same i
any two metals. Further, these bands are giv



no. 8 .~fbadnhofbr's links.


when the metal is present in any form whatew
Sodium concealed in common salt, or copper hidd
in brass, give their definite and unmistakal
bands. An optical examination of the incandesce
vapour of a substance must therefore prove the pi
sence of any metal which it contains. This meth
of examination was first used by Bunsen ai
Kirchhoff, and is known as Spectrum analytU, T
metals OaBsinm and Rubidium were discovered
this way, for the substance containing them w
found to ^ive bands which did not agree wi
those obtainable from any known metal. Exan
nation of substances in this way is usually p
formed by means of an instrument known as
SpectroBcope. In this instrument the only lig
which can reach the observer comes through
very fine slit at the end of a tube. The finen<
of the slit is necessary to obtain a pure spectrt
— one in which there is bo overlap^ng
the different colours. In this tube is placed
convex lens, called a collimator, at a distance
its focal length from the slit. Light from the s
is therefore rendered parallel by the lens, and fa
upon a prism suitably adjusted in position. F
actually observing the effects a telescope is U8<
Kow, so long as we are dealing with the light of
incandescent solid, we shall observe a oontiiiuc]
and pure spectrum* With an Incandesoent vape



SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

1. CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM WITH FRAUNHOFER'S LINES.

2. A 8PECTROSCOPI8T AT WORK
8. SPECTRUM OP STRONTIUM.

4. absorption SPECTRUM OF ARTERIAL BLOOD, DILUTED 1 IN 400.







( 355 )




ijontaintog no solid particles we have independent
bright b^ds. But it was for long observed that
a pure speotmm of the stin exhibited a nouber of
dark lines interrupting the rai^e of colours. A few
of these were first noted by Wollaston, but many



no. |.>-8PX0TBUM OP ALPHiL LTBmB,


■ptetriiM

Vpeovlav Zvbii Oirtv a ciystallised variety of
hssmatite or ferric oxide (Fe|0|), occurring in
bard brilliant crystals belonging to the Hexagonal
system. The locality where the finest specimens
occur is the island of Elba, while crystals are also
found in certain South American ore deposits.

Bnecnlnm Vatalp an alloy consisting usually
of about 32 parts of copper to 16 of tin, sometimes
containing small quantities of lead, antimony, oi
arsenic. It is specially used for making the mirrors
of reflecting telescopes, since it is capable of taking
a high polish.


more were found by Fraunhofer, who characterised
their positions ; they are hence known as Fraun,-
hofer^s lines (Fig. 3), and called by the letters which
he gave to them. The explanation of these lines is
due to Kirchhoff. It had been noted by Fraunhofer
that the dark lines D of the solar spectrum coincided
exactly in position with the bright lines given by
the yellow incandescent vapour obtained by burning
alcohol containing salt. Kirchhoff obtained a weax
solar spectrum with its characteristic D lines ; on
making the light pass through the salt flame, how-
ever, he got two bright lines instead — the bright
lines of sodium ; he then increased the intensity of
his solar spectrum, still passing the light through
the salt flame, and, as he did so, the bright D lines
gradually faded away until at last they appeared
much darker than when given by the solar light
alone. Kirchhoff now obtained a pure spectrum by
means of a limelight, passed the light through the
salt flame, and got his spectrum Interrupted by two
dark lines, corresponding exactly with the d lines
of the solar spectrum. It was,
therefore, the case that the salt
flame picked out from the com-
plete spectrum just those waves
which were the ones it could
itself actually emit. It ab-
sorbed the rays which it would
radiate. In the case of the ex-
periment with the feeble solar
light, when the D lines appeared
rather bright, the radiation by the salt flame ex-
ceeded its absorption of the same light. But, as
the solar light increased, the absorption rose
it exceeded the radiation, and thus by contact with
the increased brilliancy of the other part of the
spectrum those bands appeared dark. Many other
flames were then employed artificially to Produce
different Fraunhofer lines, and the mystery of their
existence was cleared up. This discovery *

ately opened up a wide field in astronomical investi-
gation. The presence of the D lines proves that
sodium exists in the vapour surrounding the sun,
while the other lines also point to the presence of
definite suhetances. such as iron, copper, nicxei,
©to., in a state of vapour. The same process of ex-
amlnatlon applied to the light from f
has given us enormously increased
their compodtion. Fig. 4 shows d^ammatMly
tho spectrum of Alpha Lyrse, and in Fig. 6
Birins is comjpared with iron lin^.


Speddingi Jambs, philos^hical writer, was born
at Mirehouse, Cumberland, England, on June 26th,
1808. He was educated at the Oram mar School of
Bury 8t. Edmunds and Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he made several friendships that lasted
throughout his lifetime. Alfred Tennyson said, He
was the Pope among us young men — the wisest man
I know.*’ From 1836 to 1841 be was engaged at the
Colonial Office. He now took up the work upon which
his reputation rests— his monumental edition of
B^on. His collaborators were Robert IjeslieElUsand
D. D. Heath ; but the former’s health gave way and
the latter confined himself to the legal writings, So
that the lion’s share of the editing fell to Speading
and he was solely responsible for the biograohical
portion. The Works appeared in seven volumes
from 1857 to 1869, while the seven volumes of
the Life and Letters were published between 18C1
and 1874. Of the latter Thomas Carlyle wrote to
Edward FitzGerald, in 1874, as “the hugest and
faitbfullest bit of literkry navvy work I have ever

MLS 43e.* 431.S 439.$ *$$J

no. 6.— BPEoratm of siaius ooMPAaxo wite mow unxs.

met with in this generation, . . . * There ta a

erim steength in Spedding, quietly, tery qaietly,
invincible, which I did not quite know ot before
this book.” He Interrupted his labours to aot m
.eoretarv to Lord Ashburton’s mission to we
Onited States in 1842 and to the OivU
Commission in 1855. He

ing and elucidating Bacon so abjorbing that the
o&r of the permanent Colonial Dnder-Seoretm.
ship at £2,000 a year prov^
either to moderate or abandon his task. He wm
run over by a oab in London on Mwoh 1st,
1881, and med on the 9th rf the
most unassuming of men, ^e was
adviser of the morti distinguished of his ooi^
tem^Jaries. His. judgment was shrewd and


penetratiu
Benry VL


and his discussion of the shar^ m
* and John

^pef®


Flet^er, reprinted in 1874 by the New
Society, has been generally accepted.




( 8 66 )




Silttdwtllf the poimlar name tbe pret^tj
specms 6i the ticropbulariaceous genns Veronica.
It includes undershrnbs, several of which are
grown in greenhouses ; but the British species, 15
or 16 in number, are all herbs. Their leaves are
generally opposite, and the flowers are in spikes or
racemes. They are monosymmetric, the calyx being
apparently four-lobed from the fusion of two sepals,
and j^e corolla similarly apparently tetramerous
and sub-rotate. The flowers are blue, white or
purple. There are only two stamens, an exceptional
cheracteristio, and the two carpels form a flattened
capsule. It has received various popular names,
such as Angel’s Eyes, Bird’s Bye, Cm’s Eye and
Eyebright. F. Chamadnjs^ the germander speed-
well, is One of the beauties of the hedge-rows in
spring ; and V, and others are common in

many IJnglish gardens.

8p«i6r. [Spikes.]

SmIss (German, SpeUe), an artificial compound
of nickel and arsenic which is obtained by the
fusion in presence of arsenic of slags and other
oom|)ounds containing nickel. This is then very
largely used, in conjunction with the natural ores
of nickel, as one of the most important sources of
the metal.

8pak6i John Hanning, African explorer, was
born at Jordans, near Ilminster, in Somersetshirfe,
on May 4th, 1827. Educated for the army, he



iaptaik Uakniho spxes.
{Photo : Lyd


joined the 46th Bengal Native Infantry in 1844, and
served throughout the Sikh campaign under Sir
Hugh, afterwards Lord, Gough. He was promoted
captain in 1852. A xealous explorer and Wnter of
big game in the Himalaya and Tibei he turned


flpaUinf.


his attention to Africa and, in 1864, joined S
then Lieutenant, Eiohard Burton’s expedition
Somaliland. Being dangerously wounded, he w
invalided to England in 1855, and, on his reodva
served with the Turks in the Crimean War, In 18f
Burton invited him to take part in his Cent]
African Exploration, and in 1858 he was explorl
around La^ Tangatwika. While Burton was restii
from a fever attack, Speke was permitted to inves
gate a larger lake to the north. This sheet of water :
reached on July 80th and, four days later, obtain*
a complete view of it and named it Victoi
Nyanza. Belations between the travellers havii
meanwhile grown very strained and Burton beii
still hors de conihat at Zanzibar, Speke hasten*
to England in 1859 and proclaimed his discove
of the source of the Nile. In 1860 along wi
Captain James Augustus Grant (1827-92) he co
ducted another expedition to Equatorial Africa
order to verify his discoveries on behalf of t)
Koyal Geographical Society. In the result it w
demonstrated that Lake Victoria was undoubted
the main head- water of the Nile. Grant had
be left at Karague to recuperate, and Speke pursui
some of the exploration work by himself. Spen
ing a considerable time with Mtesa, king of Ugand
he afterwards proceeded down the Nile and m
Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro. On his return
England, in 1868, Speke was welcomed warmly at
received the Founders’ Medal of the Koyal Ge<
graphical Society. In the same year he publish!
his Journal of the Discovery of the Source of ti
Nile. A public debate of disputed matters had bee
arranged between him and, Burton at the meeting *
the British Association in Bath, when on the vei
morning of the appointed day, September 18t
1864, Speke accidentally shot himself while pa
tridge-shooting. The injury proved mortal, and I
was buried at Dowlish Wake on September 26th.

Spelliugi the act of forming a word by naminj
writing or printing the letters composing it in the
correct order. English seems to be the on
language that presents the great anomaly of po
sessing a spelling that in many cases aflords no cli
to the sound of the word represented. Acoordingl;
many have advocated the introduction ef phonet:
spelling, in which the sound of the word should I
exactly represented, pointing out that this systei
is to some extent adopted in shorthand. th
proposal it is objected, (1) that no logical systei
of phonetic spelling has yet been adopted, and Q
that such spelling would often destroy the histoi
of a word. Against this it is urged that sound :
the best clue to derivation, and that the presex
system obscures, rather than reveals, derivatioi
On the whole, it seems a question ^ sesthetio
Phonetic spelling has an uncouth appearance. A
long ago as 1844 and at frequent intervals then
after Sir Isaac Pitman (1818-97) and Alexand«
John Ellis (1814-90) made strenuous efforts t
induce the English-speaking peoples to adopt th
phonetio system. In 1906 the American S^llin
Keform Association, whioh had the support c
President Eoosetelt, went so far as to issue
provisional list of the words which were, in futun





( 867 )


to be epelled on the new and improved basis. The
good-humoured banter
I ""iP? newspaper Ss

Salter, a commercial name applied to the
metS zinc, Wjdter W. Skeat surm£ it to be an
older form of i the word “pewter,” and therefore
as old as the 14th century at least.

I surgeon, was born in Edinburgh
on March 31st, 1812, and educated at Galashiels
and the Royal High School, Edinburgh. In spite
of senous diffic^ulties he succeeded in studying
medicine at the University of his native city, where
after two to Calcutta as a ship’s surgeon!

he setUed, about 1836, as demonstrator in anatomy
under Professor Alexander Monro III, In 1842 he
^came one of the teachers of regional anatomy and
dissection m the extramural School of Anatomy
ana after 1849, when he was elected PROS*
lectured on surgery in the institution adjoining the
Infirmary and later in Surgeons’ Hall,
In 1864 he succeeded Professor James Miller in the
Cham of Surgery in Edinburgh University, and died
in Edinburgh on June 6th, 1882, He sustained
ably the traditional fame of the Edinburgh school
of operating surgeons, his perfect knowledge of
anatomy enabling him to dissect with remarkable
dexterity. Although a conservative operator, he
was exceptionally skilful in his treatment of anipu-
tation, tracheotomy, herniotomy, and urinary dis<
e^es. His Lectures on Surgery (1868-71 ) embodied
the ripest fruits of his practice and experience.

SpdXLCOi Joseph, anecdotist, was born at
Kingsclere, Hampshire, England, on April 25th,
1699. He was educated at Eton, Winchester,
Magdalen Hall and New College, Oxford. He took
holy orders, and in 1726 published An JEssa/y on
Pope's “ Odyssey which procured him not only the
friendship of Pope, but also the Oxford Professor-
ship of Poetry, to which he was elected, in succes-
sion to Thomas Warton, in 1728, being re-elected
for a further period of five years in 1733. In
consequence of his high character and amiable
disposition, he was in request as a bear-leader to
young men of rank on their Continental tours. He
thus accompanied, besides others, the youths who
later became the 2nd Duke of Dorset and the 2nd
Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme, In 1742 he was
presented to the living of Great Horwood, in
Buckinghamshire, and was also appointed Regius
Professor of Modern History at Oxford. He died
at Byfleet, in Surrey, on August 20th, 1768. In 1 74 7
he published a treatise on classical mythology
under the title of Poly metis ; or ^ An Bnquiry oon~
oeming the Agreement heteveen the Works of the
Momam Poets and the Memains of Ancient Artists^
but his acquaintance with the leading men and
wopien of his time resulted in his collection of
Anecdotes^ a compilation which has proved very
useful to literary students and has preserved his
name. Though oqpies of this collection circulated
in manu8oript*-Dir, Johnson, Malone, Warburton,
Warton and Owen Ruffhead were privileged to see


in* was not published (fnw

^jotivos) till 1820. when ri^
editions appeared on the some day.

b * ***^*^^® family founded

oy John Spencer, third son of the ard lUrl of
S^dertod (1674-1722), statesman and bibliophile,
whose hbrwy of 17,000 volumes at Althorp wa^
descril^ in 1703 as “the finest in Europe,” by
^ne, daughter and co-heiress of John Ohurohilf,
tne great Duke of Marlborough. Her father’s
favourite, she is credited with the conversion of her
mother, the Duchess Sarah, to Whiggism* and her
early death, at the age of twenty-eight, caused

’tmrn on May

idtii, 1708, inherited much of his grandmother^
wealth ; and on his death, on June 20th, 1746, he
was succeeded by his only son, John Spencbb, who
was bom on September 18th, 1734, created Earl
b^ncer on November 1st, 1766, and died in 1783.
Of Ins three children, Georgina is rcmem^red an
the beautiful Duchess of Devonshire, and his only
son, George John, born on September 1st, 1768,
became by courtesy Viscount Althorp. After two
years of foreign travel he entered the House of
Commons in 1780 and succeeded, as 2nd Earl, on
October 23rd, 1783. In 1794 he was appointed
hirst Lord of the Admiralty, and during the
six memorable years he held this post he be-
came known as the Organiser of Victory; Cape
St. \incent and Oamperdown were fought and
won, and to him belongs the distinction of having
selected Nelson for an independent command which
resulted in the victory of the Nile. When William
Pitt resigned, in February, 1801, Spencer also retired,
but resumed office as Home Sacretary under Pox
in the Ministry of All the Talents, 1806-7, retiring
when the Duke of Portland became Premier, and
he then devoted himself to administrative work in
his own county of Northamptonshire. I^esident of
the Royal Institution and a Trustee of the British
Museum, in 1812 he was one of the founders
and first President of the Boxburghe Club.
During his later years he occupied himself
with the rehabilitation of his famous libra^. He
married, in 1781, Lavinia, daughter of the Earl of
Lucan, who was remarkable alike lor her l^auty
and intelligence and for several years was con-
sidered the leader of London Society. She died in
June, 1831 ; and when her husband died, on Novembe’-
10th, 1834, he was succeeded, as 3rd Earl, by his
son, John Charles, born on May 30th, 1782, best
known by his courtesy title as Lord Althorp.
Taught to read by his mother’s Swiss footman, be
was sent at the age of eight to Marrow, and in 1800
went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, against his
own wish, he wanting to enter the Navy. Hunting
and racing occupied much of his time, but he
acquired habits of industry and exactness, studied
mathematics, and graduated H.A. in 1802. He
entered Parliament as member for Okebampton in
April, 1804, and in 1806, in compliment to his father,
then Home Secretary, was appointed a Lord of the
Treasury in the Grenville-Pox ministry, With
relays of horses he would gallop all night after a
sittiDg of the House, that he inight hunt with the



( 368 )


Fytcbky in the morning, and his dn^^on to sport
was eqnalled py his admiration for piisB^%hts. At
the general election in November, 1806, he wasre>
turned for Northamptonshire, which he represented
until he succeeded to the peerage, but his maiden
speech was not made until 1809. Indignation at
the Duke of York’s conduct at the Horse Guards
and his Boyal Highness’s complicity in scandalous
sales of commissions led to his moving the resolu-
tion which the Duke was brought to resign, and
when, in 1812, the Government reappointed the
Duke Commanderdn-Chief he supported a vote of
cenaure. He rarely attended the debates, partly
from disinclination, realising the futility of oppos-
ing the powerful Tory ministry. On April 14th,
1814, he married Esther Acklom* of WisetonHall,
Northamptonshire, to whom he was deeply attached,
and after her death in childbirth, on June lUh,1818,
he always wore mourning. He lived in retirement
for some years, but was constrained to re-enter
public life. After the dissolution of the Wellington
Cabinet, at the general election of 1830Altborp was
returned unopposed. The Whigs resolved to sup-
port parliamentary reform, and, having rejected Lord
Grejr^s proposal that Althorp should form a ministry,
be agreed to join with Grey, becoming leader of the
House of Commons and Chancellor of the Exchequer.
His party soon recognised that this unambitious,
almost tongue-tied man had rare qualities, and he
was esteemed “ the best leader that any party ever
had.*’ On March Ist, 1831, the Beform Bill was
introduced by Lord John Russell. The alterations
proposed exceeded anticipation and were received
with derision. A majority of one carried the second
reading, and after the Government had been twice
defeated in committee they resolved to appeal to
the country, though Parliament was but a few
months old. The election gave the party an
increased majority. When, after some weeks of
incessant strain, Lord John was exhausted, it fell
to Althorp to take charge of the Bill. Constant
speaking improved his powers of debate, and when,
in spite of long-drawn-out, eager opposition, the
Bill passed, Sir Henry Hardinge fairly expressed
the personal triumph of its champion, “It was
Althorp carried the Bill ; his fine temper did it.”
His personal infiuence proved irresistible in a sphere
which was ever repugnant to him. Lord Grey
unsuccessfully endeavoured to induce him to accept
a peerage that he might continue in charge of the
measure in the House of ‘Xiords ; and when Lord
Lyndhurst, in the Upper Chamber, carried a motion
postponing the consideration of the disfranchise-
ment clauses, the ministers rested on May 7th,
1832, but, being returned to office, the Bill was
allowed to pass on June 4th. Party differences
eventually weakened the Whigs, and difficulties
over an Irish Coercion BilUed to Althorp’s resigna-
tion. He was indispensable to Lord Grey; and on
Grey’s own resignation, on July 9th, 1834, Lord
Melbourne became Prime Minister. Althorp’s re-
tirement was deprecated by his party, and he
resumed office until, on his father’s death, he
became a peer. Melbourne vainly entreated him
to hold an office without duties J but the life, he said,
was misery to him, and he decided to follow the




country pursuits he loved, and to disencumber h
estates, which were heavily mortgaged. Rare
did he emerge from his retirement. He defendc
his colleagues in the House of Lords after their Is
in 1841, and spoke at Northampton, in 1848,
favour of the repeal of the Corn Laws. “ Prote
tion/ he said, was unnecessary and reciprocity
fallacy.” His services to agriculture were coj
siderable. In 1,826 he becatae President of tl
Smithtield Club, at the annual dinner of which, c
December 11th, 1837, he first made the suggestic
which led to the formation of the Royal Agrioultun
Society of England. Trusted by his friends ar
by his opponents, his absolute truthfulness ac
honourable dealing entitle him, who was name
“honest Lord Althorp,” to a distinguished pla<
among English political leaders. He died c
October 1st, 1845, and was succeeded by his broth<
Pbedebick, 4tli Earl, born April 14tn, 1798, wl
married Elizabeth Georgiana, second daughter an
co-heiress of William Stephen Poyntz, M.P., <
Oowdray Park, Sussex. John Poyntz Spence
was born on October 27th, 1836, succeeding as 6t
Earl on his father’s death on December 27th, 185
Educated at Harrow and at Trinity Colleg
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1867, for a fe
months he represented South Northamptonshire i
the House of Commons. In December, 1868, the “ Re
Earl,” as he came to be styled from his magnificer
beard, was‘ appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Irelan<
retaining that office untR W. E. Gladstone’s resij
nation in February, 1874. In 1880 he became Loi
President of the Council, and, on the resignation <
Earl Oowper, was again nominated Lord-Lie utenan
reaching Ireland on May 6th, 1882, on the evefnin
of the day when Lord Frederick Cavendish and M
Burke had been assassinated close to the Viceregi
Lodge in Phoenix Park, Dublin. Here he remaine
until the close of the Gladstone Administration i
June, 1886. On Gladstone’s return to office i
February, 1886, he was agaiu Lord President, hai
ing assented to the Home Rule policy, his expei
iences at Dublin Castle having convinced him the
coercion had failed in its objects. His support W8
of great service to the Government. From 1892 t
1896, Earl Spencer was First Lord of the Admiralty
He was married, on July 8th, 1868', to Charlottl
daughter of Frederick Charles Seymour, grandso
of the first Marquess of Hertford, and her lamente
death occurred on October 31st, 1903. His heir I
his half-brother, Charles Robert Spencer, create
Viscount Althorp in 1906, who was bom on Octobc
80th, 1867,

Speneer, Dobotht, Couni?es8 op Sundeb
liiANO, known in literature as “ Sacharlssa,” daughte
of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, was born at Sion Hous«
near Isleworth, Middlesex, on October 6th, 161 <
On her grandfather’s death her parents removed t
Penshurst, In Kent, where she was brought wit!
Algernon Sidney and her other brothei^s. Her re
markable beauty, graoe and aharm wonaeveral ad
mirera, aifd Edmund Waller, the poet, . addre8sini
her as “ Sacharlssa,” paid her amatory homa^ ii
verses that are still admired. She, bn her part, gav
him bo enboturagement, htit rmuried, in 16^,


( 359 )






liOrd Slwiacer, who was created Bari of Sunderland
in June, 1648. In September of the same year he
was mortally wounded at the battle of Newbury in
the Civil War. A.fter remaining nine years a widow.



(4/lsr Van Dyck.)


his countess, in 1652, married Sir Robert Smythe,
of Sutton-at-Hone and Boundes in Kent. She
died soon after the execution of Algernon Sidney,
and was buried in the chapel of the Spencers in
Brington church, Northamptonshire. Van Dyck
painted her portrait several times.

Sponoari Herbert, metaphysician, was born
at I^rby, England, on April 27th, 1820, his father
being a tutor in that town. It was from his father
and his uncle, a clergyman, that he chiefly received
his education. When seventeen years old he was
apprenticed to a civil engineer, and followed this
profession for about eight years, writing articles on
various subjects connected with it for an engineer-
ing journal. His first work of a general character
Was a series of letters on The Proper Spjiere of
Government^ published in 1842. Coming to
London, he became sub-editor of The JEconomitt,
^nd while holding that post (1848-53) published
Social Mattes (1860), parts of which he afterwards
formally withdrew. Meanwhile he wrote very
frequently for the reviews, and in 1865 brought
out his important Principles of Psychology y which
partly anticipated the Darwinian doctrine. In
this work he laid it down that all phenomena
could he explained by the evolution law, and
in 1860 issued the synopsis of his System (f
Philosophy y which attracted great at-
teatioa in all parts of the British Empire and
throughout Europe and gave him a
place among modern philosophers. In looi
appeared his acute study of Sdmoixlnony wWoh
•mm translated into many languages,
vvas fellow^ by hU MssaySy SeimttM roHUeaiy


^^ifiiZ<mtw(18S8-68), The Oms^Umtf m
Sciemoes (1861)^ and Me Mudy ^ Smdolm mU).
He was engaged during this pertod on the f^lsa*
tion of his great system of philosophy, and had
published the following portions of his plan :

( 1862 ), The Primiples of PUloyy (mi),
The ^neiples (f Psychology (1872). At latet
^tes he brought out further instalments, such as
The PrimipUs of Sociology (1876), Cmmonial In*
stitutiom (1879),

Political Institu*
tiom (1882), Ku-
clesmstioal ImtU
<«fw);js(1886). The
Data of Mthics
{\myfhc Factors
of Organic Fvolu-
tion (1886), The
Principhsof Ethics
(1892), The Prin-
ciples of Sooiologg
(finished 1896).

With this last
book he finally
completed, amid
universal congrat-
ulation, the great
work he had set
himself to per-
form, in spite of
almost continuous
ill-health. His
works were widely translated, and their author
was offered many academic honours, which he
always declined. He died at Brighton on December
8th, 1903. His Autobiography was published in
1904.



HBRUSST BVKKCSa.

(Photo: mm Fry.)


foenor, Philipp Jakob, founder of the sect
of Ifietists, was born at Rappoltsweiler, In Alsace,
on January 18th, 1636. Alter leaving Strasburg
University, ho visited the Universities of Basel,
Tubingen and Geneva, at the last-named city
developing views that afterwards carried him to
Pietism. On his return to Strasburg, in 1663, he
was appointed preacher without charge, with the
right of lecturing in the University, In 1666 he was
invited to the pastorate of the Lutheran church
at Prankfort-on-the-Main, and in 1670 began the
series of meetings of a religious character to
which he gave the name of Collegia Pietat'^y
and from this the name of Pietist arose^ In
1686 be removed to Dresden, where he was
made Court preacher, and in 1691 was made
rector of St. Nicolas’ in BerUn. but Halle— where,
in 1691, he founded and directed the University—
became the real centre of the Pietistic movement.
His earnestness and knowledge obtained for him
almost universal respect, and he wrote many
theological works, and was the first person to
introduce the study of heraldry into Germany. He
died at Berlin on February 6th, 1706.

Sp^nnynuiory a town of Durham, Englund,
6 miles S. of Durham city. In consequence of the
development of collieries and iron foundries it hfts
advanced with remarkable rapidity. The principal





< 360 )


buiMlngv ''inditde . ' SI. . PwoTtf >

1^57)73mb.Iowii' ' liaEfv-inatket ■Hall,.

Mea&isiei’ Institnie and Masonic Mall. Ylctofla
Park, a kittall bal nicely laid oat planmnre ground,
was opened in 1889 lo comnlefflorale the Queen’s
Jubilee. Pop. (1901), 16^666.

SMiuinr, BDMUKn, poet, was bom in 1652 in
SmitlifiaW, liondon. Of bis family little is
known; ekcept that it was of Lancashire stock

and claimed re-
lationship with
the Spencers of
Althorp. He was
educated at the
Merchant Tay-
lors’ School, and
in 1669 he made
his first appear-
j ance as a poet
with some trans-
lations from Du
Bellay and Pe-
trarch, which
were published in
Van der Noodt’s
Theatre for
Worldlings, In
the same year he
was admitted as
inxtJKD spBNssB. u sizar to Pem-

(Sy permUHon of the Rev. 8. HaB, Cam-

BariTtg-ChHild.) bridge. He took i

the degree of B. A.
in 15T2 and M.A. in 1676. Of his career at college
we hear nothing, except that his health was deli-
cate, and that he became a close friend of one of the
fellows of Pembroke, Gabriel Harvey, the ** Hobbi-
nol ” of his pastoral poems, who attempted to bring
him into a movement for the introduction of
unrhymed classical metres into English verse.
On leaving Cambridge Spenser lived for a while
in the north of England, perhaps in Lanca-
shire, where (as we have seen) he probably had
relations. About this time he fell in love,
seriously and unhappily, with a jroung lady,
whose name is only known in his anagram,
''Eosalind.” On his return to the south
he was introduced by Harvey to Sir Philip
Sidney, who, in turn, presented him to Queen
Elizabeth, and ever afterwards exercised a
strong influence over him, leading him, per-
haps, into affectations of language and metre,



but showing him a living example of his ideal
knight and courtier. In 1579 Spenser first
proved his power by the publication of The
Bhephearde’s <7o/encfer, a pastoral poem, or set
of “iEglogues” (e«?logueB) following the classi-
cal models. The bo(m was not printed in the
author’s name, but introduced as the work of
a **New Poete ” in a preface by his college
friend Edward Kirke. In 1580, in the capacity
of secretary he accompanied the Lord Deputy,
Lord Grey of Wilton, to Ireland, a country
which was thenceforward to be his home., and
which, ' with its ' , 'scenes '■ of ''revolt' '' add ' ■ Vioiehcei ■
must have been Ml of alifgeetioim lor the


poet of the FaMrU a specimen of which

had already been submitted to Harvey, wh<>
greatly preferred the Nim ComMim, Which
Spenser had also sent to him, and which, with
his Stemmata DudUiana and Other poems, hr©
now lost. In Lord Grey Spenser had a chief
whom he thoroughly admired, and whom he in-
troduced into the- faerie Queewe as Arthegal,,
the personification of justice .V Sis ow» |K>licy,
based, like LOrd Grey’s, on ruthless military
repression, was developed in his of the

Present State of Tretand, which, though not
published in his lifetime, was entered at
Stationers’ Hall in 1698. It was issued in 1633
and is written throughout with savage un-
Bympathy. With Spenser there was no remedv
for Irish wrongs and grievances. England's
laws must alone be observed and enforced and
Irish nationality was to be extirpated. The
flaming discontent which burst forth into re-
bellion in the following year was the only
answer Ireland could give. His promotion
under Government was neither great nor rapid.
In 1581 he was made Clerk of Decrees and
Eecognisances in the Irish Court of Chancery,
and received a lease of the lands and abbey of
Enniscorthy. In 1588 he was appointed clerk
to the Council of Mi;inster, and, two jrears be-
fore, had had assigned castle of

Kilcolman in the countw|H|^k. At the end
of 1589 he went with Ealeigh, now

his neighbour in IrelanflM^Windon , carrying
with him the first three nooks of the .Faerie
Queene, which were published early in 1690.
He remained in London for twelve months, add
received a pension of £50 a year from the
Queen. In 1691 his publisher brought out
a volume of his collected pieces, Complaints,
and Daphnaida. He married, in 1694, a lady
whose Christian name, Elizabeth, alone has
come down to us, but who was probably the


daughter of James Boyle, the 1st Earl of Cork,
and in the next year he published his Amoreiti
and Epithalamion in her honour. In this
year (1696) there also appeared his Colin
ClouVs Come Home Again. In 1596 he brought
out three more books of the Faerie Queene,
Four Hymnes, Prothalamion and AMrophel.
In 1598 he was appointed Sheriff of Cork, but
in the same year nis house was burnt down
during Tyrone’s rebellion. He crossed to
England, ruined, and died at Westminster on
the 16th of January, 1599. He was buried in
the Abbey near Chaucer, whose English he had
imitated, a ad as whose first great successor,
alike in melody and creative power, he is ad-
mitted to rank.

SiKgVillMeti, a shining waxy solid which is
obtained from the oil which occurs in certain
cavities in the head of the Cachalot or S^erm
Whale (PhykeiteT rmttoe^pludui). The oil is
found chiefly in a cavity situated in the upper
jaw, aud is usually removed by an aperture
cut just Alongside the nose, being, obtained in
>v.ery .Inrge ' ouanliities.' "'■ ,■■: On, etandihg ''fuid bool-
ing IhA oil (spw oil) d^sits crystals of the


Spenofti^iTta.


( 3ei )


Spbaaodm.


wliioh are purified by pressure
and reorystalUsation. ChemicaUy, the sub-
P>:““Pa«y of cetyl palmitate
if pure, forms waxy flakes
or needles wkicli melt at 49^. The oil is of a
yellow colour, with a slight odour, and is
used lor illumination and for soap-making.
Spermaceti is not now much used medicinally j
but an ointment is prepared from it, wi4’
Chinese wax and alcc^ol.

Sftniifirplisrta. [Phansi^gamia.]

9pwm Wliale, or Cachalot (Physeter wccro-
cej»Ao/u«), the sole species of a genus of Toothed
Whales, from tropical and sub-tropical seas,
where thgr occur in large schools fed by old
males. The length of the male, when fully
grown, is about 60 feet, of which the enormous
square head counts for at least one-third; the
females pe much smaller. The colour is black
above, lighter on the sides, and silvery^grey
beneath. There are no teeth in the upper mw,
and those in the lower jaw fit into hollows



:ON ASsD OUTLINE OF ANIMAL.


above. They feed principally upon cuttle-fish
apd squids, and are hunted for their oil, sper-
maceti and ambergris, Thoupfh at one time
tolerably common in the Pacific, Indian and
Atlantic Oceans, persistent hunting has thinned
their numbers, but their scarcity in the At-
lantic is no doubt to a considerable extent due
to tbe notable increase of traffic in that ocean.
The Sperm Whale is readily recognised, even at
a distance, by the regularity of its blowing and
the discharge of what looks like a volume of
vapour obliquely forwards. It ploughs its
way through the sea at a steady four or five
miles an hour. The males keep to the surface
for some fifteen minutes and then go under for
an hour or more, females and young ones re-
maining up and descending at more frequent
intervms. At times, instead of swimming
quietly on the surface the creature pro-
gtes$es more rapidly by a sort of lurching
movement, the head thrust well above the
water, and a mass of spray, technically called
** white water,’* accompanying it. Now and
then they leap headlong out of the sea
("breaching") and at times violently lash
the surface with their tails ( lobtaihng ).
Occasionally blindness overtakes thein and tne
loWec ja«? is sometimes twisted like a shepherd s
crook. Insides man, the Thresher Shark and
Killer Whale, or Orca. are its chief enemies.

•ifF. a dver of Scotland, rising in Loch Spey
feet Above the sea) and pursuing at


first an easterly and afterwards a north-easterly
ccurse to the ICoray Firth into which it dii-
charges after a total run of 107 miles. It is
the most rapid river in Scotland, and in length
and volume of water is inferior only to the
Tay. It has a drainage basin of l,fl00 square
miles and, next to the Tay and Tweed, is the
finest of Scottish salmon nvers.

Speiiafy or Spbzzia, a port of the province of
Genoa, Italy, situated on the gull of the same
uame, 50 miles S.E, of Genoa. It is the
greatest naval arsenal of the kingdom, and
contains yards for the const ruction of ships
of war, a department for the fabrieation of
artillery and another devoted to the manuf ab*
ture of submarines and electrical apparatus.
The railway across the Apennines places the
port in direct communication with the indus-
tries and agriculture of the plain of Lombardy
and led to a marked development of commerce.
The harbour was enlarged and new basins
added, while the quayage was extended, llie
notion of establishing a vast arsenal hero is
said to have originated with Napoleon.
The gulf has always beeu noted for
its picturesque scenery. It was whilst
returning to Lerici, on its eastern
shore, that Percy Bysshe Shelley made
the voyage in which he lost his life,
and at Portovenere, on the western
side, is Byron's Grotto, so named from
a local tradition associating it with
The Corsair, though this seems doubt-
ful. Charles James Lever (1806 — 72), the
novelist, was British consul at Spezia from 1857
to 1867. Pop. (IDOl), 65,612.

Sphagniiu. [Boo>Mosb.] *

SphenodoHy or Tuateua (Batteria pimctaia)^
a New Zealand lizard, the sole living repre-
sentative of the order Bhynchocephalia, but
rapidly becoming extinct. It was first men-
tioned in the diary of William Anderson, Cap-
tain Cook's surgeon and naturalist. It lived
iu holes and the sandhills near the shore. Con-
sumed by the natives and apparently also by
pigs, its numbers, once considerable, were
rapidly reduced. Its food is insects and small
ground birds. In form it is not unlike an
Iguana; the upper surface is olive-green with
yellow spots, the under surface is whitish. The
greatest length is about two feet, but those
brought to Europe are smaller. The Skeleton
is in some respects fish-like, and in ethers
crocodilian. The chief interest of the animal
lies in the fact that it was the subiect of
W B. Spencer's investigation of the median eye,
which Von Graaf ^d found in the slowwom.
]|^rther investigations seem to point to the
conclusion that the pineal body of the brain
is in reality a vestige of an impaired mewn
eye that looked upwards. SimBar eys-bke
structures have been found in other lizards and
in some fishes. (SpenSe/s Papers^on tlw sub-
ject will be found iu Proc. Moy, Soe.

559, aud Quwr,Jour» Micros. Setmet, xxvii.,165.)





( 362 )


'Hl^ltilisKf


. 'SflMioli SOM." .^SKtrLL.! ' ^ ^ ^

Uph&^i nkost refalar and most sy mmetrlmd
of solid figiirofl. It is produced b^ the revolu-
tion of a semicirele about its diameter, and
everj point on its surface is equidistant from
its centre. Every plane cuts tne spbere in a
circle ; if the plane passes through the centre,
the eircle is called a ereat circle, other circles
beini Whiled small circles. All gmt circles are
equia. Two spheres always intersect in a
circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the line
Joiikiiig the centre of the spheres. The sur-
face of a sphere is equal to 4rrrS, where r is
its radius, and is equal to | the total surface
of the circumscribing cylinder. This cylinder
is one whose length and the diameter of whose
ends are eq^ual to the diameter of the sphere.
Its centre merefore coincides with the centre
of the sphere, and the latter is just contained
in it. If we regard only the curved surface of
the cylinder and not the ends, we note that
the surface of sphere and cylinder are equal ;
also, if we take a section of the sphere paral-
lel to the base of the cylinder, the curved sur-
face of the portion of the sphere so cut off is
equal to that of the cylinder. But the area
of the curved surface of the cylinder equals the
circumference of its base (which is the same
as that of a great circle of the sphere) multi-
plied by its height; hence this is the area of
the section of the sphere's surface. Extend-
ing this slightly, we see that if a sphere be
out by two parallel planes, the area of the
curved surface so obtained is equal to the
distance between two planes multiplied by the
circumference of a great circle, volume

of a sphere or f the volume of the cir-

oumsoribing cylinder.

Sphiwroid is a limiting case of the ellipsoid
when the sections in one direction are circles
instead of ellipses. It can be obtained by the
revolution of an ellipse about one of its axes.
If the major axis be taken as the axis of re-
volution, a prolate spheroid is obtained, while
revolutions about the minor axis give an ob-
late spheroid. The earth is an example of the
latter. As major and minor axes approach
each other more and more in length, the two
ellipsoids also become more alike, the limiting
case being the sphere.* [Elufsoid; QnijDBic
SnaxAos.]

an instrument for measuring
the radius of a circle. It consists of a circular disc
of metal with a graduated edge. This rests upon
three equal equidistant legs whose points are hard
and rounded. A screw is fixed to the centre of the
disc, and its end is also hard and rounded : this
constitutes a central or fourth foot. When the
spberometer rests upon a plane— ^say, a smooth
sheet of brass — it is perfectly steady on its three
feet ; but the disc may be turned till the fourth foot
also meets the brass. At one point all four feet me
Ij pleae, but another fraction of a turn brings
the fourth foot too far down, and the whole instru-
ment roCks. The point when rocking is just about


to begin is tbe point when the fourth loot I
exactly letel with the other three. If the lustre
ment be now transferred to a lens, the central foe
must be screwed up to let the three feet takej



(K) Contact-pin. (R) Metal ring, sapplied in diflerent diameter
BupportB the lens, the radius ot which is to be measured. .(]
Table on which metal rings (R) are placed, so that the oontac
pin (K> is always in centre ot ring. ;PI) Seale, divided into 1/lOt
ot millimeter, which is to be 0nE by means ot microsco]:
with micrometer motion, as shplTR lU lUtuitration. (0) Counte
poise tor contact pin (K),


steady position, and then screwed down till rod
ing is again just about to begin. The distanc
through which the foot has been moved since :
was on the flat plate is 'read off on a fixed uprigh
scale, and fractions of a revolution are obtained b
observing the position of the graduated disc. Th
curvature of the lens can then be quite simpl
deduced.


Sphincter Muscle^ a muscle which regulate
the closure of an orifice in the animal bod^
e.g., the sphincter of the urinary bladder an
the sphincter ani.

Sphinx (Greek, ** The Strangler,**) is met wit
in Egyptian and in Greek mythology, thoug
it is doubtful if there is more than a
accidental connection between the two. Th
Greek Sphinx has the body of a lion, the fac
and bust of a woman, and is winged. Th
story goes' that the Sphinx haunted Boeoti
and tormented people with the conundrun
‘*What goes on four legs in the morning, tw
at noon, three at night and is weakest whe
it has most feet?" All who were unable coi
rectly to expound the riddle were promptly slaii
(Edipus solved it, thereby bringiug woe upo
himself, and the Sphinx, having no furtnc
object in life, drowned herself. The aaswe
was, **Man, who creeps in infancy [four leg
in the morning of life], walks erect afterward
and finally hobbles along by the aid of a sta
[three legs in thu evening of life].** Th
Egyptian Sphinx is not winged, has a humn
male .^Pr femhle,: surmounted, 'by^ ' a
Egyptian headless, or an animal hea



( 863 )


4|Ai]UK«


(usually a ram's or a hawk’s) and a lion's
body. Its Egyptian name is equivalent to



EGYPTIAN SPHINX.

(From the Sera^^eum.)


**lord” or “master.” These figures were often
erected at the entries of temples. The well-
known Sphinx at (xizeh is 150 feet long and
63 feet high. TOe Xiouvre possesses one of red
granite 22 feet long.

Sphinx, a genus of moths which is the type
of rhe family Sphingid® and the section of
Sphinges. The typical species of the genus is
Sphinx ligustri (Lmn.) or the Common Privet
]^wk Moth, so named from the larva feed-
ing on the privet, lilac and other trees. It
measures four inches across the wings, which
are pale brown, varied with darker brown and
black; the hind wings are pale pink, crossed
by three black bands. The green caterpillar,
with white and lilac streaks on the back, when
at rest assumed an attitude which suggested to
the older naturalists that of the mythological
Sphinx, and so the insect was named. Sphinx
snelleni is a fossil species from the Solnhofen
Slate in the Jurassic system in Bavaria.

Sphiygmograph. [Tulsb.]

Spioe lalands. [Moluccas.]

SpioPilBS, small and typically needle-shaped
structures which form the ele^nts of the
skeleton in many invertebrates. They are com-
posed of different materials, such as carbon-
ate of lime in the Gorgonias, silica in the
silicious sponges, or cliitinoid or fi^ous
material* as in freshwater sponges.
occur in many different groups, including the
spouses, echmoderms, alcyonanans, corals,
tuuicates, and bryozoa. They inay be united
together to tor™

Min the Heiactinenid Sponges, or
masses With the spioular structure obliterat;^,
as in Coraliiuin Ahe in

loosely scattered through 1

the outer crust of Gorgomas and m horny sponges.


Spldev^lioiilcepg a popuhcr name for the
species of thg genus AteleSj Sew Worn mon'^
keys from Central and South America. Beoadse
of their length of limb, slender bodies, long
hair and long tail, by which they suspena
themselves from branches of trees, and^ their
extremely variable movements, they were called
Spider^Monkeys by early European observers.
They may be seen in the forests of Brasil,
hanging in clusters, clasping one another by
their limbs and tails, the whole being su|f
ported by the stalwart tail of one strong
fellow. They employ their tail as if it were
a fifth limb. It is a marvellous organ fur
swinging and clasping with, and exquisitely
sensitive at and near the tip, stout where it
joins the body and exceedingly muscular. They
have small round heads, the muzzle only
projecting slightly and thus giving them,
especially when their large eyes are open and
the hair on their cheeks and brows is brushed
forwards, a strangely human appearance.
Some are covered with soft fur, others with
coarse, long, rigid hair. In all the thumbs
of the hands are either absent or present only
as stunted projections, though in both cases
the member is not wholly deficient so far as its
bones are concerned. The long feet have well*
shaped toe-thumbs. Their hind limbs, shorter
than the fore, though useful when they are
amongst the branches, are feeble on the
ground. There the monkey walks on the out-
side edge of the feet and the inside edge of the
hands, the tail constantly on the move, feeling
here and there for anything to seize hold of.
They are often sedate and slow in their move-
ments, gentle in disposition and very playful.
Occasionally they assume an erect posture for
a short time, being practically the only New
World monkeys who can adopt it. They eat
fruit and vegetables, and enjoy eggs and
nuts, although possessing no cheek-pouches.
Their manner of resting is interesting. The



SPIDBE-MONJCIBT.


^eat apes of the Old World He on thek
icks like a man, while monkeyf With
lUosities sit on them# ^

m knees, let the head >11 on to thefii
• on to the breast and bring forwardi


( 364 )


tke 'ame: : ^sleep*;

Monk^ii Imsk ^Alloaifeieis and the peoidiar i^alr
aefs <if of the amthrdpoid afies. There-
foiPe some lie oa their eidesi othere huddle to-

S ethir iu compauieB^ while others lie face
owuwards across two or three ^ horizontal
bouprhs, round which the tail is twisted for
additional security.

the members of the group of Araob-
nida known as the Araneidse. They are charac-
terised by haring a softj unsegmented abdo-
men, a pair of powerful jaws or feelers, per-
forated by the ducts from a poison gland, and
by the possession of two or three pairs of
Spinnerets or spinning organs. They breathe
means of one or two pairs of lung sacs.
The character which is most conspicuous on
casual examination is that the two front seg-
ments of the three into which the bodies of the
Arachnida are typically divided, are fused to-
gether into a single mass or cephalothorax ;


( 1 ) (2



(1) FOOT OF SPIDER.

(2) ASrCHORAQS OF WEB.


the abdomen is connected with this by a short,
narrow stalk or peduncle. The spiders are
mainly terrestrial, and therefore breathe air;
this passes through small openings known as
stigmata on the lower surface of the body.
The stigmata are usually two in number, but
four are not uncommon (e.gr., in the Myga-
lidae), while in others ther6 may be one or more
additional ones in front of. the spinnerets. The
stigmata lead either into lung sacs or into
branching tubes known as tracheae. The first
pair of stigmata always open to lung sacs;
the second pair either to lung sacs or tracheae ;
and the additional posterior stigmata are al-
ways connected with tracheae. Some spiders
are aquatic, but, nevertheless, they breathe air
which they carry down to their nests in
bubbles attached to the hairy portions of their
body. Tlie eyes are always simple ; the number
varies from one pair to four pairs; they are
arrnhged in a group or in lines on the top of
the front portion of the b^phalothoran. As
would, '> 'be inferred ^from 'thrir- possaasibn^df
poyjerfni pierdng javrs And poison kiknds, the
spiders are carnivorous in hbbii. Tke ihbthod




by which they catoh their prey is the feature
of most general interest in this group. In
the hinder part of the abdomen there are many
small glands which secrete a viscid fiuia,
which, on exposure to air, hardens into a
thread. The glands communicate by ducts with
pores on the summits of four or six small
tubercles known as spinnerets ; the secretion is
forced through these, and comes out as a fine
thread. This is used either (I) to attach the
eggs to the body of the parent, or (2) to form
nests or cocoons in which the eggs are stored,
or (3) usually for the spinning of a web in
which the food of the spider is entangled. The
form of the web is very varied;’ ^|n ibe com-
mon garden spiders it consists of radifil spokes
connected by cross threads, and is generally
circular in shape; in others it is a thin, irre-
gular sheet; in others, commpn on grass, it
consists of a thin tube often placed in the
centre of a funnel-shaped sheet ; and in others
it is a buried tube, the mouth of which is
closed by a door, as in the Trap-Door Spiders.
In some of the larger spiders no web is made,
but the animal hunts its prey. From time to
time experiments have been made with a view
to ascertaining whether spider silk was of any
economical value. In the 18th century Le
Bon of Languedoc obtained enough silk for
a pair of ^oves and a pair of stockings.
Nothing came of such efforts, however,
beyond the production of a few curiosities
The spiders are bisexual, and the males
are much smaller than the females, but
usually more active. In some cases this sexual
dimorphism is carried to an extreme, and the
male exists only in order to fertilise the female.
The female, in some of these, often devours
the male either during the flirtation or as a
post-nuptial settlement. Spiders are found all
over the world and those permanently in-
habiting caves become sightless. The oldest
spiders occur in the Carboniferous rocks; a
few have been found in the Jurassic, but most
of the fossil species have been yielded by the
amber deposits in the Oligocene of North Ger-
many. The Sea Spiders and Harvest Spiders
do not belong to the Araneidae, and are not true
spiders ; the former are members of the
Pycnogonida, and the latter of the Phalapgida.

SpiegaltiMn, a variety of cast-iron which
contains a very high percentage of carbon,
sometimes 6 per cent. It also always contains
manganese to the extent of 5 per cent., and
frequently much more. Owing to this con-
stituent, it is much used for the production
of steel by the Bessemer process,, as, although
but little of the manganese passes into the
steel, yet it materially improves the quality
of the product.

Spik*, a form of infioresoence in which the
peduncle is elongated, the flowers are sMle,
and the order of opening is acropetal. A
compound spike occurs in whekt, its small
component spike.s being termed spikelets.
The spikelets ih biher grasses are variously





ftfiiUKByMsA


( 866 )




onramged* A simple spike ecctiTS in tke plaintains.
The catkin difers mainlj in being aeciduoua;
the spadix in having a fleshy peduncle.

Spikonordf the aromatic bitter root of Nar-
dos^chys Jatamansi, a Nepalese herbaceous
plant belonging to the Valerian family. It is
largely used in Indian perfumery, ointments
ana hair-washes, and occasionally p a medi-
cine. Its odour is heavy and described as re-
sembling that of a mixture of patchouli and
valerian. In the Gospel of St. Mark (xiv. 3)
it is called “very preeious,*’ and in ancient
times was highly esteemed in the East, being
used in Brahminical sacrifices, and, when fresh,
was exquisitely sweet and was added to rich
essences in order to enhance their scent.

SpinaiCh (J^inaeia oleraeea), a hardy annual,
probably native to Western Asia, belonging
to the order Chenopodiaceae, has been cul-
tivated in England for more than three cen-
turies for the sake of its large, succulent,
triangular leaves, which form an esteemed
vegetable. They are rich in nitre. Tetragonia
expansa, the New Zealand Spinach, wild in
Japan and in most of the Southern hemisphere,
wjbs introduced into England by Sir Joseph
Banks in 1772, and is used as a summer
spinach. The leaves of some small varieties of
beet (Beta vulgaris) are also employed as a
substitute, and the young tops of the stinging
nettle are similar in flavour. Mountain
Spinach or Orache (Atri'plex hortemis), a native
of Tartary, formerly much grown in England,
is still cultivated in France.


Spinal Column, or Spine, the backbone, con-
sisting of a series of bones extending from the
head to the end of the tail and placed one
above, or in front of another, and called verte-
bra. All animals that possess this charac-
teristic part of the skeleton in common are
therefore designated as Vertebrates and con-
stitute the highest division of the animal
kingdom. The number of vertebrae vanes in
different animals, but in man there are 33,
disposed thus:— 7 in the neck (cervical verte-
br®), 12 in the back (dorsal), 5 in the loins
(lumbar), 5 ossified together and forming the
sacrum (which is the largest, stoutest and
most solid part of the backbone), and 4., also
united into one, forming the extrraity of the
column and called the coccyx. The first 24
are known as the true and the remainder as
the false vertebr®, the distinction turning upon
the fact that the flexibility of the column in
virtue of which it can bend, as a whole, in any
direction is due especially to the lumbar and
cervical vert ebrro, which are the most movable.
The dorsal and coccygeal are less
the sacrum is fixed. The elasticity is furthe
inoreased by the bones being arranged in
curves instead of perpendicularly, and th
communication of shock to the brain is averted
by the interposition of fib^cartilage
between each vertebra. These pads are very
elastic and play the principal fV

ducing the curvilinear disposition efi the back-


bone. Taken together they fetm nearly one«
fourth of the ^mpkte apiue and are extremely
compressible, so mudli so that it is estimated
that while an adult loses half an inch in height
during the day owing to their compression, this
is gradually recovered during the night by the
expansion of the pads to their normal thick-
ness. Each vertebra is also attached, by means
of strong elastic ligaments, to the adjoining
vertebra both in front of it and behind, the
whole being thus kept in their places.

Spinal Cord. The spinal cord is a cylinder
of soft nervous tissue which extende from the
medulla oblongata to the first lumban vertebra,
being contained in the spinal canal Of the ver-
tebral column. It is ensheathed in mettibfa-
nous structures, the attachments of which serve
to maintain it in position, and from its lo^er
extremity a narrow cord, the /fluoi tenuinaht
depends. The spinal cord gives off 31 pairs of
nerves [Ni!:bve][, and it is bulged in the situa-
tions from which the nerves which form the
brachial and lumbar plexuses emanate; these



SPISAL OOEr.

fA> Transverse section tUrough the Cervical region.

(B) „ M .. M


a, posterior horn ; b, anterior horn.


points of swelling are spoken of as the cervical
and lumbar enlargements. The cord consists of
two lateral halves, which are almost completely
separated from one another by the anterior and
posterior median fissures ; the former of these
IS an actual cleft; the latter is constituted by a
penetration into the substance of the com of
a partition formed by one of the enveloping
membranes, the pia mater. The cord consists
of white and grey matter, the former coi^li-
tuting the outer part of the cord, the latter
lying internally and being disposed in a slmpe
whicli has been compared to that of the letter
H. The grey matter thus consists of two
lateral halves united by a median band, in the
centre of which is situated the central canal
of the cord. That portion of the median band
which lies in front of the central canal is
called the anterior commissure, and that por-
tion which lies behind it is called the posterior
commissure, llie extremities of each lateral
arm of the grey matter are called horns, antenor
and posterior respectively. (See
anterior horn presents a
largement, from which a number of,
of nerve-fibres pass outwards at certain pbints
and form the anterior roots of each of tlie



< 866 }



0PUrAZ« tlOflD.
Titnsvera# section tlirougU
the Lumber region,
o» posterior horn,
h, Anterior horn.


spinal nems mXkiof of thesa nerrewfnras com*
nmniofttA witli t|i« larg# ganglioiiic nsi^a^lls*
-7iiioli are disvioeeil in a number of moire or
le$s definitely localieed clusters in tke anterimr
horn of the grey matter of the cord. The
posterior horns are prolonged outwards in the
form of strands of nerve^fibres which pass into
the posterior roots of the several spinal nerves.
By the ipiergence of tierve-fibres from the grey


matter of the cord to
form the roots of the
spinal nervesi the
white matter lying
superficially to the
central core of grey
matter is split up
into three columns,
anterior, lateral, and
posterior, as they are
termed. Examined
microscopically, the
grey matter consists
of nerve-cells, nerve-
fibres, and a network
(neuroglia); it is richly supplied with blood-
vessels. The white matter contains a supporting
framOwork of ^neuroglia, but is mainly composed
of white medullated nerve-fibres, which are dis-
posed longitudinally in the substance of the
cord. An account of the connections which are
established by these columns of white fibres
and of their association with the transmission
of motor impulses is given under the heading
Fabaltsxs. motor impulses, after passing
downwards in the motor path** [Paealtsisj,
emerge from the cord along the anterior roots
of the spinal nerves. 'Ihe posterior roots are
largely concerned with the transmission of
sensory impulses, which reach them after travel-
ling from the periphery along the nerve trunks,
and are conveyed through the posterior roots
to the grey matter of the cord.

Diseases of the Spinal Cord, When disease
afects the spinal cord, it is apt to be limited
to certain regions, and in association with the
locality involved special symptoms occur. In
the disease l^own as infantile spinal paralysis,
the ganglion cells in the anterior horns of the
grey matter are particularly affected. Certaiu
degeuerations involve particular longitudinally-
disposed strands of white matter ; for instance,
in locomotor ataxia the posterior columns of the
cord are sp ’ '* *
process,
columns

affection of those portions of the anterior
columns which adjoin the anterior median fis-
sure. Such degeneration is often s^ken of as
^'dascendihg degeneration,'* as it usually pro-
gresses from above downwards, and is attri-
butable to disease affecting some portion of
the motor tract, and the nerve-fibres, which
tra^l along the cord in the situations indi-
cated, are thus cut off from their normal con-
nection with the upper parts of the system
of nervous structures, and therefore undergo


degenerative change. [pAiULxaxs.] The mem^
branes Of the cdrd are sometimes affected by
inflammation (spinal meningitisV, and a diffuse
inflammation of the substance ox the cord (mye-
litis) is in rare instances met with. [HtxxiItxs.]
Angular curvature of the spine (Pott’s curva-
ture), which is a disease produced by the in-
volvement of the vertebras by tubercular
disease, with eating away oi their substance
and the formation of collections of matter,
usually produces symptoms attributable to the
pressure which is exerted under the abnormal
conditions upon the portions of the spinal cord
which are enclosed within the diseased struc-
tures. Spina bifida is a form of congenital
malformation in which there is a sac-like pro-
trusion of the membranes of the cord through
a cleft left in the wall of the enclosing bony
canal, the non-enclosure of the cleft bemg the
result of imperfect development.

Spindla-Traw {Muonymus eurt^ansX a British
shrub, belonging to the order Celastraoese, the
wood of which was formerly known as prick-
wood, skewerwood, pegwood, and dog-wo^. It
has ovate-lanceolate, glossy, deciduous leaves,
small, pale-green, tetramerous flowers, and
fleshy, aehiscent, rose-pink fruits of three or
four united carpels, each of which, on splitting,
discloses an orange aril covering the one seed
it contains. Tennyson speaks of this as

“the ft-ult,

Which in our winter woodland looks a flower.”
Evergreen exotic species, especially E, japonic
cus and E, latifoliuSt are largely grown in the
London squares, and flower freely on the
southern coasts of England. The Euonymus
makes an excellent hedge, and since it bears
the atmosphere of the sea well, it thrives on
the front of coastal towns and watering-
places where other shrubs lead a more or less
precarious existence. On this account it is
Justly much esteemed. The American variety
is known as the Wahoo, or Burning Bush.

Spindlfi Whorl, a small perforated disc, some-
times made of lead and elaborately ornamented,
formerly used to increase the momentum and
maintain the rotation of the spindle.

Spine, a leaf, or part of a leaf, modified into a
pointed, hard, woody structure. The term is ao
often interchanged with thorn that it is pe]>
haps better to speak specifically of a leaf-smne.
In the thistles and hollies only the teeth of the
leaves become spinous; in ifobinia and most
acacias, the stipules; in some cases, the pri-
mary raohis or phyllopodium of a pinnate leaf
after the fall of the leaflets; anfl in various
barberries, marginal teeth or even the whole
leaf. The spines of the CaotacesB are mostly
leaf-structures. Spines differ from thorns in
being lateral and irpm prickles in being con-
tinuous with the woody tissue of the branch
or stem. ^

■pinaEo, or Spikbl, is a compound of the
oxi^ of magnesium and aluminium, its conn-
po^itiou correspouding to the formula MgAl^O^.




( BW )


■silUliig;:




It owm naturally, crystalliaiau in forms of
tihe EhMubic _^gtem. The oryrtals mi^ bo
crfourless or tint^, owing to the preeenM of
other metallic oxides whi^ may partially re-
place the magneaium. By this partial replace-
ment we may thus obtain iron sninelle, a sine


spinelle,

(MgZtt)


etc., with fomtil® (&gFe)
ALO4, etc. The clear ana


^,04.


vmgiiiij 3.1.U4, etc. Tne clear and finely-
coloured red varieties are valued as ornamental
stones m articles of jewellery. They are known
as Spinel Euby, and are found as pebbles in
river beds in Burma, Siam, and Ceylon.


SpmniJIirp the process of preparing woollen or
other fibre lor weaving, is of high antiquity,
tte most ancient form seems to have been the
distaffy on which the wool was arranged, and
the spindle, weighted bv a whorl, around which
the thread twisted itself as the spindle revolved.
The next step was to' employ the spinning-wheel,
hj which the spindle was turned. For a long
time this wheel formed a familiar object of
furniture in every well-appointed house, but it
IS now well-nigh obsolete. Vast improvements
were introduced in the 18th century by a series
Of famous inventions, which effectually estab-
lished some of the staple industries of the
United Kingdom. These included Lewis Paul’s
patent (1738) for drawing out a sliver or loose
coil of fibre by passmg it through successive
pairs of rollers revolving at increasing rates of
velocity; James Hargreaves’s jenny (1764) for
ginning a great number of threads at once;
sir Eichardf Arkwright’s spinning-frame or
throstle (1767), and Samuel Crompton’s spin-
ning-mule (1779).


Spinolap Ambrobb, Marquis, general, was
born at Q-enoa, Italy, in 1671. He came of a
wealthy and noble family, and, though not a
soldier professionally, had acquired some skill
in soldiering. The siege of Ostend, which had
been conducted for more than two years with^
Out much prospect of a successful issue by the
Archduke Albert, attracted his attention, and
he was given charge of the operations in 1603.
He infused such spirit into the leaguer that
the town surrendered on September 20th, 1604.
During the following years he was in command
of the Spanish and Italian contingents in the
Ketherlands and engaged in a series of duels
with his groat antagonist, Prince Maurice of
Kassau. No definite result had been reached
by 1609, when Spain agreed to an armistice for
twelve years. On the renewal of hostilities
Spinola was engaged in the Ehine Palatinate
in 1620 and then passed on to Holland, where
his foremost exploit was the capture of Breda
in 1625, after a ten months’ sie^. Failing
health, aggravated by disgust at Philip III.’s
shabby neglect of his monetary claims, cau^d
him to reure from active service, and he died
at Castcl Nuo^ di Scrivia, Piedmont, on Sep-
tember 25thy 1630.

VpiimiHa, BARtTOH or Bbkbbiot, philosopher,
'^as the non Of a Portuguese Jew, and was bom
in Amsterdam, Holland, on November 24th,


itttereit in religious
systems from ib early age, and made h|m^

xaimud, the result of which was to satisfy
nun that he could uo longer accept the Jewish

*5**^®”- hi* to*

name of Barach into Benedict, and, despite
bribes a^ other inducements to remain a Jew
ill-treatmeiit, boldly
proclaimed his scepticism. He studied the


iy and made him*
reek, metaphysics.


various systems of

self proficient in Latin, vrrw*. mBiapnyMOi.
and mathematics. He wee fomaUv excornmnni-
cated on July 27th. 1666. and, hia lUo beinr in
f (an attempt at assaaaiMtion waa
actually made), was obliged to seek refuge at
Rijnaburg, near Leyden, whence, in 1663, he

Md

}? Hague. In order to proonta a

livelmood, he worked for the optical instru-
ment makers, but he did uot neglect his philo-
sophical researches. He refused an invitation
^om the Elector Palatine to fill the chair of
Philosophy at Heidelberg University. In one
view, at any rate, he was wise, for hie health
was undermined by oonsur^tion, and he ied
on February 2l8t. 1677. ifescartee interested
aim above all other thinkers, and he wrote a
very valuable work about his^system. Though
charged by his enemies with atheism, he was
nothing of the kind, but a Pantheist, believing
in God as the eternal and ever-present spirE
of nature. The doctrine of free-will he re-
jected, and individuality finds no place in his
scheme. He was a truly religious man, and
profoundly influenced many subsequent thinkers
and poets. Quite a library of books was writ-
ten in defence of and dgainst his theories. Per-
sonally he was most amiable, and his friends
were many and true. TractatUB Thedogieo*
Politicufi (1670) is his chief work, and he also
wrote an admirable treatise on ethics.


Spirmg, a large genus belonging to the
order Rosacese, including both herbaceous and
shrubby perennial plants, natives of the extra-
tropical parts of the northern hemisphere.
•Their leaves are generally stipulate ; their
flowers small in large anthelae ; fiie calyx per-
sistent; the stamens indefinite in numW;
and the fruit a ring of five or more follicles.
There are two British species : 8. Ulmatia, the
meadowsweet, and 8. Fili^mdida, the drop-
wort, but numerous Japanese, Chinese, and
other species are cultivated in ^rdens in Eng-
land. Japanese plant, commonly sold as
Spirsea japonica, is really Astilbe barbata, and
belongs to the order Saxifragaceee. It has a
cluster of long stiff hairs at the base of the
stalk of its tri-ternate leaves, and was at one
time named Hoteia in honour of a Japanese
botanist Ho-tei.

Spirag (German, Speier^ tbe Roman Avpwia
Nemetum, or Notiomagm), an old town on the
left bank of the Rhine, 21 miles south of Worms
and in the Bavarian Palatinate. Captured by
Julius Csssar in 47 B.c.. it became the seat of



( 868 )




a biahop in the 4tli eenljiiry, and af an imperial

S alaoe nnder the Fuanfcs aboht 860; (From 1627
E> 16^ thb eupteme court of the empire was
establldied here. All the ancient buildings
perished W Ore at the hands of the soldiers
of Louis tpr. in the latter year except the
grand Bomanesque basilica (and even, this was
gutted), dating from 1080. Only a few frag-
ment remain of the Betscher, or imperial
palacS, where the Diet of Spires met in 1529,
and gave to the E^formers the title of Pro-
testants. The manufactures include paper,
tobhcoo, sugar, sugar of lead, leather, vinegar,
and beer. Pop. (1900), 20,911,

Spiriforidse, a family of Brachiopoda, or Lamp
Shells, comrnoU in the Palaeozoic rocks, and
characterised by the fact that the calcareous
rods (or brachia) which support the arms are
arranged as a spiral coil. The family ranges
from the Silurian to the Lias.

Spiviti of Wilie» ordinary or ethyl alcohol.
[Alcohol.]

Spiritualisniy in a philosophical sense, denotes
the opposite of materialism, and maintains that
over and above the matter that composes the
human body there is a further informing prin-
ciple that enables the body to,, perform its
functions. But in a more popular sense it de-
notes the doctrine that living people can hold
converse with disembodied spirits, chiefly by
the intermediary of certain peculiarly-gifted
persons called mediums. This doctrine, like
many other startling things, originated in
America, where in 18l8 Mr. Fox of New York,
with his family, was disturbed by sundry rap-
pings, which practice enabled them to decipher
as messages from spirit-land. In 1850 D. D.
Home made further developments, such as
levitation, etc. Most of the pnenomena of rap-
ping, table-turning, spirit-photography, spirit-
writing, and the like, can be and have been
produced by ordinary means, and much im-
posture has undoubtedly been practised by
some mediums. But after all deduction made
there appears to be a residuum of phenomena
thus far unexplained by scientific examination,
though what this may imply is a matter of
conjecture. Among men of trained minds who
have become converts to spiritualism are Alfred
Bussel Wallace, Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.,
William Thomas Stead, and Professor De
Morgan. There are quantities of spiritualistic
literature extant.

Spirmlav a small Oephalopod, the type of the
family Spirulidse, which belongs to the Ooto-
poda. It has a small coiled shell composed of
many chambers ; this, however, is now rudi-
mentary and internal. The shells are very
abundant on the beaches of all tropical coasts.

Kpihalfinlds, a parish in the east of Lon-
don, adjoining Bishopsgate, 1 mile N.E. of St.
Paul s. In the days of the Boman Occimation
the district is believed to have been used as a
cemetery, since, in 1676, a large number of




funeral umS was discovered containing ooia
of the Boman Enmrors, lOhips, pottei^, an
images. As some Saxon stone comns were als
^ found at the same time, the inference wa
reasonable that it had cont^ued to be a bur}
ing-ground until the period before the Cor
quest, if not later. In 1197 Walter de Brum
Sherifl of London, foundefl an Augustittia:
Priory and Hospital of St. Mary, and henc
arose the name of the district as the Hospital
or Spital, in the Fields. After the dissolutioi
of monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII,
the mansions of several merchant princes wer
erected in the locality, and a century late
streets of smaller houses began to be built
At the pulpit cross (which sto^ till 1642) iu th
churchyard of the Hospital it had been custom
ary for divines publicly to preach on the Besur
rection on the three days following Baste
Sunday. Those sermons ^came known as th<
Spi^l sermons and were attended by th*
children of Christ's Hospital (who, at their firs
appearance at the services, donned tbe blue coa
garb afterwards so famous), as well as by th
Lord Mayor, Sberifls, and Aldermen, who di(
not fail to dine sumptuously later iu the day
The services, suspended during the Civil War
were resumed at the Bestoration in the choii
of St. Paul’s, and were again interrupted h}
the Great Fire. At a later date they were re
vived in St. Bride’s in Fleet Street, and ii
1797 were transferred (reduced to two in num
her) to Christ Church in Newgate Street. Bu1
the greatest event in the history of Spital
fields dates from the Bevocation of the Bdici
of Nantes (1685), when Huguenot refugee:
arrived in England in vast numbers, and th<
majority of them settled in this neighbour
hood. 'I'hey were mostly weavers, and theii
settlement founded in London the important
industry of the silk manufacture. At th(
height of its prosperity it was said that the
quality of the fabric produced was equal tc
that of French silks. With the increasing im-
ortafion of French silks, however, the industrj
eclined in Spitalfields, and periods of severe
distress set iu. The relief funds established
at such times led to an influx of persons from
other parts, and the district gradually gre^
more pauperised than ever. Occasionally- the
weavers broke out into riot when trade was
vei^ bad, and, in 1765, intimidated the House
of Lords and had to be dispersed by the Guards.
Houses iu which power-looms were set up were
broken into and the machinery was destroyed.
In course of time the industry itself was re-
duced almost to vanishing-point. Such of the
weavers’ houses as still remain may be identi-
fied by the wide latticed windows running the
whole length of the workroom in the upper
storey. Nearly all the weavers were bird-
fanciers, the birds taking kindly to the 'whir
of the looms, as canaries now do to. the noise of
a sewing-machine in a parlour, which seems to
have the effect of provoking them tb rivalry*
At one period the bulk of the linnets, larks,



( 369 )




•liiti.


iiitvl fincliea io the private houses of the metro,
polls were suppli^ by the weavers, who went
Mrtt;catdiiiig in March and October. Manv
of the master-weavers Anglicised their names.
Lemattre beoommg Masters, Leroy Kine
Tonnelier Cooper, L^eune Young, Leblanc
Trhite, Lenoir IBlaclc, Loiseau ]Bird, and so on
Purely French namee are still not uncommon.’


the strait or channel between the
Isle of Wight and the English county of Hamp-
shire. In an enlarged sense, it extends from
the Solent and the mouth of Southampton
Water to the open sea of the English Channel,
with an average breadth of nearly four miles
and a length of 12 miles. In a more restricted
sense, it is the roadstead outside of Portsmouth
and is named from the Spit Sand. Thus de-
fined, it is two miles long and one mile and a
half wide. Being sheltered from the sou^
westers by the island and from the north and
east by the mainland, it has long been utilised
as a station of the British Navy and is the
favourite ground for those colossal naval re-
views that have evoked the admiration of the
world. It is protected by the system of forti-
fications that was built to defend Portsmouth.
A buoy marks the spot where the lioyal George
foundered in 1782. Other vessels that perished
here were the Mary Bose in an action in 1645,
and the Edgar and Boyne, which were both
destroyed by fire, the former in 1711, and the
latter in 1795.


9pitsbargeii (the name is Dutch and the
common form Spitzbergeu is incorrect), a group
of rocky islands in the Arctic Ocean, 400 miles
N.W. of the North Cape, situated between
76® 26' and 80® 50' N. and 10° 20' and 32® 40'
E., midwi^ between Greenland and Nova
Zembla. It consists of six large and many
smaller members. West Spitsbergen, or New
Friesland, the chief, has an area of over
16,000 square miles, a deeply indented coast,
and a mountainous surface covered almost en-
tirely with ice and snow. To the north-east
lies North-East Laud, which is a broad plateau
swept by a glacier in parts 3,000 feet thick. To
the east, separated from the main island by
Wybe Jans Water, lie Barents Island and Edge
Island and, farther east, across Olga Strait,
Wicke o| King Charles Islands, while off the
west coast is Prince Charles Foreland, The
formation of all is granitic, and they rise from
a comparatively shallow submarine plain con-
necting them with Greenland. A branch of
the Gulf Stream keeps the access to the west
coast open even till mte in the year, and per-
mits thO growth of a scanty Arctic vegetation,
130 species of flowering plants being known.
The reindeer, once plentiful, is believed to be
approachiiig extinction, but the Arctic fox,
Polar bear, and walrus are occasional visitors.
Cetaceans are common in the surrounding
ocean, though the Greenland or Whalebone
Inhale is hardly ever seen. The birds appear
to be growing scarcer, and especially the eider
duck. Spitsbergen i»ras discovered in 1596 by


iwe tiwt


West —
when Sir W.


fIMflIW

L~ to the fiMt tiiM.

fe-at: In

Iwn ascent, in the hope of floating over the
Jrole. The islands are uninhabited, though
occasionally resorted to by explorers and fishers.


Spiti, the Pomeranian dog, a breed with a
strain of Eskimo blood. The coat is thick and
the muzzle long and pointed, from which feature
the dog derives its name (German, “a

point These animals are kept as pets, but
their temper is uncertain.


Spleen. The spleen is a flattened oblong body
which in the adult weighs about 7 ounces; it |s
situated in the left hypochondriac region ad-
joining the cardiac end of the stomach. It is
invested in a capsule consisting of connective
tissue and unstriped muscular tissue fibres,
from the inner surface of which processes, or
trabeculae as they arc called, project and

ramify in the interior of the spleen, forming the
supporting framework to the spleen tissue
proper (the spleen pulp). This last-named
substance is of a dark reddish-brown colour,
and consists of a mass of celts, many of

them like ordinary lymph-corpuscles, and
many resembling degenerated red blood-
corpuscles. The splenic artery enters the

organ at a notch on its under surface

known as the hilum, and branches and
ramifies in the spleen pulp, its smaller divi-
sions being surroundeo by aggregations of
lymphoid tissue which form little masses, dis-
seminated throughout the spleen substance* and
known as the Malpighian corpuscles of the
spleen. The blood conveyed to the spleen in
its passage through the lymphoid tissue and
spleen pulp undergoes important changes; it
is probable that many of the red bl(KHi-cor-
puscles here terminate their existence, and
numbers of new white corpuscles appear to be
formed. The spleen undergoes rhythmical con-
traction and expansion in virtue of the large
amount of muscular tissue contained in its
capsule and trabeoulro; it manifests a notable
Increase in size a few hours after a meal, The
spleen has no duct, and is hence classified with
the thymus, thyroid, and other bodies as on^
of the ductless glands. In certain forms of
disease great enlargement of the spleen occurs.
This is markedly the case in ague and in typhoid
fever; in the malady known as leucocythssmia
the spleen attains sometimes o very large site.
In bygone days the spleen was supposed to be
the seat of the emotions that controlled bad
temper, melancholy, and low spirits. Hence
we nave such phrases as **a fit of the spleen **
and "to vent one's spleen."

Spleenwort. [Asplenium.]

Splenic Tever. [Anthrax.]

Splint, a form of surgical applianoo designed
to keep a limb or other portion of the body in a
fixed position. Splints are of special service
in the case of fracture of a bone where it is



C S 70 X




necessary to preserve the proper «|»position of
the injured parts with a view to favouring the
processes of repair, and securing the coalescence
of the broken ends in such a position that no
deformity shall result. Splints are usually made
of pieces of padded wo^, which are adjusted
to the injured limb by strapping and bandag-
ing. Plaster-of-Paris is largely used in the
manufacture of splints, a bandage, into which
the iiry powder has been rubbed, being applied
to the limb and moistened with water as it is
adjusted, and every care being taken to pre-
serve the parts in proper position until the
plaster sets.

8]^olir, Ludwig, or Louis (the form he adopted
in MB 8 uhsthiographie), composer and violinist,
was born at Brunswick, in North Germany, on



LOUIS SFOHR.


April 6tk, 1784, and studied under several
musicians, of whom the chief and most capable
was Franz Eck. In 1805 he became musical
director at the Court of Saxe-Gotha, and in
1813 director of the Yienna theatre, a position
which he resigned two years later, in order to
tour. Beturmng to Germany in 1817, he was
appointed conductor at the opera in Frankfort-
on-the^'Main, where he produced Famt (1818),
one of his finest works, and Zamire und Azov,
In 1820 ho appeared at the Philharmonic
Society’s concerts in London, a visit histori-
cally interesting, since he used the conductor's
b&ton at the third concert for the first time
in the Society's existence. On January let,
1822, he began his duties as Hofkapellmeister
to the Elector of Cassel and next year brought
out his opera of Jmmday which was enthusias-
tically received. At BiissCldorf he conducted
his oratorio of Lmt (Die


Spffpg*.


let^en i>inge, to be dietingiiisbed from his Z>i
jUngste. GericM of 1812), the greatest of h
sacred coMositions. In 1827 he produced h
opera of " Pietro von Abano, and in 1830 h
Der AUhymiet, In the following year he pii
lished his Yiolin^Scimll, a work that must fi
ways link his name with the instrument t
which he was so admirable an interpreter. ]
1835 he produced at Casseh his oratorio of D
HeilanATs letzte Stunden (repeated as Ccdvdi
at the Norwich Festival of 1839, where Spol
met with a reception of unexampled fervour
For the Norwich Festival of 1842 he wroi
The Fall of Babylon, though the Elector pe
tishly refused to allow him leave of absence i
conduct it. His last opera. Die Kreuzfahri
{The Crusaders), was produced at Cassel i
1844. During his rigime at Cassel he brougl
out Bichard Wagner's Der Fliegende Ho
lander in 1842, and Tannk&user in 1853. E
died at Cassel on October 22nd, 1859. As
composer he only failed to reach the vei
highest rank because he lacked inspiratioi
and as a violinist he was unsurpassed in h
day, it being said of him that ho made tl
instrument sing.

Sponge, the skeleton of the animals formii
the Porif era, a class of animals belonging 1
the phylum Coelenterata. The members of tl
Porifera differ very markedly from the r
maining Coelenterata by their very varied ar
variable shape ; they form irregular masses, tl
individual members of which have no tentacle
and thus appear far less highly organised tha
the compound Anthozoa. A few, however, ha^
a definite form. This is typically shaped lil
a funnel, and is shown in its simplest style i
such a genus as Leucosolenia ; in others it b
comes more complex, and consists of a tubuh
structure supported by a trellis-work of silici
as in the exquisite Venus's Flower Bask<
{Euphctella)', in others the sponge consists <
a fleshy, creeping mass, as in Homoderma, tl
type-genus of the Homodermidae ; in othe:
(the family Clionid®) the animal lives in bo
ings in shells. In attempting to form an idc
as to the structure and affinities ol^a spong
it should be regarded as composed of a lar^
number of cells belonging to two differei
layers, separated by the gelatinous, irregult
material known as ** mcsogloea." The tv
layers are the ectoderm and endoderm; tl
former consists of flattened cells, and forn
the external layer of the body. The endoder
is typically composed of larger cells, each wil
a whip-like process or flagellum, which risi
from the centre of a neck-like extension or co
lar; so these cells resemble a rounded botl
with a short, thick neck, with a cord risin
from the centre of the neck. The endoder
lines a series of tubes, which ramify throughoi
the mass of ^e sponge; the typical ^'coBarc
cells " may line tne whole length of these (i
the Homocoela) or be restricted to special pari
of the tubes or bladder-like expansions of the;
known as ampuUm (as in aE but this ordei



(371)


8:pO]ig0.:




Tliese tubes may open to the exterior by a
series of pores, which occur in great abun-
dance over the whole surface of the sponge;
they luuy be all of the, same, size, or some

— -..n 1


naieuL. — Tine currents or water wmcn
bring the sponge its food and fresh water for
respiratory purposes all enter the sponge by
them; but in those sponges which have not
also a series of larger exhalent apertures
known as “oscula” some of the pores have to
allow of the escape of the surplus water. The
oscula begin as a single large aperture, which
usually divides into many small ones. The
tubes which ramify throughout the sponge form
the “gastric cavity,’’ which may consist of
(1) a simple, central, vase-shaped cavity, as in
such primitive forms as the Asconidm; (2) this
central cavity may be replaced by a series of
radial exhalent canals as in the Syconidee; (3)
it may consist of a series of canals with am-
pullae — t.c., pear-shaped or spherical expan-
sions. The skeleton of the sponge consists of
a series of “spicules” or small rods formed by
cells in the mesogloea; they are composed either
of a soft but tough material allied to silk and
known as “spongin,” as in the Common Sponge
(iluspongio ) of silica, as in the Venus’s llower
Basket; or of carbonate of lime, as in the
sub-class Calcarea. The spicules are of four
main types : (1) monaxile— simple rods, curved
or straight ; (2) triaxile — composed of three
rods crossing, and thus usually six-rayed, as in
Hcxactinellid® ; (3) tetraxile — composed of four
rods, but one of these is often suppressed—
which occur in the Lithisiidae; (4) polyaxile —
of many axes, and forming stellate or globu-
lar spicules; these are free. The spicules pe
either united to one another by interlocking
spines, or by spongin or the deposition of car-
bonate of lime or silica ; or they may be free,
and are then known as “flesh spicules. The
sponges are classified, in the main, according to
the structure of the skeleton and the nature of
the gastric cavity. By the first character they
are divided into two sub-classes — the Calcarea,
in which the skeleton is composed of carbonate
of lime ; and the Fibrospongise or Noncalcarea,
in which the skeleton is composed of silica or
spongin, or is absent. The Calcarea are
diviled 'into two orders, acceding to the
second character; thus in the
gastric cavity is lined throughout with collared
fells, and in the Heterocoela the collared cells
occur only in special portions of the gastric
cavity, either il radilting tubes or «pmal
bladdeMike expansions known a®

The first order includes the ®.

the Aseonidae, Homodermid®. and
the latter consists of the famdies of ^o ,
Sylleibidffi, Leuconid®, Teichomd®.

Ifon-Porifera are divided into ‘.c.

<1) The Hyalospongi®, wfu

tinellid®, whiol are very ®d8

- and range from the Cambrian ?®f ^ of

the group IS characterised by the po


a silicious sheletoii composed of six-rayed
spicules , often united into a lattice-like tissae .
The Venus’s Flower Basket, or MupieMlat ie
the best-known living species, (2) Ine Bplcnli-
spongiae, in which the skeleton is composed of
silicious spicules which are either four-rayed or
consist of a single spine ; these are often quite
disconnected. It includes five sub-orders: the
Lithistiua, in which the skeleton is massive,
and the spicules are united to on© another — this
group is very important to the geologist;
Tetractina, with four-rayed and one-rayed spi-
cules; Oligosilicina, with only small isolated
flesh spicules ; Pseudotetraxonia, with one-
rayed and fle^ spicules; and the Clavulina,
including the boring Sponges. Cliona. (3) The
Cornacuspongiaa, with spicules if present only
of a single spine, united by spongin, or
formed only of spongin fibres. This includes
two sub-oraers: the Halichrondrina, of which
the Freshwater Sponge {iS jmigilla) is the best-
known form; and the Keratosa, including all
the soft sponges of commerce. The systematic
position of the sponges has been much debated,
but embryological evidence is conclusive as to
their being Coelenterata. Ihe sponges are all
marine, except the two freshwater genera,
Spongilla and Meyenia. The others occur in all
seas and at all depths, but the Hcxactinel-
lidffl usually occur in deep water. The sponges
vary in size from minute bodies, one-twentieth
of an inch in length, to enormous maases.
Many species occur round the English coasts.
The sponges used for washing purposcH live in
shallow water in warm seas; the best ones
come fromthe Levant and the Greek archipelago,
but the largest part of the supply is yielded
by the West Indian fisheries, especially around
the Bahamas. Owing to the indestructibility
of the spicules, the sponges are of great im-
portance to the geologist, for, as we have seen,
they are abundant as fossils from the Com-
bi ian period onwards. Their spicules often
occur m such abundance on “fossil sponge
banks” as to form thick beds of sibcious rock,
such as the cherts of the Lower Greensand.

* SDonffilla, the common Freshwater Sponge.
It may be found attached to stones and wood
e,fan.nnnf fiT runnini? water. Ineru



while a closely aiiiea lorra,
lives in streams. The latter grows in dense
masses, while the troe to

plant-like. When it grows well exposM to
light it is of a green colour. Profeswr W. J.
SbUas surmises that

many hundreds of widely diflerent kinds of
monge imly a small rigidly-defined group w

*‘Smv ' oh^r to" adapt “hoi^selts t
fi’^ h^. Cr/ather to tL that ^y
Ha nronaffated by ciliated larvae^ which drift
llolt a? tie merdy of ®;®7 tht c“‘

pot, therefore, a®®®"^ 4eory. he

a. if a.‘& -



( 872 )




IpoutfuaMum Octelnuitioii.



marine form life wMch one
miirnt expect to £nd amongst the fanna of
'«4rers/''" .

tfpoiitKsaoiia Comlmation ocoasionaHr oc-
enrfs in bodies when they are in such a state
that they can undergo intense chemical action ;
the energr of the action may be sufficient to
caus|jluminosity and flame. Many substances
in a ine state of dmsion will take fire in the
air, Eeduced iron« for instance^ becomes oxi-
dised so rapidly that heat and light are
both produced. When powdered antimony is
dropped into chlorine the two elements com-
bine with so much rigour that brilliant sppks
are formed. If lead tartrate be heated in a
tube for some time, all the carbon is burnt
away, and the tube can be sealed up while
hot wi^h its fine deposit of lead. When the
tube is opened the lead takes fire as it comes in
contact with the air. Phosphorus can be ex-
posed at ordinary temperatures in the air with-
out catching fire ; but if it be dissolved in car-
bon bisulphide and the solution be allowed to
evaporate; the deposit of phosphorus ignites
spontaneously. Charcoal under certain condi-
tions — e.g., when saturated with oil — has been
known to take fire suddenly, and the presence
of certain compounds of iron in coal has been
known to cause its spontaneous combustion.
Many organic substances will also undergo fer-
mentation or oxidation sufficient to cause their
tenition, if they are massed in large quantities.
This is specially common in the case of hay or
straw ricks when the ricks have been made of
damp material. Cotton- waste saturated with
oil, greasy woollen rags, and other things of
a similar nature, are all liable to sudden com-
bustion. The cases of so-called spontaneous
combustion of the human body have generally
been explained in some more satisfactory man-
ner. In most cases a person impregnated with
alcohol has actually caught fire and been
burnt, the combustion starting from without
and not spontaneously.

8pomtttiieoiig Generation (generatio equU
mm or abiogenesis), the view held by Aris-
totle and championed of late years by Henry
Charlton Bastian, that some of the lowest
organic beings originate from non-living
matter. This view was attacked by Fran-
cisco Redi (1626 — 98) and by Leeuwenhoek (1632
— 1723), though defended by Lamarck (1744 —
1829). Whatever speculation may have to say
as to the first origin of life in the remote past,
all experimental evidence as to "sterilised” or-
ganic infusions, etc., is against any such pro-
cess taking place at present.

Bpontini, Gasp aro Lpiai Paoifioo, composer,
the son of a peasant, was born at Majolati,
near Jesi, Italy, on November 14th, 1774, and
received his musical education at Naples, under
8ala and Tritto, for counteirpoint and composi-
tion, and Tarantino for singing. At the age
twenty-two he ptodueea lus first opera,
J dells Dotins, with great success at


Bomo. He was a prolific composer » and Iroi
that time forwards wrote unceasingly. Aft<
living in Naples till 1603 he went to Farii
where his first two works in comic opera wei
hissed off the stage. MUton^ however^ a om
act opera, was well received (1804), and L
VcaUUt (1^7) was so successful when a hem
ing was at length allowed^ it as to crush a
opposition. Fernand Oortu (1809) aroused equi
enthusiasm. His Olympia^ produced in ISlt
was greeted coldly, and it was not until 182<
after it had been several times revised i
parts, that it proved acceptable to the publi<
At the urgent insistance of Frederick Wiliiai
III. he settled in Berlin in 1820 as Kapeltmeiste
and Court Superintendent of Music. Amon
the works produced here were Nourmahc
(1822), Alcidor (1825), and Agnes von Hokeii\
staufen (first act, 1827; three acts, 1829; re
modelled, 1837). On several accounts Spontir
had never been popular in Berlin and whe
the King died (1840) almost the only powerfii
friend he had passed away. His oantankeroo
disposition almost at once brought him int
trouble, but Frederick William IV., while dh
missing him, pensioned him on the most gen*
roue terms. He resided in various towns on th
Continent for longer or shorter periods, bu
produced no more works. In 1850 he retirei
to his birthplace, where he died on Januar;
14th, 1851, leaving all his property to the poo
of Majolati and Jesi.

Spoonbill {PlataJea leucorodia), a large wadin
bird allied to the ibis and the stork, an
named from the spoon-like enlargement o



SfOOKBltL.


the tip of the bill. Xt was formerly native ii
the Fen country of !l^gland, but now occur
only as a visitor. It still nests in Holland
though, s^s the lakes are drained^ even there i
is ^growing --i^aiser. ^ It'; does hot occur ''in "th
noiAhern fat|i:udes of Burope. The length i





(St3)


a^ttt ^30 inches; the pliimag© is white with a
pinkish tinge, and the bill and legs are black.
Ihe flesh is valned for the table. The Boseate
Spoonbill (P. ajaja), from Central America,
differs little from the common species except
in its plumage.

Sport, a specialised reproductive cell, in itself
asexual, capable by itself of giving rise to a
new organism. ’Ihe spore may originate either
asexually — i.e., from a single mass of pro-
toplasm — or sexually, from the fusion of two
masses. It is generally a single cell or nu-
cleated mass of protoplasm. It may have no
celbwall and may then be motile, when it is
termed a zoospore. Zoospores may be ciliated,
as in many Alg» and in a few Fungi, or
amoeboid, as in the Myxomycetes and in a
few Algse. The non-motile naked spores of
the Floride® are either tetragonidia, produced
asexually, or carpospores, produced sexually.
When a spore has a cell-wall it is commonly
thick, and may consist of two layers-— the outer
cutioularised extine, exine, or exospore, and
the more delicate inner intiue or endospore.
The asexually-produced spores of the sporo-
phyte are either all alike, as in most ferns,
horsetails, and Lycopodium, when the plant is
termed homosporous or isosporous ; or they are
of two kinds, differing in size and in the sex of
the organs to which they give rise. The plant
is then termed heterosporous, as in the case of
the Selaginella, the Hydropteride®, and the
Spermaphyta, the smaller spores, which give
rise to male organs, being termed microspores
or pollen-grains, and the larger megaspores,
macrospores, or embryo-sacs. Asexually-pro-
duced spores originate in a sporangium or bv
abstriotion, a process of budding on a branch
hypha. In thallophytes the sporangium is
unicellular; in higher plants it is multicel-
lular; and in heterosporous forms two kinds
of sporangium occur, the microsporangium or
pollen-sac, and the megasporangium or ovule
(nucellus). Sporangia are generally borne on
special leaves or sporophyUs, such as the
staminal and carpellary leaves of Sperma-
phytes, but are in some cases axial. In ordi-
nary ferns and Hydropteride© the sporangium
originates from one cell (leptosporangiate) ;
in other vascular plants, from a group of super-
ficial oelll (ensporangiate).

8poropllO]?0| or Spobophytb, the stage or
generation in the life of a plant that produces
aseipial spores, as distinguished from the alter-
nating Stage or generation, the gametophyte,
in which sexual reproductive organs
duced. In Bryophyta and in most Thallo-
phyta the sporophore is relatively small and of
an appendicular character, being, for instance,
in mosses what is known as the capsule or
theca, with its stalk or seta. In Ptendophyta
the sporophore becomes relatively far more
impomnt than tho gaimetophyte, being the
entire stem and leaves of the leafy plants,
whilst the gametophyte is merely the prothal-
linm* In ioweiing-plants, again, the sporo-


phoro bmmei even more important, being the
whole plant except the contents of the pollen-
grams and the arohieperm.

a class of Frotosoa, inolnding those
whi^i live as parasites within other aniittala,
and which reproduce by the formation of spores
^emblmg in some cases those of some plants.

individuals either have no special organs of
locomotion or only some impermctly developed
pseudopodia. The class is divided into four
groups— namely, the Oregarinida, which live
m earthworms, frogs, mollusoa, etc. ; the
Amoebosporidia, which infest beetles; the 8ar-
cosporidia, or “Rainey's corpuscles,” which live
in the muscles or soft tissues of some mam*
mals and birds ; and the Myxosporidia, whioh
are parasitic in fish. The Gregarinida is ^e
best-known and most important subclass.

Sotted Favor, or Oerbbko-Spihai, Faviun,
as it is more exactly termed, is an infectious
fever, occurring usually in epidemic form. It
has been recognised since the beginning of the
19th century, but probably has existed at least
from the Middle Ages. At times there have
been destructive outbreaks in Germany, the
United States, France and, less frequently, in
Ireland. It was thought to have practically
disappeared from Great Britain, but this be*
lief was rudely disturbed in 1907 and towards
the end of 1906 by an epidemic in Glasgow in
which the death-rate was appalling and the
visitation of the severest character. It ap-
peared in other towns in Scotland and also in
England and, more sporadically, in Ireland.
It scourged the poorer quarters of the com-
munity, where over-crowding and neglected
sanitation have lowered the vitality and sapped
the resisting-power of the inhabitants. Schools,
workhouses and barracks are much more liable
to attack than individuals. Males are more fre-
quently the victims than females and, in the
vast preponderance of cases, children are the
only sufferers. There is reason to believe that
it is due to the organism known as meningo-
coccus, since the characteristic of the disease is
inflammation of the membranes of the brain
and spinal cord, and this germ has been dis-
covered in the fluid surrounding the brain and
spinal cord in fatal cases. Some medical meii,
however, have ascribed it to the bacillus that
causes pneumonia in the lungs. We are still
in the dark as to how it is transmitted. It
seems never to be conveyed by water or food
and instances of direct infection are ^ rare,
though it has been borne from one victim to
another by a third person and has also been
carried in clothing. The organism remains
active for a long period outside of the bod^,
and as it has been found in the discharges from
the nose and eyes as well as in the excreta tha
necessity for complete and prompt^ disinfectioii
cannot be exaggerated. One curious circuiiv
stance is that domestic animals have ehovm
symptoms of disorder during ©pidemici and it
has therefore been plausibly argued that dogs
and cats, and pigs in Ireland, may be piromi^



( 3^4 )


Spottiiwood#.




nent a^reuts in tke dimmination of the disease.
Cold* tnluries to the head* mental strain^ and
brain fa^ are conditions that increase the risk
of infection. In an epidemic the earlier cases
appear to be the severer. The attack sets in
with a general feeling of malaise and is very
sudden. The patient is prostrated with fever,
shivering fits, headache, giddiness, violent
musciiliir spasms, pains all over the body and
persisteht vomiting. He soon becomes rest-
less, irritable and delirious. The head in
most cases is drawn strongly backwards. The
sufferer may lie on his side with the legs drawn
up, but he screams if touched, or even if the
bed clothes are moved, such is the sensitive-
ness of the skin and so exquisite is the pain
caused by the contraction of the muscles,
especially those of the neck and back. Some-
times the attack is so severe and grows in
intensity so rapidly that the patient dies in
a day or two from collapse, or passes into a
state of unconsciousness from which he never
emerges, or the complaint lasts for weeks and
then fatal complications, such as inflammation
of the lungs and other respiratory organs,
arise. Deafness and blindness occasionally
supervene and are apt to be permanent. Con-
valescence is prolonged, the patient having
been reduced to a condition of extreme emacia-
tion. When the attack is mild, a few days"
conflnement to bed may be all that is neces-
sary for recovery. The rash, to which the
disease owes its popular name, is by no means
invariably present, which shows the unwisdom
of calling serious illnesses by nondescript names,
since it is obvious that a patient might be
far gone with oerebro-spinal fever before his
friends, on the outlook for spots, realised the
gravity of the ailment. Tlie real rash con-
sists of dark purplish spots, caused by haemor-
rhage beneath the skin, and in some cases
found plentifully all over the body, in which
event the onset is probably very severe. At
times they are more often noticed on the feet
than the oody. The eruption resembling that
of chicken-pox which is sometimes seen on the
face and especially on the lips is not neces-
sarily characteristic. No time must be lost in
summoning the medical man. The general
course of treatment requires ice to be ap-
plied in rubber bags to the head and back to
subdue the inflammation* mild purgatives and
a simple fever mixture. Opium and quinine are
recommended by some physicians. Food, in the
form of nutritive fluids, should be gfiven fre-
quently and regularly and, in prostration,
brandy mav be required. The patient must, of
^urse, b^ isolated and his room disinfected.
Temporary improvement is at times deceptive,
and treatment must^ be continued till recovery
is assured. Of heroic remedies one is surgical.
The spine is opened from behind and the
diseased fluid around the spinal cord and brain
is^ washed 0 ^. The other is the administration
of serum. The former niode of treatment’' some-
times succeeds, but the serum treatment has
not answered expectations*


* Bpottinwood. JoHir, archbishop and historian
eldest son of the Scottish Beformer of the
same name (161(K-86)* was born in 1665 and
educated at Glasgow University. Taking
holy orders, he succeeded his father in the
charge at Calder, in Mid Lothian. As the
relations between the Kirk and the King
grew strained, he acted with the party which
favoured the growing sympathy of James
VI. with episcopacy, and, soon after James
ascended the throne of England, in 1603,
succeeded James Beaton as archbishop of
Glasgow, and, two years later, was admitted
a member of the Scottish Privy Council. In
1610 he was Moderator of the Assembly at
which presbytery was abolished and was con-
secrated to the episcopal office later in the
year. In 1615 he was transferred to the arch-
bishopric of St. Andrews. At the General
Assembly in Perth in 1618 he arbitrarily took
the Moderator*8 chair and was the prime mover
in the adoption of the Five Articles of Perth,
which ordained (1) that the Communion must
be taken kneeling; (2) that in sickness Com-
munion might be administered privately ; (3)
that baptism might also be administered in
similar circumstances ; (4) that children should
be brought to the bishop for a blessing; and
(5) that festival days should be restored. In
course of time he discovered that the spirit
of the country was antagonistic to his pro-
posals, and the riot in St. Gileses Church in
Edinburgh (163^, when Jenny Geddes hurled
her stool at the JDean"s head, and the signing of
the Covenant (1638) finally convinced him Qiat
prelacy was doomed in Scotland. He retired
to Newcastle for safety, and then went on to
London, where he died on November 26th,
1639, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He is best known by his History of the Church
and State of Scotland from a.d. 203 to 1625,
which was not published until 1655.

Spottiswoode, William, mathematician, was
born in London on January 11th, 1825, his
father being partner in the great printing
house of Eyre and l^ottiswoode. He was edu-
cated at Laleham, Eton, Harrow, and Balliol
College, Oxford, where he specially distin-
guished himself in mathematics. In 1846' he
succeeded his father in the printing establish-
ment and next year published- Meditationes
AnalyticoSy in which his scientific attainments
were amply illustrated. Of his tour in Eastern
Russia in 1856 he published an account in the
following year and in 1860 he visited Croatia
and Hungary. In 1865 he was President of
the mathematical section of the British Asso-
ciation, and in 1871 pursued researches in the
olarisation of light which resulted in his welL
nown books. The Pola/risation of Light (1874)
and Polarised Light (1879). In 1878 he was
elected President of tlie Royal Society (of
which he had been a Fellow since 1863), and
died in London on June 27th, 1883, being
buried^ like his ancestor the Archbishop of St.
Andrews, in Westminster Abbey.


Sprain.


( 875 )


SprittffiKdt


S]^raiii* As the result of a sudden wrench or
fall injury is often inflicted on some of the
soft parts of the body, and particularly on the
muscular and ligamentous structures, without
actual breach of continuity of the bones. Pain
and swelling occur, and to such a condition, in
the absence of actual fracture or dislocation,
the term sprain is applied. Sprains are par-
ticularly common in the neighbourhood of
joints, the ligaments of which may be stretched
or torn in consequence of the injury. The
treatment of sprains in the early stages con-
sists in rest for the affected parts, and in
the application of cold lotions, lead lotion
being that usually employed. Later, the
empmyment of warmth is often grateful to
the patient, and as soon as inflammation has
subsided friction of the part involved should
be resorted to, and the patient should move
it about with a view to preventing the forma-
tion of a stiff joint.


Sprat (J2upm sprattui)^ a small fish of the I
Herring family, found in great numbers on
many parts of the shores of the British Isles
and on the coasts of Europe washed by the
Atlantic. In shape and colour it closely re-
sembles the herring, but is much smaller, not
exceeding six inches in length, with an average
of three inches, and may be easily distin-
guished from the larger fish by the sharply-
notched edge of the abdomen, the more for-
ward position of the ventral fins, and the
absence of vomerine teeth. Sprats are often
taken in immense numbers, so that the Bou-
don and other markets are overstocked, and
large quantities are used for manure. Sprats
are excellent eating, and would be more highly
valued if they were not so plentiful, vast
numbers are dried for future use or export;
on the Baltic coasts they are cured with spices ;
and at Deal there are factories where they are
put up in oil like sardines. The ova of the
sprat are shed in the open sea, though not far
from land, and the young fry are sold as
whitebait.


gm .00 a river rising in the mountainous country
in the south-east of Saxony and pursuing a
northerly and latterly a north-westerly course
through the Prussian province of Brandenburg
and falliag into the Havel at Spandau, after
a total run of 220 miles. TeMels of 500 tons
ascend as far as Kopenick, a
Berlin, while ships of W®' P"?:
oeed upwards to nearly haft
passes through the heart of the city of Berlin
and is connected by canal with the Oder.

SlirailB.1 Vninp. a particular kind of ait-
pUM. in which mercury is a special feature,

Lpfoyed for producing a ^tto^^wd

practical purposes as well as m
platform exptements. It «
as the Mercury Air-pump. [Aib-pcmp.]

Svranffer, Alots. Orientalist.

in rfirol, on

and studied medicine at Vienna. Hi


in Oriental pscples dated from an early period,
and in 1836 he collaborate with Miinster in
the great work on MilUurif Sciemm amm§
the Muemlmane. In 1843 he went to Calcutta,
and held various appointments in other Indian
cities, and alter his return to Europe became
professor of Oriental languages at Bern in
1858. He died at Heidelberg on December
19th, 1893. He published various works includ-
ing translations into English of The Gulutan
of Sadi (1851), a life of Mahomet (1851), owl
Selections from Arabic Authors (1845)* He also
translated English works into Arabic^ and wrote
in German The L^e and ^octHm if Mahmmt
(8 vols., 1861-6).

Spviiiff BadanoOia weighing machine which
depend^or its action upon the fact that the
extension of a spiral spring is proportional to
the applied force. In its simplest form it is
merely such a spring flexed at its upper end
and provided at its lower end with a hook or
pan to hold the article to be weighed, and an
index moving over a graduated some. In order
to obtain greater sensitiveness, a rack and
pinion or tneir equivalent is sometimes used
to cause the movement of the lower end of the
spring to result in the rotation of a pointer
over a graduated dial. In some balances the
weight is measured by the amount of bending
produced in a flat curved spring, to one end of
which a pointer is fixed.

Springbok iGazdla mwhore), a beautiful South
African antelope, some 30 inches high, derii^
ing its popular name from its great agility and



SPBlSOSOif.


narvellous leaps. When alarmed or whilst it
•uns it leaps straight up into tbe air for rovetri
'eet The norns are lyrate and, in the female^
rerv small. It frequents the sandy plainSj ana
B Lund in largTherds, which wOm fWtiri



( 870 )




in finorcli of food, llsid gennrnl
oolniir is broim aiioTO oztd white benenth,
inerked oS pn the ienks by n broad wine-red
bfnd. Qn the hhok are two folds of skin which
o|Mn whpn the aniioal leaps^ and show a broad
white {latohf Owing to the settlement of the
conatry the Springbok has retired farther to
the north ana its numbers haye diminished^
But in the irst half of the X8th century
their migrations, according to Colonel Charles
Hamiltol Smith (1770-1869), were conducted on
a remarloible scale. The creatures congregated
on the Karroos and travelled from north to south
and back with the monsoons. ** These migrations,
which arc said to take place in the most nume-
rous form only at the interval of several years,
appear to come from the northieast^ and in
znasses of many thousands, devouring, like
Ipousts, every green herb. The lion has been
s^n to mteate and walk in the midst of the
oOnlpressed^ phalanx, with only as much room
between him and his victims as the fears of
those immediately around could procure by
pressing outwards. The toremost of these vast
columns are fat, and the rear exceedingly lean
while the direction continues one way ; but
with the change of the monsoon, when they
return towards the north, the rear become the
leaders, fattening in their turn.*’

capital of Illinois, United
States, 186 miles S.W. of Chicago, situated on
a plateau four miles south of the Sangamon.
It contains several notable buildings, amongst
them the State Capitol, with a central dome
364 feet high the State arsenal, the court-
house (the old Capitol), the natural history
museum, public library, and several educa-
tional and charitable institutions. The house
in which Abraham Lincoln resided is preserved
by the State and in Oak Eidge cemetery, ad-
joining the town, where he was buried, a
national monument was erected to the Presi-
dent-hero in 1874, In the vicinity of Spring-
field are deposits of bituminous coal, and the
industries include iron-rolling mills, watch
factories, boiler works, and engineering, be-
sides manufacturea of woollens, leather, soap,
paper, flpur, beer apd agricultural implements.
It is one of the moat important horse-breeding
centres in the Unioa* Pop, (1900), 34,169.

8prmgB0l% of Massacimsetts, United
States, on the left bank of the Connecticut, 98
miles W.S.W. pf Boston. Settled in 1636 by
William Pjmchbn (1090-1602) it was first called
by the Indian name of Agawam, but this was
changed in 1641 to its present designation, in
memory of Springfield in Essex, England, its
**>onder8 birthplace, whither Pynchon was com-
pelled to return to escape clerical persecution.
The principal buildings are the city hall,
court-house, library, art museum, museum of
States arsenal (established
^ 1777) and armoury (dating from 1796), the
and St. Miciaers
uathednd^:(^tholic). ' The/lpdustrits .comprise'
wn- and brass-foundws, wachine-^shops, ■ ahd


engineering, besides manulaelures of 0xe?ariiie,
paper, cottons, woollens, rubber goods, iobdcoo
and cigars, bicycles, motorcars and eleotricid
apparatus. Springfield is a ha^^so^iooking
town and Forest Park, its chief recreation
ground, contains 464 acres. Pop. (1900), 02,069.

Springgi the risings of subterranean waters
to the surface of the ground, may be broadly
divided into two classes — ^surface or gravita-
tion springs, where the water desoenas con-
tinuously to the point of outflow, and deep-
seated springs, where it rises by hydrostatic
pressure. Those of the first class mostly occur
in undisturbed strata, where a porous bed
cropping out at the surface receives rainfall;
its water is held up by an underlying imper-
meable bed, and at some lower level the line of
junction of the two beds comes to the surface,
^e second and more common class occurs in
disturbed areas, the water following a labyrin-
thine up-and-down course through subterranean
fissures and joints, and often reaching the sur-
face along a line of fault. The water of springs
may range in temperature almost from the
freezing-point, as in some glacierea or deep
caverns in snow-clad mountains, up to boil-
ing point. Hot or thermal springs are most
frequent in volcanic regions, but may occur
elsewhere (as at Bath, in England, where they
have a temperature of about 120*^ F.), when
they probably come from a considerable depth.
Spring water contains in solution atmospheric
gases, carbon dioxide from the soil, and various
gases from deeper rocks. Organic acids may be
present, and mineral constituents mainly vary
in proportion according to temperature, from
less than 1 to 300 grams per litre. The chief
mineral salts present are calcium, magnesium,
and sodium carbonates, calcium and sodium
sulphates, and sodium chloride. When more
than 1 gramvper litre is present the water
ceases to be ordinary drinking-water, and the
spring is termed a mineral spring. Where
drinking-water only contains alkaline salts
and dissolves soap without forming curd it is
termed soft, but where calcium, magnesium, or
ferrous carbonates, sulphates, or chlorides Are
present, curd is formed from the fatty acids of
soap, and the water is called hard. Hardness
due to bicarbonates, which are deooniposed by
boiling, the carbonate being precipitated, is
termed temporary; that due to the undecom-
posable sulpnates and chlorides as permanent.
The chief kinds of mineral springs are cal-
careous, containing calcium-carbonate; chaly-
beate or ferruginous, containing ferrbus sul-
phate, which decomposes and deposits iron
rust (hydrous oxide) ; or saline, containiiig a
brine chiefly of chlorides, with calcium sul-
phate and various other substances.
spiings beHe?ed to have curative effects are
called medicinal, of which ^e chief varieties
are the sulphurous containing hydrogin-nul-
'phide, at Harixigrate}''. the 'bitter, ''Contaihing ,
mi^nemum-sulpham,, 'as,; at 'Cheltenham: "'aM
Bedlits in Northern Bobemia ; and the alkaline^


( 8?7 )




eontammg ^ specially sodium-carbonate. Oil
springs contain a variable proportion of petro-
leum nuaed with their water. In addition to
feeding rivers, the chief geological action of
si»rihgd (at the surface) li the deposition of
travertine, which when rapid gives them the
name of petrifying springs, though they
merely encrust with carbonate of lime? Chaly-
beats fiprings produce an ironstone moorband
pan below the surface in badly drained dis-
trictSj and the hot waters of geysers contain in
solution large quantities of silica, which they
deposit as geyserite or silicious sinter.

Spring-tails. [Collembola. ]

8pirtlOS| a name commonly applied to the whole
of the coniferous genus Picea, but especially to
P. txc^Ua, the Norway Spruce. The genus is
characterised by its scattered four-sided leaves
with projecting cushions below them; pen-
dulous woody cones, with thin scales, ripening
the first year and falling off whole; short,
concealed, almost free bracts ; winged pollen-
grains ; small seeds with large obovate wings ;
and four- to five-lobed cotyledons, each lobe
being three-edged. The Norway Spruce is a
handsome tree, growing best in moist valleys
and reaching 150 feet in height. Its timber is
known as white deal, but in Northern Europe is
not nearly as valuable as that of the Northern
Pine (Ptnus sylventris), A resin known as
frankincense exudes from the stem and Bur-
gundy pitch is prepared from it. An infusion
of the young shoots is used in the preparation
of spruce beer, which contains treacle, is fer-
mented with yeast, and is a wholesome bever-
age, not unpleasant to the taste and useful as
an antiscorbutic. Some sixty varieties in cul-
tivation for ornament have been named. Other
well-known species of Picea are P. alba and
P. nigra (also known as P. ruhra)^ natives of
North-East America.


Spiiuellaria. [Radiolaria,]


Spur, n pointed instrument worn on the rider’s
heel for the purpose of goading the horse. Up
till early meai»val times it was furnished with
a single point, and subsequently with a rowel
(or revolving ringr aimed with three or more
radiating points). Spurs were used by the
Romans as early as 200 b.c. They were named
after, and perhaps copied from, the horny
claw-like outgrowth (from the side of the
metatarsus) on the foot of mauy birds. They
are attributes of knighthood ; so that to win
one's spurs" means primarily to gam the



cae Spurs was liatJ uiuuuicoo ^ —

Fronoh kniakts by Henry VIII. near Gwn^
gatte, in the department of Pas-de-Calam on
ilignat 16th, 1613. The French under the Duke
de l«ttgneTille wore surprised and Am, tnere
being no iime to form any array of oattie.
Iioige's snrmise that the combat
name from a village called “Spours,
it %a« fought*" ^eems like a tmdly conjecture


French. !Iliafe

village is hard to find. The first "Battle of

Inw Flmnings defeated

xlobert. Count of Artois* at Conrtrai in Bel-
gium, on July 11th, 1302, was so named from
the number of gilt spurs that were afterwards
gathered on the field.

m botany* a pouoh-llke appendage to
perianth leaves, connected with the secretion
of nectar. In Tropasolum the spur is mainly
formed from one sepal, as also in Pelargonium,
in which it is adherent. In Blscutella, a genus
of CrucifersB, two sepals are spurred ; in v iola,
one petal; in Epimedium graadifiorum, all
four ; and in the Columbines, all five petals. In
most spurs the nectar is exoretda by the inner
surface and received in the pouch; in Viola,
the secretion is performed by the two tail-
like appendages of the stamens; and in orchids,
which were in consequence mistakenly termed
by Sprengel "sham nectar^roducers," it takes
place within the tissues of the petalline spur,
80 that the insect-visitor has to boro for it.
The length of a spur is in relation to that of
the proboscis of the insect-visitor. That of the
Madagascar orchid, Angraocum sesquipedale,
is 9 inches in length.

Spurge, a plant of the genus Euphorbia.
Amongst the species are the Branched
Spurge (Ernodea littorali^ of the sea-coast
of Florida and the West Indies; the
Caper Spurge USuphorhia Lathyris) of South
Europe and West Central Asia, the young
fruit of which is sometimes used for capers;
the Cypress Spurge (E, Oyparums'f, the foliage
of which, with its crowded linear leaves,
suggests the cypress ; the Ipecacuanha Spurge
(A. Ipecacuanha)^ the root of which possesses
active emetic and purgative properties, but is
apt to provoke excessive nausea and distress
and is inferior to the true ipecacuanha; and
the Sun Spurge {E. Helioscovia), also oalled
Cat's Milk, Littlegood, ana Wartweed or
Wart wort, the flowers of which follow the sun,
[Euphokdiaceje.]

.Spnrgaoxi, Charles H addon, preacher, whose
ancestors were Dutch refugees from the perse-
cution of the Duke of Alva in the Netherlands,
was born at Kelvedon, in Essex, England^ on
June 19th, 1834. He received most of his edu-
cation at Colchester, and on its termination
was for a time tutor at Newmarket. Beginning
evangelical work at Cambridge whilst a youth,
he won a reputation as "The Boy Preacher,"
and was only eighteen when he was appointed
to the charge of a Baptist chapel at Water-
beach, Cambridgeshire. Though rear^^ as ^ah
Independent and converted in a Primitive
Methodist chapel, he formally joined the
Baptists in 1850. In 1854 he was^calM to the
chapel in New Park Street, Southwark, vrh^e
he preached with such acceptance that the
con^'egation was soon crowded out and he
ministered first at Exeter Hall and alterwards
in Surrev Gardens, pending the erection of the
Metropolitan Tabernacle, in Newington Cause-



i^jlmnlMlia. ( 878 ) SQiiia,


way. TOifl bailding, whicii cx^st Ml,000 a?id
a<?x$omiiiodat®d 6^000 |)4ri$oiiS4 was opsi^ed in
1961 and was the scene of Spurgeon's labours
to the end of his life. He was a xnan of ex-
traordinary business capacity and organisation
and in 1856
founded the
Pastors’ College,
for tiraining
young for
the ministry,
and in 1867 the
Stookwell Or-
phanage for
poor boys and
girls, having in
the year before
also established
a Oolportage As-
sociation. H 6
also started in
1865 a monthly
magazine called
The Stvord and
Trowel, of which
he was the
editor, and, be-
sides publishing
week by week
from 1865 a ser-
mon by himself, wrote several books, including
The Saint and his Saviour (1867), Morning
hy Morning (1868), Evening by Evening (1868),
John Plou^man*8 Talk (1869), and The
Treasury of David (1870-86). He died at Men-
tone on January 31et, 1892, and was buried in
Norwood Cemetery, London. He made no claim
to scholarship, had no sympathj’ with modern
thought and criticism and preached undiluted
Calvinism from first to last. As an orator he
was very unequal (which, considering his out-
put ana activity, is hardly surprising), and
never quite lost a touch of the familiarity, if
not flippancy, with which he sometimes handled
the gravest themes. But he had always the
saving graces of humour and common sense,

BpiMlieiltii Johann Gaspab, phrenologist,
was born at Longwich, near Treves, in Rhenish
Prussia, on December 31st, 1776. While study-
ing medicine in Vienna he met Franz Joseph
Gall (1760-1828), an able physician, who about
1794 made public his observations on the
anatomy and physiology of the brain as the
organ of the mind, based upon his compari-
sons of brain-development with mental develop-
ment in persons of peculiar capacity or be-
haviour. Attracted by Gall’s theories Spurz-
heim became his follower. When his lectures
were prohibited as being of dangerous ten-
dency they left Austria and startea, in 1806,
on a tour through Germany, Holland ani
Switzerland, finally settling in Paris in 1807.
Often^ described as a charlatan, apd meeting
with both professional opposition and applause.
Gall appears to have been a stncere student
froni boyhood of problems concerning the


functions of the brain. On March 14th, 1809
they presented a memoir of their discoveries t(
the Institute of France upon which a commit
tee of members, including the eminent Cuvier
reported unfavourably. In 1914 Spurzheim weni
to Vienna to obtain the M.D. degree, ther
tried Paris without success and came to Bug
laud where for his propaganda he adopted th<
name phrenology (Greek, “a’ discourse on th«
mind”) which had been given by Forster ii
1816 to the teaching of Gall, hitherto called
“craniology,” which its author preferred tc
express as “Functions of the brain.” Spurz*
heim, who was an eloquent speaker, lectured ir
the chief towns of the United Kingdom and

ained an influential convert in 1816 in George

ombe, author of The Constitution of Man,
who wrote Essays on, and Elements of Phren-
ology, Prom 1817 to 1825 Spurzheim lived in
Paris and afterwards returned to England,
wliere he successfully renewed his lectures. In
1832 he went to the United States where, on
November 10th of that year, he died suddenly at
Boston. He left several works on phrenology
and wrote also on the Elementary PrincipTei
of Education and an Essay on the Moral cmd
Intellectual Nature of Man.

Spy, one who in war ventures among the enemy
in the guise of a friend or a neutral, or under
cover of night, to observe their condition and
discover their plans in order to report thereon
to his own leaders. If detected, a spy is liable
to execution. Spy Wednesday, the Wednesday
before Good Friday, was so named in reference
to the preparations made 1^ Judas Iscariot on
that day to betray Jesus. He had bargained to
become the spy of the Jewish Sanhedrim (St.
Matthew xxvi., 3-5, 14-16).

Square-Root. If a* = 6, then" a is said to
be the square-root of 6, where h is any expres-
sion. For real expressions the method of finding
the square-root is a modification of the process
of long division, the method used in arithmetic
being simply deduced from algebra. If we are
dealing with a perfect square, it is of the form
+ 2x y -i- ?/% or x‘ and y {2 x + y), and this
forms the basis of the rule by which x and y
would be found in turn. The square-roots of
expressions containing surds and imaginary
quantities are found by special methods. A
practical method of finding the square-root of a
number is to use logarithms. For since a* 2*6,
log. a^^log. 6, .*.2 log. asrlog. h ; hence the rule
is to look up the logarithm of the number and
halve it. The result is the logarithm of the
required root.

Squares, Method of. [Least Sqttabbs,
Method of.]

Squaring the Circle. [Qbadbathre.]

Squill (^Seilla), a genus of bulbous-rooted
plants belonging to the order Liliacem, with a
tunicate bulb, linear radical leaves, a raGembse
scape of blue, white, pink, or ptirple flowers ;
a deciduous perianth of six free, or nearly f tee,
segmehts; epl^lyllous stamens, one style, and





tttnliit.


( 379 )


Bsixmtmp*


a loculicidal capsule. Of the sixty ep^iea^
twenty of which are European, three are British,
namely /S', nutans, the bluebell or wild hya-
cinth; S, verna and S. autumnalis, Vrginta
ii€iUa» formerly known as SciUa maritima, a
Mediterranean species, separated by its more
spreading perianth leaves and more numerous
seeds, is the source of the drug known as Squills.
Its bulbs are chiefly imported from Malta, those
of light colour being the best. They have a
bitter or acrid, and even vesicant character,
from the presence of a substance known as
scillitin. 'The preparations of this drug con
tained in the British Pharmacopoeia are a tinc-
ture, the compound squill pill, the pill of
ipecacuanha and squill, and the acetum scillse
From the last-named are prepared the oxymel
scillm and the syrupus scillae. The pill of
ipecacuanha and squill contains opium iu the
proportion of 1 part in 23^ parts. The action
of squill resembles that of digitalis. It is a
cardiac tonic, and produces constriction of the
peripheral arterioles, followed by relaxation
which is in the first instance marked in the
small vessels of the kidney, and squill has thus
a diuretic action. Squill is, moreover, a power-
ful expectorant, and is much employed in
chronic bronchitis. It has, however, an irri-
tant effect upon the stomach and intestines,
and its administration has to be carefully
regulated on this account.

[Strabismus.]

Sgtiirreli an animal belonging to the Bodent
eub-family Sciurin®, with seven genera, uni-


ver sally distributed except in the Austr^ian
region. The type-genus Sciurus has about
seventy-five species, of which only three belong
to the Palffiarctio region. They are arboreal
animals, with long, bushy tail, usually carried
thrown upwards so as to shade the back ,
pointed ears, which are generally tufted; with
four digits and a rudimentary thumb on the
fore limbs, and five digits on the hind limbs,
armed with long, sharp, curved claws. The
species vary in size from that of a cat to that
of a mouse, and attain their greatest size ^d
most brilliant coloration m the tropics,
Common Squirrel (S, vulgaris) ranges over the
whole Palffiarctio region. Its
about 18 inches, of which the tail ^

nearly half. The fur is reddish
(tinged with grey in winter) and white below.
It is essentially a wood-dweller,
is almost exclusively ^^es eats

very fond of birds' eggs, pd
beetles and grubs. Sa^^

held in the fore paws, which ^

of hands, and the strong
pierce the shell to the d

eaten, for in those kernels that
with thick brown skin, every partmle o^the
coating is removed, before - the

more congenial nourishment is p

creature feeds on buds and .^.^t of

trees, thus doing a considerable amount ot
damage and jeopardising its life. It baiias


a roofed iiest or '‘drey/* in which the yonnf
are born* These animals hibernate, taking
their winter sleep in holes in trees, having pre-
viously laid up a store of provisions to seriio
them when they wake up, as they do from time
to time, [Flyiko Squiekiu..]

Sgnogging. Every New Year’s Day there is
witnessed in the New Forest in Hampshire,
England, a unique form of hunting known as
Squogging. It " is engaged in by bands of
men and lads of the typical Forester class,
each armed with a squoyle. To the uninitiated
it may be explained that squog is a squirrel,
whilst the squoyle is a handy little club,
not unlike a policeman’s truncheon and some-
times weighted with lead. It is used as a mm*
sile and may thus be said to resemble a knob-
kerry. To the Forester the 8<}uoyi0 is very
much what the meera, or throwing-stick, is to
the Australian native, and the former handles
it with a dexterity that would not discredit
the blackfeilow. Squogging dates from time
immemorial, and, so far as is ascertainable,
has come down through the with abso-
lutely unbroken continuity.^ Ot late years,
however, it has shown some signs of going out
of fashion, though the day is nrobably distant
when squog and squoyle shall know each other
no more for ever. The Forester is O' oorn
hunter, as may readily be imagined of the
native of a county which, ever since it was laid
out by William the Conqueror for the purposes
of the chase, has been a region in whum deer,
fox and otter have given sport to the hounds.
Nevertheless, how anyone can find pleasure in
hunting to death such a pretty, graceful, in-
offensive creature as the squirrel m one of
those mysteries that defy solution. A»d the
curious point is that the squirrel is a
favourite with the Forester. Still,; the delights
of squogging are irresistible to him, the ohm
reason therefor being that he m an expert
marksman. Invariably his aim is what he calls
“There or thereabouts,” as the squ^s, ague
as they are. often find to their cost. Whenevw
one shows round a trunk or branch a squoyle
. goes hurtling at it. 016 sharp ^””7
will dodge the weapon if it can and take
but too frequently the dreaded squoyle
homo. The squeg-hunters usuallv
show a good bag— more’s the pi^ !— at the close
S the fay's cruel chevying, lie “5’
victims are then made into
moulds of clay, after the
The flesh is said to afford excellent eating.


Stinaaa* (that is, the Ci^ of ll'e S"»)-

slaSris'-l-WSB

, Ii,X S of comm®,

destrnrtive. It has a famous poplar

and often destrocuve.^^x ^ ^ ^

planted hy Sikhs. & qhi*® straight, and cob-


(m)


IMwdiniHu


tains 1,714 tfeta. It lias mantilaaiiifil ol attav
oi rofiesv «}ar|»et8, oiiawla, leatliar, papir, aii4,
silver anil isoiroer i^ara, basiiles wooa*«iajNring
and boat«bmlaiiig» Pop* (1901), 122,618.

StMlf Habouisbitb Jeaitns: COBdibb De-
XiAtJKAT, Babokke bb, iroman of letters^ was
born in Paris on April 30th, 1684. Her
lather was a painter named Gordier ; her
mother'Bname was Delaunay. She was very
reiigiouiiy brought up, and managed to ac-
quire a considerable knowledge of the sys-
tems of Descartes and Malebranche. She was
left by her mother in poor circumstances,
and entered the household of the unamiable
Buchesse du Maine. She was mixed up with
the politics of her day, and was detained in
the Bastille for a couple of years, Her charm-
ing manners and high intelligence made her
admired by many, including the Baron de
Staal, whom she married in 1735, although she
did not relinquish her position in the Duchess's
household, me died at Genneyilliers, near
Paris, on June 16th, 1760. Her M'imoirh,
first published in 1766, and her Letters form
delightful reading.

fltidlility ie of two kinds, static and kinetic.
A bo^ possesses static stability or is in stable
equilibrium when, after any "slight displace-
ment, it tends to return to its original position.
A weight hanging at the end of a string is in
this state, we may give it a push in any
direction, but it will sooner or later return
to its lowest position. Any body is in stable
equilibrium when a vertical line through its
mass centre falls within the figure obtained by
joining the points of support. A three-legged


table may be^ tilted up and will resume its
own place iwain so long as this vertical line
remains within the triangle formed by the
three feet, A body possesses instability when
any slight displacement causes it completely to
change its position. An egg standing on its
end IS obviously in this condition. Certain
bodies may be displaced without afterwards
recovering their original position or departing
farther from it. These are said to be in neutral
equilibrium, and the best example is that of
a sphere on a fiat surface; the sphere may be
moved and will remain wherever it is placed.
A body possesses kinetic stability when it tends
to remain in a steady state of motion. A hoop
remains erect while in motion, and the planets
remain in their orbits in virtue of their velocity.
A small displacement of either the hoop or
lanet causes no permanent change in their be-
aviqur; they both maintain a definite average
position.

Stadium, a Greek measure of distance, 600
Greek or about 607 English feet long. It was
generally applied to the course where foot-races
were run at the famous games and elsewhere,
the arena, however, not being limited to
racing, but utilised for all forms of athletic
sports. The most famous stadia were those
at Olympia and Athens, which were nea.rly one-
eighth of a mile in length. The stadium was
lined on each side and at each end with tiers
of seats or sloping banks for the spectators.
In the Olympian Games, held at Shepherd's
Bush in London in 1908, the various contests
took place in the reserved space known as the
stadium.


PWNTm BY Gassbli, 4 CovrsirY, Lmrrm, La Bamx Sacv-w». Loimow* B.C,